Inside the nucleus of each human cell there are 46 chromosomes organized into two sets of 23

chromosomes.1 Packaged inside these chromosomes is our DNA, the genetic material we receive
from our parents. The DNA within our cells is continually being exposed to DNA-damaging
agents. These agents include ultraviolet light, natural and man made mutagenic chemicals and
reactive oxygen species generated by ionizing radiation.2 When cells are exposed to ionizing
radiation, radiochemical damage can occur either by direct action or indirect action. Direct action
occurs when alpha particles, beta particles or x-rays create ions which physically break one or
both of the sugar phosphate backbones or break the base pairs of the DNA. The base pairs
adenine, thymine guanine and cytosine are held together by weak hydrogen bonds. Adenine
always pairs with thymine (except in RNA where thymine is substituted by uracil) and guanine
always pairs with cytosine. The bonding of these base pairs can also be affected by the direct
action of ionizing radiation.

Direct Action

Please note: This diagram gives the impression that alpha particle breaks the “backbone” of the
DNA, the beta particle breaks hydrogen bonds, and X-rays damage bases when in fact all three
types of radiation can cause all three types of direct damage. However, heavy charged particles
such as alpha particles have a greater probability of causing direct damage compared to low
charged particles such as X-rays which causes most of its damage by indirect effects.

The DNA base pairs form sequences called nucleotides which in turn form genes. Genes tell the
cell to make proteins which determine cell type and regulate cell function. When such breaks
occur, DNA usually repairs itself through a process called excision. The excision process has
three steps:

1. Endonucleases cut out the damaged DNA

2. Resynthesis of the original DNA by DNA polymerase
3. Ligation whereby the sugar phosphate backbone is repaired.3
These repair processes are highly efficient since we have evolved as a species in a sea of
radiation. DNA repair takes place continuously, involving every cell in our bodies several times
per year. Occasionally, however, damage to the base pair can occur when the DNA is incorrectly
repaired and the wrong nucleotide is inserted which can lead to cell death or a mutation.
Remember your DNA is the code which determines the type and function of the cell. There are
two basic types of mutations:

• Substitutions — this is the replacement of one base by another. For example, if a DNA
molecule usually contains guanine at a certain position, but adenine takes the place of the
guanine, then a base substitution has occurred. There are two types of base substitutions:
o transitions — these involve the replacement of one purine with the other purine,
(adenine and thymine), or the replacement of one pyrimidine with the other
pyrimidine (cytosine and guanine)
o transversions — these involve the replacement of a purine with a pyrimidine or
vice versa

• Mutations — these change the reading frame of a gene (the triplet code). There are two
types of frameshift mutations:
o insertions — as the name implies, these involve the insertion of one or more
extra nucleotides into a DNA chain
o deletions — these result from the loss of one or more nucleotides from a DNA
chain

To illustrate the effects of these mutations, consider the following phrase, read as a triplet code
(groups of three letters):

Introduction

The purpose of this section is to provide information on the basics of ionizing radiation for
everyone.

Energy emitted from a source is generally referred to as radiation. Examples include heat or light
from the sun, microwaves from an oven, X rays from an x-ray tube, and gamma rays from
radioactive elements.
Ionizing radiation is radiation with enough energy so that during an interaction with an atom, it
can remove tightly bound electrons from the orbit of an atom, causing the atom to become
charged or ionized.

Ionizing radiation has enough energy to electrically charge or ionize matter. The cells in living
organisms are also made of matter, so they too can be ionized. Cosmic rays, x-rays, gamma rays,
alpha particles and beta particles are forms of ionizing radiation. Ionizing radiation may come
from a natural source such as the Sun or it may come from a man made source such as an x-ray
machine. The possibility of overexposure to ionizing radiation among members of the general
public is minimal. However, there are environments such as hospitals, research laboratories and
areas of high level natural background radiation where some potential health risks do exist. The
effect of ionizing radiation on the human body or any other living organism depends on three
things:

1. The amount and the rate of ionizing radiation which was absorbed.
2. The type of ionizing radiation which was absorbed.
3. The type and number of cells affected.

The amount of radiation an organism receives is a very important factor in determining its
biological effect. The greater the amount of ionizing radiation and the greater the number of
times an organism is exposed, the greater the health risk if the doses are high. The average
Canadian receives about 2.7 mSv (millisieverts) of ionizing radiation per year from both natural
and manmade sources but a single CT scan can give you 10 times that amount (27 mSv) all at
once. A lethal dose is about 5 Sv (sieverts). This means that at 2.7 mSv per year, you would have
to live over 1800 years or until the year 3807 AD to receive the equivalent dose from your
environment, but in order to be lethal that total dose would need to be given all at once.

The type of radiation absorbed is a factor in determining the biological effect of ionizing
radiation on an organism. Each type of ionizing radiation has its own characteristics. Alpha
particles are fairly large in size and carry a double positive charge, so they tend to travel only a
short distance and do not penetrate very far into tissue if at all. However alpha particles will
deposit their energy over a smaller volume (possibly only a few cells if they enter a body) and
cause more damage to those few cells. Beta particles are much smaller and carry a single
negative charge. They will penetrate farther into the body, which means they tend to damage
more cells, but with lesser damage to each. Gamma rays and x-rays are pure energy and have no
mass. They are deeply penetrating and can easily pass completely through your body, but may
still interact with many atoms as they pass through. Both x-rays and gamma rays spread their
energy over a larger volume, which causes less damage per collision. Of course, at very high
levels of exposure they can still cause a great deal of damage to tissues. Because of their
penetrating ability, they can easily reach internal organs and bones which is why large doses can
be used to damage cancer tissue.

The type and number of cells affected is also an important factor. Some cells and organs in the
body are more sensitive to ionizing radiation than others. Cells that divide rapidly like those
found in bone marrow, stomach, intestines, male and female reproductive organs, and developing
fetuses are more sensitive to ionizing radiation than cells that make up skin, kidney or liver
tissue. Children and young adolescents also are more sensitive to ionizing radiation because their
bodies are still growing. The biological effects of ionizing radiation are well known. The nuclear
industry is closely monitored and inspected to ensure that safety procedures and regulations are
precisely followed to protect workers in the industry, as well as the public and the environment.

Sources: World Health Organization

www.who.int/ionizing_radiation/about/what_is_ir/en/index.html

How ionizing radiation enters the body depends on the source of the ionizing radiation. X-rays
and gamma rays can pass directly through the body when it is exposed to an irradiating source
such as an x-ray machine. Alpha and beta particles do not penetrate very far into the body but
radioactive materials that emit alpha, beta or gamma radiation can be taken into the body alone
or with other materials which have become contaminated in the following ways:

1. In the air or mixed with the dust in the air.

2. Dissolved in water.
3. Mixed with soil on the ground through fertilizers and absorbed by
plants that we may eat.
4. By consumption of plants and animals that have become contaminated.

The main entry pathways for materials contaminated with radioactive isotopes
include the nose and mouth, around the eyes and any breaks or cuts in the skin.
Materials contaminated with radioactive isotopes may also become trapped under the fingernails,
in hair follicles and in folds and creases in the skin. If the contaminated materials remain outside
the body the health risks are fairly low. However, if the contaminated
material enters the body either by ingesting or inhaling, the risks
become greater depending on the quantity and type of radioactive
isotope absorbed.

Once inside the body, the radioactive isotope will ionize the cells
around it sometimes causing irreparable damage.
Radioactive isotopes migrate in the body in the same way as inert isotopes of the same element.
For example, iodine-131 migrates to the thyroid gland which normally uses iodine and requires a
steady supply to remain healthy. This is especially true in children and young adults whose
thyroid glands are more active than they are in adults. Strontium-90 mimics calcium and travels
to bone tissue. In large enough doses, these isotopes will cause cancer and other diseases.

The migration of radioactive isotopes within the body is of extreme benefit to patients requiring
treatment in the field of nuclear medicine and diagnostic imaging. In these instances, short lived
radioactive isotopes and isotopes that can easily be flushed from the body are deliberately
inhaled or ingested for medical treatments and tests.

RADIATION HAZARD

Agent Information: Radiological agents are used in health care, industry, energy production
and as warfare agents, measured by the number of atoms disintegrating per unit time. A
disintegrating atom can emit a beta particle, an alpha particle, a gamma ray, or some
combination.
Signs and Symptoms: Exposure to radiation can cause two kinds of health effects.
Deterministic effects are observable health effects that occur soon after receipt of large doses.
These may include hair loss, skin burns, nausea or death. Stochastic effects are long-term
effects, such as cancer. The radiation dose determines the severity of a deterministic effect and
the probability of a stochastic effect in conjunction with the type of emission – usually man-
made.
Route of Exposure: Alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays and x-rays affect tissue in
different ways. Alpha particles disrupt more molecules in a shorter distance than gamma rays.
As radiation moves through the body, it dislodges electrons from atoms, disrupting molecules
and depositing energy. The energy the radiation deposits in tissue is called the dose or the
absorbed dose. A person can receive an external dose by standing near a gamma or high-
energy beta-emitting source. A person can receive an internal dose by ingesting or inhaling
radioactive material.
The external exposure stops when the person leaves the area of the source. The internal
exposure continues until the radioactive material is flushed from the body by natural processes
or decays. When a person inhales or ingests a radionuclide, that radionuclide is distributed to
different organs and stays there for days, months or years until it decays or is excreted. The
radionuclide will deliver a radiation dose over a period of time. The dose that a person receives
from the time the nuclide enters the body until it is gone is the committed dose.
Transmission: Only victims who are contaminated with radioactive particles, either externally
or internally, can expose other people to radiation. 24/7 Emergency Contact Number: 1-888-
295-5156 Revised:
Protection against radiation hazards : Regulatory bodies, safety
norms, does limits and protection devices3/2007 Page 2 of 2

There are various Regulatory Bodies at the international and National level, which lay
down norms for radiation protection. These are the International Commission for
Radiation Protection (ICRP) the National Commission for Radiation Protection (NCRP)
in America, and the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) in India. These bodies
recommend norms for permissible doses of radiation from X ray tubes and the shielding
required for the walls of an X ray room. Data is also available from the work of
Investigators regarding the room shielding required in a CT suite. The recommended
lead equivalent in shielding apparel to be worm by radiation workers is 0.5 mm. The
regulatory bodies also lay down safe dose limits for radiation workers and for the
general public. The duties of the Radiation Safety Officer (RSO) are also specified by
the regulatory bodies, as are the radiation surveillance and radiation safety
programmers.

Introduction

In our earlier article we have elaborated the biological hazards of radiation and the
radiation doses which lead to these effects. In this article we introduce to the reader the
various regulatory bodies especially the Indian Regulatory Body (AERB) and also the
role of Radiation Safety Officer (RSO). We also appraise the reader of the objectives of
radiation protection, the principles, methods and practices of radiation protection and
the safe dose limits.

The Regulatory Bodies

The Regulatory bodies lay down norms for protection against radiation and also
recommend the dose limits for radiation workers and the general public. The ICRP or
the International Commission for radiation protection is the international regulatory
body. Each country has its national counterpart of the ICRP. In America the counterpart
is the NCRP or The National Commission for Radiological Protection and in India it is
the AERB or the Atomic Energy

Regulatory Board.

The International Commission of Radiation Protection (ICRP) was formed in 1928 on

the recommendation of the first International Congress of Radiology in 1925. The
commission consists of 12 members and a chairman and a secretary who are chosen
from across the world based on their expertise. The first International Congress also
initiated the birth of the ICRU or the International Commission on Radiation Units and
measurements [1].

The Indian regulatory board is the AERB, Atomic Energy Regulatory Board. The Atomic
Energy Regulatory Board was constituted on November 15, 1983 by the President of
India by exercising the powers conferred by Section 27 of the Atomic Energy Act, 1962
(33 of 1962) to carry out certain regulatory and safety functions under the Act. The
regulatory authority of AERB is derived from the rules and notifications promulgated
under the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 and the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986. The
mission of the Board is to ensure that the use of ionizing radiation and nuclear energy in
India does not cause undue risk to health and environment. Currently, the Board
consists of a full-time Chairman, an ex-officio Member, three part-time Members and a
Secretary [2].

Objectives of Radiation protection

The ICRP in 1991 stated that "the overall objective of radiation protection is to provide
an appropriate standard of protection for man without unduly limiting the beneficial
practices giving rise to radiation exposure". The NCRP (1993), issued a similar
statement in its Report (No. 116) that "the goal of radiation protection is to prevent the
occurrence of serious radiation induced conditions (acute and chronic deterministic
effects) in exposed persons and to reduce stochastic effects in exposed persons to a
degree that is acceptable in relation to the benefits to the individual and to society from
the activities that generate such exposure" [1]. Furthermore, the ICRP suggested that
"current standards of protection are meant to prevent occurrence of deterministic effects
by keeping doses below relevant thresholds and ensure that all reasonable steps are
taken to reduce induction of stochastic effects"[1].

Radiation safety act in India

Radiation safety in handling of radiation generating equipment is governed by section

17 of the Atomic Energy Act, 1962, and the Radiation Protection Rules (RPR), G.S.R. -
1601, 1971 issued under the Act. The "Radiation Surveillance Procedures of Medical
Applications of Radiation, G.S.R. - 388, 1989", issued under rule 15 specify general
requirements for ensuring radiation protection in installation and handling of X-ray
equipment. Guidance and practical aspects on implementing the requirements of this
Code are provided in revised documents issued by AERB in the year 2001 [2].

Role of AERB (India)

AERB of India recommends and lays down guidelines regarding the specifications of
medical X-ray equipment, for the room layout of X-ray installation, regarding the work
practices in X-ray department, the protective devices and also the responsibilities of the
radiation personnel, employer and Radiation Safety Officer (RSO). AERB is the
authority in India which exercises a regulatory control on the approval of new models of
X-ray equipment and the layout of any new proposed X-ray installation. It also is the
regulatory authority for registration and commissioning of new X-ray equipment,
inspection and decommissioning of X-ray installation, certification of a RSO and of
service engineers and also for imposing penalties on any person contravening these
rules [2].
Principles of radiation protection

The current radiation protection standards are based on three general principles :-

a) Justification of a practice i.e. no practice involving exposures to radiation should be

adopted unless it provides sufficient benefit to offset the detrimental effects of radiation.

b) Protection should be optimized in relation to the magnitude of doses, number of

people exposed and also to optimize it for all social and economic strata of patients.

c) Dose limitation, on the other hand, deals with the idea of establishing annual dose
limits for occupational exposures, public exposures, and exposures to the embryo and
fetus [1].

Hazards of Ionising and Non-Ionising Radiations

A Guide to the Hazards of Ionising and Non-Ionising Radiations

CONTENTS

General Radiation Hazards

Radioisotopes
X-Rays
Pregnancy
Mobile Phones
Microwaves
UV Lamps including Cosmetic Tanning
UV and Sunlight
Lasers including Laser Pointers

GENERAL

The Health Protection Agency, (formerly the National Radiological Protection Board), have an
excellent series of interactive modules (Understanding Radiation)

Modules for Radon, Transport of Radioactive Materials, Nuclear Emergencies, Radio-Waves

and Doses from Discharges currently exist, along with an electronic version of the HPA
Sunsense poster. Future modules include Electric and Magnetic Fields, Ultraviolet Radiation and
Maps and Magnitudes.

RADIOISOTOPES
There are two categories of radioactive material, closed and other.

Closed sources are sources in which the radioactive material is contained within a permanently
sealed housing or is permanently bonded to a surface or foil

Other sources are all sources that are not closed sources. These are normally sources that are
supplied as a liquid or powder and which are therefore dispersible once the containment vial has
been opened

The hazard from radiation emitted by radioisotopes varies according to decay emission (Alpha,
Beta, Gamma or Neutron) and the emission energy. For the most common radioisotopes used in
the University the hazards are listed in Isotope Hazards.

Local Rules are required for each registered radiation laboratory. Local Rules within the
University of Liverpool are divided into three sections. Document LR1 is General Local Rules
applicable throughout all laboratories within the university. Document LR2 is General
Contingency Plan applicable throughout the univeristy. Document LR3 is Local Rules specific to
a particular department or section thereof. LR1 and LR2 can be found on the Documentation
page of this site together with a Template for LR3

All persons using radioisotopes must be registered with the Radiation Protection Office
(Registration of radioisotope user)

X-RAYS

The electromagnetic radiation from X-rays is only emitted when the X-ray unit is energised and
the shutter opened. There is no radiation hazard when the X-ray unit is off

Emission from the X-ray unit is usually limited by collimator to a specific beam size. Persons
outside the beam path may receive scattered x-radiation from the target in the beam path.

In the case of diagnostic X-ray units the scattered x-radiation to the critical organs may be
significantly reduced by wearing lead equivalent aprons.

In the case of crystallography units the beam should be totally enclosed within an interlocked
housing. There is then no hazard to workers outside the housing

All persons using X-ray units must be registered with the Radiation Protection Office
(Registration of X-ray user)
X-RAY SAFETY

If you are worried about the safety implications of having an x-ray you can download a safety
leaflet here
 PREGNANCY

To enable the University to accept its responsibility for the welfare of the new baby the mother-
to-be must notify the University as soon as the pregnancy is confirmed. This should be done, in
writing, to the Head of Department.

For the majority of mothers-to-be there will probably be no requirement to alter their
job/research practices as the radiation doses received during the pregnancy will be well below
the permitted limit (1mSv) for the foetus. However it may be desirable to limit the handling of
stock materials of the higher energy Beta and Gamma emitting sources. Advice may be obtained
from the Radiation Protection Office

The HSE have published an excellent and informative document entitled Guidelines for
expectant or breast-feeding mothers. These guidelines give advice on how expectant and breast-
feeding mothers may work safely with ionising radiation. The document can be downloaded in
PDF format
The HSE also has a website entitled Health and Safety for new and expectant mothers which has
much information for the new and expectant mother about general safety at work during
pregnancy

MOBILE PHONES

Information on the Health effects of mobile phones and mobile phone masts can be found on the
Department of Health website

Available for download are :-

Guide to the nature and use of radio-waves issued by the Health Protection Agency, (formerly
the National Radiological Protection Board)

Information leaflet issued by Department of Health

An update on "Mobile Phones and Health" issued by the Health Protection Agency, (formerly
the National Radiological Protection Board)

The University's Code of Practice for Base Station Installations on University premises

NRPB Summary on Exposure to Radio Waves near Base Stations

MICROWAVES

High frequency electromagnetic fields are known as microwave radiation. The main effect of
exposure to such radiation is heat deposition in tissue. The most obvious result of this heating
effect has been shown to be the temporary disruption of learned behaviour in animals. The
average level of specific absorption rate required to produce temporary disruption has been
shown to be 2 - 8 Watts per kilogram. The Health Protection Agency, (formerly the National
Radiological Protection Board), has therefore recommended a maximum exposure level of 0.4
Watts per kilogram. Although some work with microwave transmission is conducted in the
Department of Electrical Engineering and Electronics and in the Department of Physics, the main
use of microwave radiation within the University is in microwave ovens.

All microwave ovens, whether used for heating in experiments such as agar solutions or for
domestic cooking, must be registered with the Radiation Protection Office. The information
required is Manufacturer, Model, Serial Number, Department, Room/Lab Number. This
information may be sent as an e-mail

UV RADIATION

Ultra Violet radiation lies within the wavelength range 100 - 400nm. The direct effects are
limited to the skin and eyes because of its non-penetrating nature. There are acute effects such as
erythema (sunburn) of the skin and conjunctivitis of the eye and chronic effects such as
premature skin ageing, skin cancer and cataracts of the eye. The UV wavelengths are divided
into three sections :-

UVA - 400-315nm
UVB - 315-280nm
UVC - 280-100nm

The most common sources of UV radiation within the University are UV Reactors (for
accelerating or inducing chemical reactions), germicidal lamps (for sterilising benches or flow
cabinets), and transilluminators. All these use lamps having shorter wavelengths than the UVA
lamps used in most sunbeds and the effect of exposure on skin or eyes may be noted after very
short inadvertent exposure. In no circumstances should any part of the body be exposed to the
UVB and UVC radiation from reactors, germicidal lamps or transilluminators.

Units containing germicidal lamps should be interlocked to prevent access whilst the lamp is on.

Transilluminators must be used with gauntletted gloves and must be used with either the fitted
perspex UV shield or separate full face shield

Local Rules for work with UV radiation are available from Radiation Protection Office and may
be downloaded in WORD or PDF format

COSMETIC TANNING

The Health Protection Agency, (formerly the National Radiological Protection Board), have
issued Information on Sunbeds and Cosmetic Tanning which provides warning on the use of
sunbeds and other cosmetic tanning.

The International Commission on Non-Ionising Radiation Protection have issued a paper on the
Health Issues of Ultra Violet Tanning Appliances used for Cosmetic Purposes

UV AND SUNLIGHT

HSE have issued two information sheets re UV in sunlight. The first is 'Sun Protection for
Outdoor Workers' and the second is 'Keep Your Top On'
Cancer Research UK have two information sheets with regard to dangers of overexposure to
sunlight. The first is 'Strategies for the Workplace' and the second is entitled 'Skin Cancer'

LASERS

The most vulnerable organs from laser light are the eyes. Light from a laser is concentrated into a
narrow beam. This beam can be further concentrated by the lens of the eye onto the retina and
cause temporary or permanent blindness. The blink reflex of the eye will normally protect the
eye from a Class 1 laser but care must be used in the design of an experiment to ensure that light
from Class 2 (and higher Class) lasers cannot impinge upon any person's eye

Guidance Notes for Users of Lasers in Education and Research issued by the Association of
Unervsity Radiation Protection Officers may be downloaded here

It is policy among most universities in the UK that laser pointers used in lecture theatres are
limited to Class 1 or Class 2

Laser Safety Code of Practice, Generic Laser Local Rules and Generic Laser Risk Assessment
are available on the Documentation page

Lasers (other than laser pointers) must be registered with the Radiation Protection Office and the
laser form in Documentation should be used (Registration of Laser)

LASER POINTERS
The Health Protection Agency, (formerly the National Radiological Protection Board), have
issued an Information Sheet on Laser Pointers.
Please also read Note on Laser Pointers issued by University Radiation Protection Advisor.
Radiation protection

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A lead castle built to shield a radioactive sample in a lab

Radiation protection, sometimes known as radiological protection, is the science of protecting

people and the environment from the harmful effects of ionizing radiation, which includes both
particle radiation and high energy electromagnetic radiation.

Ionizing radiation is widely used in industry and medicine, but presents a significant health
hazard. It causes microscopic damage to living tissue, resulting in skin burns and radiation
sickness at high exposures and statistically elevated risks of cancer, tumors and genetic damage
at low exposures.

Principles of radiation protection

Radiation protection can be divided into occupational radiation protection, which is the
protection of workers; medical radiation protection, which is the protection of patients; and
public radiation protection, which is protection of individual members of the public, and of the
population as a whole. The types of exposure, as well as government regulations and legal
exposure limits are different for each of these groups, so they must be considered separately.
There are three factors that control the amount, or dose, of radiation received from a source.
Radiation exposure can be managed by a combination of these factors:

1. Time: Reducing the time of an exposure reduces the effective dose

proportionally. An example of reducing radiation doses by reducing the time
of exposures might be improving operator training to reduce the time they
take to handle a source.
2. Distance: Increasing distance reduces dose due to the inverse square law.
Distance can be as simple as handling a source with forceps rather than
fingers.
3. Shielding: The term 'biological shield' refers to a mass of absorbing material
placed around a reactor, or other radioactive source, to reduce the radiation
to a level safe for humans.[1] The effectiveness of a material as a biological
shield is related to its cross-section for scattering and absorption, and to a
first approximation is proportional to the total mass of material per unit area
interposed along the line of sight between the radiation source and the
region to be protected. Hence, shielding strength or "thickness" is
conventionally measured in units of g/cm2. The radiation that manages to get
through falls exponentially with the thickness of the shield. In x-ray facilities,
the plaster on the rooms with the x-ray generator contains barium sulfate
and the operators stay behind a leaded glass screen and wear lead aprons.
Almost any material can act as a shield from gamma or x-rays if used in
sufficient amounts.

Practical radiation protection tends to be a job of juggling the three factors to identify the most
cost effective solution.

In most countries a national regulatory authority works towards ensuring a secure radiation
environment in society by setting requirements that are also based on the international
recommendations for ionizing radiation (ICRP - International Commission on Radiological
Protection): - Justification: No unnecessary use of radiation is permitted, which means that the
advantages must outweigh the disadvantages. - Limitation: Each individual must be protected
against risks that are far too large through individual radiation dose limits. - Optimization:
Radiation doses should all be kept as low as reasonably achievable. This means that it is not
enough to remain under the radiation dose limits. As permit holder, you are responsible for
ensuring that radiation doses are as low as reasonably achievable, which means that the actual
radiation doses are often much lower than the permitted limit.

Types of radiation
Different types of ionizing radiation behave in different ways, so different shielding techniques
are used.

• Particle radiation consists of a stream of charged or neutral particles, both

charged ions and subatomic elementary particles. This includes solar wind,
cosmic radiation, and neutron flux in nuclear reactors.
o Alpha particles (helium nuclei) are the least penetrating. Even very
energetic alpha particles can be stopped by a single sheet of paper.
 o Beta particles (electrons) are more penetrating, but still can be
absorbed by a few millimeters of aluminum. However, in cases where
high energy beta particles are emitted shielding must be accomplished
with low density materials, e.g. plastic, wood, water or acrylic glass
(Plexiglas, Lucite) [1]. In the case of beta+ radiation (positrons), the
gamma radiation from the electron-positron annihilation reaction poses
additional concern.
o Neutron radiation is not as readily absorbed as charged particle
radiation, which makes this type highly penetrating. Neutrons are
absorbed by nuclei of atoms in a nuclear reaction. This most-often
creates a secondary radiation hazard, as the absorbing nuclei
transmute to the next-heavier isotope, many of which are unstable.
o Cosmic radiation is not a common concern, as the Earth's atmosphere
absorbs it and the magnetosphere acts as a shield, but it poses a
problem for satellites and astronauts and frequent fliers are also at a
slight risk. Cosmic radiation is extremely high energy, and is very
penetrating.
• Electromagnetic radiation consists of emissions of electromagnetic waves,
the properties of which depend on the wavelength.
o X-ray and gamma radiation are best absorbed by atoms with heavy
nuclei; the heavier the nucleus, the better the absorption. In some
special applications, depleted uranium is used, but lead is much more
common; several centimeters are often required. Barium sulfate is
used in some applications too. However, when cost is important,
almost any material can be used, but it must be far thicker. Most
nuclear reactors use thick concrete shields to create a bioshield with a
thin water cooled layer of lead on the inside to protect the porous
concrete from the coolant inside.
o Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is ionizing but it is not penetrating, so it can
be shielded by thin opaque layers such as sunscreen, clothing, and
protective eyewear. Protection from UV is simpler than for the other
forms of radiation above, so it is often considered separately.

In some cases, improper shielding can actually make the situation worse, when the radiation
interacts with the shielding material and creates secondary radiation that absorbs in the
organisms more readily.

Shielding design
Shielding reduces the intensity of radiation exponentially depending on the thickness.

This means when added thicknesses are used, the shielding multiplies. For example, a practical
shield in a fallout shelter is ten halving-thicknesses of packed dirt, which is 90 cm (3 ft) of dirt.
This reduces gamma rays by a factor of 1/1,024, which is 1/2 multiplied by itself ten times.
Halving thicknesses of some materials, that reduce gamma ray intensity by 50% (1/2) include[2]
(see also Kearney, ref):

Material Halving Halving Density, Halving Mass,

 Thickness, inches
Thickness, cm g/cm³ g/cm²

lead 0.4 1.0 11.3 12

concrete 2.4 6.1 3.33 20

steel 0.99 2.5 7.86 20

packed soil 3.6 9.1 1.99 18

water 7.2 18 1.00 18

lumber or other
11 29 0.56 16
wood

depleted
0.08 0.2 19.1 3.9
uranium

air 6000 15000 0.0012 18

Column Halving Mass in the chart above indicates mass of material, required to cut radiation by
50%, in grams per square centimetre of protected area.

The effectiveness of a shielding material in general increases with its density.

ALARP
Main article: ALARP

ALARP, is an acronym for an important principle in exposure to radiation and other

occupational health risks and stands for "As Low As Reasonably Practicable".[3] The aim is to
minimize the risk of radioactive exposure or other hazard while keeping in mind that some
exposure may be acceptable in order to further the task at hand. The equivalent term ALARA,
"As Low As Reasonably Achievable", is more commonly used in the United States and Canada.

This compromise is well illustrated in radiology. The application of radiation can aid the patient
by providing doctors and other health care professionals with a medical diagnosis, but the
exposure should be reasonably low enough to keep the statistical probability of cancers or
sarcomas (stochastic effects) below an acceptable level, and to eliminate deterministic effects
(e.g. skin reddening or cataracts). An acceptable level of incidence of stochastic effects is
considered to be equal for a worker to the risk in another work generally considered to be safe.

This policy is based on the principle that any amount of radiation exposure, no matter how small,
can increase the chance of negative biological effects such as cancer, though perhaps by a
negligible amount. It is also based on the principle that the probability of the occurrence of
negative effects of radiation exposure increases with cumulative lifetime dose. These ideas are
combined to form the linear no-threshold model. At the same time, radiology and other practices
that involve use of radiations bring benefits to population, so reducing radiation exposure can
reduce the efficacy of a medical practice. The economic cost, for example of adding a barrier
against radiation, must also be considered when applying the ALARP principle.

There are four major ways to reduce radiation exposure to workers or to population:

• Shielding. Use proper barriers to block or reduce ionizing radiation.

• Time. Spend less time in radiation fields.
• Distance. Increase distance between radioactive sources and workers or
population.
• Amount. Reduce the quantity of radioactive material for a practice.

What Are Radioactive Isotopes?

By Wendy Morgan, eHow Contributor

Radioactive isotopes, also called radioisotopes, are atoms with a different number of neutrons
than a usual atom, with an unstable nucleus that decays, emitting alpha, beta and gamma rays
until the isotope reaches stability. Once it's stable, the isotope becomes another element entirely.
Radioactive decay is spontaneous so it's often hard to know when it will take place or what sort
of rays it will emit during decay.

How Many?
1. There are around 3800 radioactive isotopes. At present there are up to 200
radioactive isotopes used on a regular basis, and while some are found in
nature, most others have to be manufactured to suit specific needs, such as
for hospitals, research labs and manufacturers.

How Are They Manufactured?

2. Radioactive isotopes can be manufactured in several ways, the most common
by neutron activation in a nuclear reactor which involves capturing a neutron
by the nucleus of an atom which results in an excess of neutrons (neutron
rich). Some radioactive isotopes are produced in a cyclotron in which protons
 are introduced to a nucleus resulting in a deficiency of neutrons (proton rich).
(source:http://www.eoearth.org/article/Radioisotopes_in_industry)

Significance
3. Radioactive isotopes have very useful properties. Alpha, beta and gamma
radiation can permeate solid objects like an x-ray, but are progressively
absorbed by them. The amount of this penetration depends on several
factors including the energy of the radiation, mass of the particle, and density
of the solid. These properties can lead to many uses for radioisotopes in the
scientific, medical, archaeological and industrial fields.The uses of radioactive
isotopes in these fields depend on what element they become after they
reach stability.

Uses in the Medical Field

4. Chromium-51, for example, which forms from emitted alpha rays during
radioactive isotope decay, is used in the classifying of blood cells and
measuring protein loss in the human body. Cobalt-60, another element
formed from radioactive isotopes emitting beta and gamma rays, is often
used in cancer treatment. Oxygen-18 and Technetium-99 are used as
biological tracers, helping doctors locate tumors and other problems in
various parts of the human body. They are also used in x-rays and bone
imaging.They are used in killing off damaged cells and treating abnormal cell
growth as rapidly dividing cells are particularly sensitive to radiation.

Uses in Archaeology and Industry

5. They can also be used in the field of archaeology. Radioactive isotope
elements such as Carbon-14, Lead-210, and Potassium-40 are used in dating
of rocks and historical earth. Chlorine-36 and Tritium are used in measuring
the age of ground water up to millions of years. In industry they are used as
fuel for nuclear reactors, in the manufacturing of domestic smoke alarms,
tracing factory waste that may cause pollution, and predicting the behavior of
heavy metals in water. Sodium-24 and Magnesium-27, for example, are used
to locate leaks in water pipes, while iridium-192 is used in wire in radiography
devices.

Other Uses
6. Other uses of these isotopes are in the study of chemical and biological
processes in plant life for agriculture, treating and preserving food in order to
make it safer for consumption and to have a longer shelf-life when in stores
for purchase, and for chemical pest control
What Are Radioactive Isotopes?
By Wendy Morgan, eHow Contributor

Radioactive isotopes, also called radioisotopes, are atoms with a different number of neutrons
than a usual atom, with an unstable nucleus that decays, emitting alpha, beta and gamma rays
until the isotope reaches stability. Once it's stable, the isotope becomes another element entirely.
Radioactive decay is spontaneous so it's often hard to know when it will take place or what sort
of rays it will emit during decay.

How Many?
1. There are around 3800 radioactive isotopes. At present there are up to 200
radioactive isotopes used on a regular basis, and while some are found in
nature, most others have to be manufactured to suit specific needs, such as
for hospitals, research labs and manufacturers.

How Are They Manufactured?

2. Radioactive isotopes can be manufactured in several ways, the most common
by neutron activation in a nuclear reactor which involves capturing a neutron
by the nucleus of an atom which results in an excess of neutrons (neutron
rich). Some radioactive isotopes are produced in a cyclotron in which protons
are introduced to a nucleus resulting in a deficiency of neutrons (proton rich).
(source:http://www.eoearth.org/article/Radioisotopes_in_industry)

Significance
3. Radioactive isotopes have very useful properties. Alpha, beta and gamma
radiation can permeate solid objects like an x-ray, but are progressively
absorbed by them. The amount of this penetration depends on several
factors including the energy of the radiation, mass of the particle, and density
of the solid. These properties can lead to many uses for radioisotopes in the
scientific, medical, archaeological and industrial fields.The uses of radioactive
isotopes in these fields depend on what element they become after they
reach stability.

Uses in the Medical Field

4. Chromium-51, for example, which forms from emitted alpha rays during
radioactive isotope decay, is used in the classifying of blood cells and
measuring protein loss in the human body. Cobalt-60, another element
formed from radioactive isotopes emitting beta and gamma rays, is often
used in cancer treatment. Oxygen-18 and Technetium-99 are used as
biological tracers, helping doctors locate tumors and other problems in
various parts of the human body. They are also used in x-rays and bone
 imaging.They are used in killing off damaged cells and treating abnormal cell
growth as rapidly dividing cells are particularly sensitive to radiation.

Uses in Archaeology and Industry

5. They can also be used in the field of archaeology. Radioactive isotope
elements such as Carbon-14, Lead-210, and Potassium-40 are used in dating
of rocks and historical earth. Chlorine-36 and Tritium are used in measuring
the age of ground water up to millions of years. In industry they are used as
fuel for nuclear reactors, in the manufacturing of domestic smoke alarms,
tracing factory waste that may cause pollution, and predicting the behavior of
heavy metals in water. Sodium-24 and Magnesium-27, for example, are used
to locate leaks in water pipes, while iridium-192 is used in wire in radiography
devices.

Other Uses
6. Other uses of these isotopes are in the study of chemical and biological
processes in plant life for agriculture, treating and preserving food in order to
make it safer for consumption and to have a longer shelf-life when in stores
for purchase, and for chemical pest control

Agricultural Applications - radioactive tracers

Radioisotopes can be used to help understand chemical and biological processes in plants. This is
true for two reasons: 1)radioisotopes are chemically identical with other isotopes of the same
element and will be substituted in chemical reactions and 2)radioactive forms of the element can
be easily detected with a Geiger counter or other such device.

Medical Uses

Bone imaging is an extremely important use of radioactive properties. Supposed a runner is

experiencing severe pain in both shins. The doctor decides to check to see if either tibia has a
stress fracture. The runner is given an injection containing 99Tcm. This radioisotope is a gamma
ray producer with a half-life of 6 hours.
After a several hour wait, the patient undergoes bone imaging. At this point, any area of the body
that is undergoing unusually high bone growth will show up as a stronger image on the screen.
Therefore if the runner has a stress fracture, it will show up on the bone imaging scan.

This technique is also good for arthritic patients, bone abnormalities and various other
diagnostics.

Still need to describe mechanism!!

Radioactive Preparation

in medicine, a preparation that is used in the radioisotope diagnosis of disease and the
radiotherapy of tumors. Radioactive preparations are either radioactive isotopes or compounds of
radioactive isotopes and various inorganic or organic substances.

Of the several hundred natural and artificial radioactive isotopes, only those are used
diagnostically that upon introduction into the organism either participate in the metabolic process
or the organic or systematic activity under study. These radioactive preparations have a short
effective half-life, which results in an insignificant radiation load on the organism being studied;
the preparations are characterized by the type and energy of radiation (beta or gamma rays),
which are recorded using radiometric methods.

The most widely used radioactive preparations include various compounds of 99mTc (in the
diagnosis of brain tumors and in the study of central and peripheral hemodynamics), 131I and its
compounds (in studies of iodine exchange and kidney and liver function), 111In and 113In (in liver
studies), such colloid solutions and macroaggregates as 99mTc, 198Au, 131I, and 111In (in the study of
the lungs, liver, and brain), and such gaseous radioactive preparations as 133Xe, 85Kr, and 15O (in
the study of lung function and central and peripheral hemodynamics).

The major criterion used in selecting a radioactive preparation for the radiotherapy of a
malignant tumor is the ability to apply a therapeutic dose of ionizing radiation to the focus of the
affection, while at the same time maximally sparing surrounding tissues. This is achieved by
using radioactive preparations in various aggregate states—true and colloid solutions,
suspensions, granules, rods, needles, beads, wire, and bandages—and by using isotopes with
optimal radiophysical characteristics (type and energy of radiation).

In clinical practice, solutions of Na131I are used in the treatment of iodine-absorbing metastases
of malignant tumors of the thyroid gland; colloids and suspensions of 90Y, 198Au, and 32P are used
in the interstitial and intracavitary radiotherapy of tumors; and granules, rods, beads, and needles
that contain 90Y, 60Co, and 192Ir are used in the treatment of tumors of the female reproductive
organs, cancer of the oral mucosa and the lungs, and brain tumors.

Measurement of radioactivity.

Radioactive decay is arandom process and therefore fluctuations are

expected in the radioactivity measurement. That is why measurement of
radioactivity must be treated by statistical methods.

In every measurement a deviation from the true value or error is likely to

occur. There are two types of errors - systematic and random. The accuracy of a
measurement indicates how closely it agrees with the true value. The precision of a
series of measurements describes the reproducibility and indicates the deviation
from the average or mean value. The closer the measurement is to the average
value, the higher the precision, whereas the closer the measurement is to the true
value, the more accurate is the measurement. It is important to keep in mind, that a
series of measurements may be quite precise but their value may be far from the
true value. Precision can be improved by eliminating the random errors, better
accuracy is obtained by removing both the random and systematic errors.

The average or mean value is obtained by adding the values of all

measurements divided by the number of measurements. The standard deviation
indicates the deviation from the mean value and is a measure of precision. The
standard deviation in radioactive measurements indicates the statistical fluctuations
in radioactive disintegration. If the number of measurements is large, the
distribution can be approximated by a Gaussian distribution even if the radioactive
decay follows the Poisson distribution law. For practical reasons, only single
measurement is obtained on radioactive sample instead of multiple repeat counts to
determine the mean value. The precision of a count of a radioactive sample can be
increased by accumulating a large number of counts in a single measurement
because of decreasing the standard deviation.

Interaction of radiation with matter.

All radiations may interact with the atoms of the matter during their passage
through it producing ionization and excitation of the atoms. These radiations are
called ionizing radiation. The mechanism of interaction differ for particulate and
electromagnetic type of radiation.

The interaction of beta particles as a charged particles and gamma radiation

as an electromagnetic radiation is the most important from the point of view of
using them in nuclear medicine.

Beta particles interact primarily with the electrons of the absorber atoms and
rarely with the nucleus.

Ionization occurs when beta particle transfers sufficient amount of its energy
to the orbital electron and ejects it from the atom. As a result ion pair is formed.
This process may rupture chemical bonds in the molecules. Ionization is used
namely in the radiation therapy and also serves as a mean of the detection of
charged particles in ion chambers.

When energetic beta particles, namely electrons, pass close to the nucleus of
the atom, they lose energy as a result of deceleration. This loss of energy appears
as an x ray and is called bremsstrahlung. Bremsstrahlung production increases with
the kinetic energy of the beta particles and the atomic number of the absorber. That
is why high energy beta particles are stored in plastic rather than shielding by lead.

Beta plus particles, positrons, combine with the orbital electrons and
produce two 511 keV photons of gamma radiation, so called annihilation
radiation, that are emitted in exactly opposite directions. This is the basis of
positron emission tomography.

Gamma rays interact with orbital electrons and if their energy is very high
they may also interact with the nucleus of the absorber atoms. They travel a long
path in the absorber before losing all energy and so they are called penetrating
radiations.

There are three mechanisms by which gamma rays interact with absorber
atoms from which two are important for nuclear medicine.

Photoelectric effect means transfer of all energy of gamma photon to an

orbital electron, called photoelectron, and ejecting it from the atom. The
photoelectron then loses its energy by ionization and excitation.
 Compton scattering means transfer of only a part of energy of gamma
photon to an electron and ejecting it. The gamma photon with less energy is
deflected from its original direction. The scattered photon may then undergo
further photoelectric or Compton interaction and the Compton electron may cause
ionization or excitation.

Depending on the photon energy and the density and thickness of the
absorber, some photons may pass through the absorber without any interaction.

Attenuation of gamma radiations by means of their interaction with absorber

is an important factor in radiation protection. The term half-value layer is defined
as the thickness of the absorber that reduces the intensity of a photon beam by one
half. It depends on the energy of the radiation and the atomic number of the
absorber.

Radiation detection.

Interaction of ionizing radiations with the matter is also used for their
detection and measurement. There are several principles of radiation detection in
nuclear medicine. Some of them are used in radiation protection, others in
measurement and imaging.

The oldest principle is darkening of photographic emulsion. This principle is

used in the personnel dosimetry. The film badge is most popular and cost-effective
for personnel monitoring and gives reasonably accurate readings of exposures from
beta, gamma and x radiations. The film badge consists of a radiation sensitive film
held in a plastic holder. Filters of copper and lead are attached to the holder to
differentiate exposure from different types and energies of radiation.

Another principle is thermoluminiscence. Several inorganic crystals (e.g.

LiF) can accumulate radiation energy and hold it. If the crystal is heated from 300
to 400 degrees of Celsius, it emits light in amount proportional to the absorbed
energy. Thermoluminiscent dosimeters, so called TLD, are mostly used as a finger
dosimeters, so inorganic crystals are held in a plastic holders and plastic rings. It
gives an accurate exposure reading and can be reused.
 Another principle is converting the energy of radiation to electric current.
There are two basic principles based on ionization and excitation.

First is ionization of gas molecules, the second is excitation and ionization of

solid, liquid or plastic material, called scintilator, which emits photons of light
after absorbing radiation. Light is then converted to the electric current by means
of photomultiplier tube.

Gas-filled detectors collect the ion pairs as a current with the application of a
voltage between two electrodes. The measured current is proportional to the aplied
voltage and the amount of radiation.

At a lower voltages from 50 to 300 V, only the primary ion pairs formed by
the initial radiation are collected. Ionization chambers operate in this region. The
detector is a cylindrical chamber with a central wire filled with air or different
gases. These detectors are primarily used for measuring high intensity radiation.
Dose calibrators and pocket dosimeters are the common ionization chambers used
in nuclear medicine.

The dose calibrator is one of the most essential instrument in nuclear

medicine for measuring the activity of radionuclides and radiopharmaceuticals. It
must be regularly checked for constancy, accuracy, linearity and geometry.

At higher voltages from 1000 to 1200 V, the current becomes identical

regardless of how many ion pairs are produced by the incident radiation. Geiger-
Müller counters operate in this region. Geiger-Müller counters are used to monitor
the radiation level in different work areas and they are called area monitors or
survey meters. They are more sensitive than ionization chambers but they cannot
discriminate between energies. They are almost 100% efficient for counting alpha
and beta particles but have only 1 to 2% efficiency for counting gamma and x rays.

Scintillation detectors consist of scintilator emitting flashes of light after

absorbing gamma or x radiation. The light photons produced are then converted to
an electrical pulse by means of a photomultiplier tube. The pulse is amplified by a
linear amplifier, sorted by a pulse-height analyzer and then registred as a count.
Different solid or liquid scintillators are used for different types of radiation. In
nuclear medicine, sodium iodide solid crystals with a trace of thallium NaI(Tl) are
used for gamma and x ray detection.

The basic solid scintillation counter consists of na NaI(Tl) crystal or

detector, a photomultiplier (PM) tube , a preamplifier, a linear amplifier, a pulse-
height analyzer (PHA) and a recording device.

NaI(Tl) crystals are hermetically sealed in aluminium containers. They are

fragile and must be handled with care. Room temperature should not be changed
suddenly because of possibility of cracks in the crystal. In well counters and
thyriod probes smaller and thicker crystals are used, whereas larger and thinner
crystals are employed in imaging devices like gamma cameras.

PM tube consists of a light-sensitive photocathode facing the crystal, series

of dynodes in the middle and an anode at the other end - all enclosed in a vacuum
glass tube. A high voltage about 1000 V is applied between the photocathode and
the anode of the PM tube. The electron pulse reaching the anode is delivered to the
preamplifier. The amplitude of the pulse is proportional to the number of light
photons received by the photocathode and in turn to the energy of gamma ray
photon absorbed in the crystal. The applied voltage must be very stable.

A linear amplifier amplifies further the signal from the preamplifier and
delivers it to the pulse height analyzer for analysis of its amplitude.

A pulse height analyzer is a device that selects for counting only those pulses
falling within preselect voltage intervals and rejects all others. Desired pulses are
ultimately delivered to the recording devices such as scalers, computers, films and
so on.

In the output of scintillation counter a distribution of pulse heights will be

obtained depicting a spectrum of gamma ray energies. In an ideal situation each
gamma ray would be seen as a line on the gamma ray spectrum. In reality, the
photopeak is broder, which is due to various statistical fluctuations in the process
of forming the pulses.

When gamma rays interact with the scintillation crystal by means of

Compton scattering, the Compton electrons of variable energies result in a pulse
height smaller than that of photopeak. Thus the gamma ray spectrum will show a
continuum of pulses corresponding to Compton electron energies between zero and
photopeak, so called Compton continuous spectrum. The relative hights of the
photopeak and the Compton scattering depend on the photon energy as well as the
size of the crystal.

There are several basic characteristics of counters important from the point
of view of using them in nuclear medicine procedures.

Background of the detector means registered count rate without presence of

any measured specimen. It is caused namely by cosmic radiation, natural
radioactivity, radioactivity of building material and of the material the detecting
system consists of. It can be minimized by shielding detector in lead cover, by
using special material for its construction or by means of pulse-height analyzer to
exclude inappropriate radiation energy from detection.

The energy resolution simply means the width or the sharpness of the
photopeak or the ability to discriminate the gamma ray photons of similar
energies.

The detection efficiency is given by the observed count rate divided by the
disintegration rate of a radioactive sample. It depends on the type and energy of
the detected radiation, size and thickness of the detector crystal and geometric
efficiency of the measuring.

The dead time is the time period during which the counter is insensitive for
the radiation detection. This time enclosed time needed to process a radiation event
starting from interaction in the crystal all the way up to forming and recording
pulse. Dead time for Geiger-Müller detectors is from 100 to 500 microseconds, for
NaI(Tl) crystal from 0,5 to 5 microseconds. Dead time loss of counts is a serious
problem at high count rates. Either count rates must be lowered or corrections must
be made to the observed count rates.
 Scintillation detectors can be used as a part of both nonimaging and imaging
devices. From the nonimaging devices, scintillation well counters and thyroid
probes are used.

The gamma well counter consists of a scintillation detector with a hole in the
center, for a sample to be placed inside for increasing the geometric efficiency and
hence the counting efficiency of the counter, and other associated electronics. Well
counters are used namely for in vitro measurements of different samples. They are
usually available with automatic sample changers and are mostly programmable
with computers. Their major advantage is high detection efficiency which is from
50% to 70% for 140 keV gamma photons.

The thyroid probe is a scintillation counter used for measuring radioacitivity

above the thyroid gland to assess the uptake of 131I after its oral administration. In
contrast to well counter the thyroid probe must be equipped with collimator, which
limits the field of view. This is a cylindrical barrel made of lead and it covers all
the detector including PM tube. It prevents the gamma radiations from other organs
to reach the detector.

Radionuclide imaging devices.

Radionuclide imaging is based on the ability to detect electromagnetic

radiation emitted from an injected radioactive tracer that has been taken up by the
organ to be studied. The electromagnetic radiation used is in the form of gamma
rays or x rays. The radiation absorbed by the detector is used to generate a digital
image by the computer, which is then interpreted by the physician. This imaging
device is called scintillation camera or gamma camera. It also employs sodium
iodide scintillation detector and the associated electronics like nonimaging systems
do.

The most frequently used scintillation camera is of Anger type (Hal O. Anger
invented it in the 1960), it means it has a large scintillation crystal which makes
possible to detect radiation from the entire field of view simultaneously and
therefore it is capable of recording dynamic as well as static images of the area of
interest in the patient. Many sophisticated improvements have been made of the
cameras over the years, but the basic principles of the operation are essentially the
same.

Like nonimaging probe also scintillation camera consists of a collimator, a

scintillation crystal, PM tubes, a preamplifier, an amplifier, a pulse-height analyser
and recording or display devices. In addition it must have an X,Y positioning
circuit to localize the point of interaction of gamma ray with the crystal. The
operation of a camera is performed by a computer built in it and is very convenient
for the staff. The detector head (collimator, scintillation crystal, PM tubes and
amplifiers) is mounted on a stand called gantry, which moves the head to the
appropriate position for patient imaging.

Detectors have usually large (about 50 cm in diameter) circular or

rectangular NaI(Tl) crystal with about 1 cm thickness. In front of the crystal, a
collimator is attached to limit the field of view so that gamma radiations from
outside the field of view cannot reach the crystal.

Collimator is usually a plate of lead with many holes. Most frequently used
are parallel-hole colimators with holes parallel to each others and perpendicular to
the detector face. They are of different types according to energy of radionuclides
used for imaging and according to their spatial resolution. Thus we can distinguish
high resolution, high sensitivity and all purpose (with compromise parameters)
types or low, medium and high energy types. The spatial resolution of the parallel-
hole collimators decreases with the increasing distance of the object from the front
of the collimator but the sensitivity is the same. That is why every data collection
must be performed with the minimal space between collimator forhead and the
patient body surface.

The collimator of conical shape with one up to three holes on the top is
called pinhole and is used for imaging of small and near to the surface lying
organs, such as a thyroid gland, tight join or infant kidneys. It has very good
resolution but very poor sensitivity. Nowadays also collimators with special
converging holes called fan-beam are made for small organs imaging, such as a
brain. Also collimators with diverging holes can be used, namely in cameras with
small crystal to make possible imaging of large organs. Collimators designed for
higher energy are thicker with thicker septa between holes to prevent penetration
of photons through them.

Gamma cameras have many photomultiplier tubes (up to 90) mounted to the
back of the crystal with optical grease. They are used to be of hexagonal shape and
the output from each is used to define the X and Y coordinate of the point of
interaction of the gamma ray in the crystal by the use of an X,Y positioning circuit.
The X and Y pulses are than projected on a cathode ray tube or oscilloscope to
create image or can be stored in the computer in a square matrix for further
processing. The larger the number of PM tubes, the better the spatial resolution on
the image.

The use of digital computers in nuclear medicine has considerably increased

and today all nuclear medicine studies are being analyzed by the computers. Data
from a gamma camera must be digitized by the analog-to-digital converter. The
computer memory approximates the area of the detector as a square matrix from
32x32 up to 1024x1024 size. Each element of this matrix is called pixel and
corresponds to a specific X and Y location in the detector. The number in each
pixel corresponds to the number of pulses detected in this specific location of the
crystal. In this manner of storing data in computer memory, called frame mode (the
most common mode in nuclear medicine), we must preset the matrix size, the
number of images (frames) in the study, and the time of collection of data per
frame or total counts to be collected per frame.
 Computers are very important part of imaging devices, current cameras
cannot operate without it, namely ECT is impossible without computers. The basic
function of computers during image construction is to correct and maintain
cameras performance parameters, such as high voltage in the PM tubes and
photopeak setting in pulse-height analyzer.

Another improvement of image quality is achieved by images smoothing and

filtering, mathematical operation with images, background subtraction, creation of
parametric and tomographic images, regions of interest (ROI) creation, dynamic
curves creation and their mathematical processing with computing quantitative
data of physiological processes, by using of interpolation to reduce digital raster
effect on matrix image, smoothing images by means of temporal and spatial filters
or by color coding according to number of counts in each pixel.

Very important camera parameter, field of view uniformity, can be

effectively improved by means of computers. Detector uniformity means a uniform
response throughout the field of view. Even properly tuned and adjusted gamma
cameras produce nonuniform images with count density variation of up to 10%.
There are several possibilities of using computer for nonuniformity correction.
These are: correction of number of counts in each pixel of image matrix to an
average value, setting of the own photopeak for each pixel in image matrix,
different gain of high voltage for each photomultiplier tube and spatial distortion
correction.

To ensure a high quality of images, quality control tests must be performed

routinely on these devices. The most common tests are the positioning of the
photopeak, field of view uniformity and background check, which must be
performed daily. The spatial resolution of the camera should be checked weekly.

This type of Anger gamma camera provide two dimensional images and that
is why it is also called planar camera. According to the type of metabolic
processes and the type of data recording we can distinguish two basal type of
collecting data.
 During static acquisition ofimages we can evaluate distribution of
radiopharmaceuticals in the organs, which does not change in time. To achieve
good information density of images, we must preset proper acquisition time
according to registered count rate or we must preset needed number of collected
counts. Except acquiring images with the same size and shape as detector has we
can also acquire a so called whole body images. In this type of data collection
patient on the examining table passes under or over the detector and the image of
radioactivity distribution in the whole body can be obtained. The velocity of the
patient movement is again done by the registered count rate to ensure good image
information density. Since radioactivity distribution does not change significantly,
we can collect data for a longer time period and thus high resolution collimator
should be used.

The second type of collecting data, during which we can evaluate differently
fast metabolic or functioning processes in the body (blood flow), is called dynamic
study. According to velocity of assessing processes we must preset number of
images (frames) and duration of one image. Because distribution of
radiopharmaceuticals changes rapidly and duration of one frame acquisition is
limited (up to split second), high sensitivity collimators should be used to achieve
sufficient image information density.

A special kind of collecting data is gated or synchronized method. It is used

for acquiring a periodical organ activity, such as heart mechanical function. In this
example ECG signal is used for synchonization and by this way to collect data
with very high temporal resolution is possible. In principle, computer divides each
R to R interval into several intervals, for example twenty. Each interval has its own
number, in this example from one to twenty, is presented as a frame in the
computer memory and its duration is of tens miliseconds. After R interval
detection by computer, data are stored into the frame number one, after the time of
one frame duration is over data are stored into frame number two and so forth till
the further R wave is detected. From this point all the process is repeated and by
this way several hundreds heart cycles are summed into one, so image information
density is sufficient for further processing.
 On planar images, the third dimension of displayed objects is obscured by
superimposition of data. Therefore tomographic devices have been developed.
Primarily, so called longitudinal tomography was used, which display sharply only
one slice parallel to the face of detector. The images was not of good quality and
thus nowadays only transversal tomography is used. In this technique multiple
views are obtained at many agles around the long axis of the patient and images in
the slices perpendicular to the detector face, transversal slices (each element of this
slice is in the form of cube in the computer memory and is called voxel), are
constructed by the computer. Since in nuclear medicine the source of radioactivity
is in the patient body, and the gamma photons or x rays are emitted from it, we
talk about emission computed tomography (ECT). This technique improves images
quality and by this way physician interpretation by means of a better contrast
between target organ and background, better topography of pathological sites and
higher detection efficiency of pathological lesions, which is done by better spatial
resolution predominantly.

According to the type of radionuclide used we can distinguish two types of

ECT. Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), which uses gamma
emitting radionuclides (most of today used) and positron emission tomography
(PET), which uses positron emitting radionuclides.

The SPECT cameras have in principle the same detector as planar cameras
have, but the gantry makes possible to rotate the detector around the patient. The
minimal angle of rotation is 180 degrees at small angle incremets. The path around
the patient can be circular or eliptical and current cameras have the possibility of
so-called body contouring pathway to minimize the distance between detector
forhead and patient body surface. The data are stored in the computer for further
processing and image reconstruction in the form of slices in three perpendicullar
planes of transverse, coronal (frontal) and sagittal direction. There are different
designs of SPECT cameras with one, two or three detectors. SPECT image is a
type of static image, so sufficient image information density must be achieved.
That is why about 20 to 30 minutes of time is needed to collect sufficient data. We
must preset angle of rotation, angular step and time for one frame acquisition
according to count rate detected.
 There are several mathematical algorithms to reconstruct images from
acquired data. The most frequently used is so called filtered back projection.
Filters are mathematical functions, which increase image quality and suppress
artefacts. Various types of filters are commercially available in the form of
software packages. Another methods for image reconstruction are Fourier
transform or iterative methods.

PET is based on the detection of coincidence of the two annihilation gamma

photons that are emitted after interaction of positron with electron in the patient
body. These two photons, which arise at the same time, have the same energy of
511 keV and are emitted in the angle of 180 degrees, are detected by the two
detectors connected in coincidence. Data collected around the body axis are then
used for image reconstruction.

In current PET systems, many detectors (hundreds to thousands) are

arranged in circular rings. The number of rings can be up to sixteen and are
arranged in arrays. Each detector is connected to the opposite detector in the same
ring by a coincidence circuit. The field of view is defined by the width of the array
of detectors. For this device no collimator is needed. Data are collected in the
computer in the frame mode. Image reconstruction is accomplished by the same
method as in the SPECT does.