Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Mechanics
Hydrostatics
Hydrostatics
Hydrostatics

Hydrodynamics
Hydrodynamics
Idealfluids
Ideal fluids
Viscousfluids
Viscous fluids

Surface tension
Surface tension

Definitions of fluids
• Aggregate of matter in which the molecules
are able to flow past each other without
limit, and without the formation of fracture
planes.

• Any substance such as a gas, liquid or

powder which flows. It differs from a solid
in that it can offer no permanent resistance
to change of shape.
 Fluids vs. Solids
• Solid:

Strain is a function of the applied stress
(elastic region).

Strain is independent of time over which the
force is applied.

Deformation disappears when force is
removed.

• Fluid:

Rate of strain is proportional to applied stress.

Fluid flows as long as force is applied.

Fluid will not recover original shape when
force is removed.

Summary: Forces in fluids

• Fluids do not sustain shearing stresses or
tensile stresses.
• The only stress that can be exerted on an
object submerged in a static fluid is one that
tends to compress the object from all sides.
• The force exerted by a static fluid on an
object is always perpendicular to the surfaces
of the object.
In fluids, we usually deal with continuous streams
of fluid without a beginning or end.

ποταμοῖσι τοῖσιν αὐτοῖσιν ἐμ̙αίνουσιν,

ἕτερα καὶ ἕτερα ὕδατα ἐπιρρεῖ.

Potamoisi toisin autoisin embainousin,

hetera kai hetera hudata epirrei

"Ever-newer waters flow on those who

step into the same rivers."
Heraclitus

Hydrostatics
 Learning Goals for Hydrostatics
• Understand concepts of density and pressure
and how to calculate these quantities
• Know how pressure varies with depth and
how to solve problems involving this concept
• Be able to state Pascal’s Law
• Apply Pascal’s Law in the solution of
problems
• Understand how pressure measurements are
made and be able to apply these
• Understand the Archimedean principle
• Be able to use the Archimedean principle to
solve problems relating to buoyancy

Survey of topics
• Density and pressure.

• Variation of pressure with depth.

• Pascal’s law.

• Various pressure measurements.

• The Archimedean principle.

 About density

Density table

Nuclear density 1017 kg/m3

• The values of density for a substance vary slightly with

temperature since volume is temperature dependent.
• The various densities indicate the average molecular spacing
in a gas is much greater than that in a solid or liquid.
 Example: Density of solution
What is the density of a solution made by mixing 0.6 kg of brine
(ρbrine=1200 kg/m3) and 0.4 kg of water (ρwater = 1000 kg/m3)?

Solution:

About pressure

F
P≡
A
 Some remarks
• In a stationary fluid, the
pressure is exerted equally
in all directions and is
referred to as the static
pressure.

• The force due to the fluid

pressure always acts on a
plane at right angle to the
surface.

Pressure vs. Force vs. Stress

• Pressure is a scalar.

• The force from the fluid is

a vector.

• For non-ideal fluids, it is

possible to create shear
stress on the solid, which is
described by a stress
tensor.
 Measuring Pressure (Simple method)

Example: Pressure in car tires.

The weight of a car of mass 1200 kg is supported equally by its four
tires, and a gauge records a pressure of 2·105 N/m2 per tire. What is
the area of contact of each tire with the ground?
Solution:
 Variation of pressure with depth

• Fluids have pressure that varies with depth.

• If a fluid is at rest in a container, all portions
of the fluid must be in static equilibrium.
• All points at the same depth must be at the
same pressure.
– Otherwise, the fluid would not be in equilibrium.
– This is independent of the shape of the container.

Pressure and depth

• The liquid has a density of ρ.
– Assume the density is the same
throughout the fluid.
– This means it is an
incompressible liquid.
• Examine the darker region, a
sample of liquid within a
cylinder.
– It has a cross-sectional area A.
– Extends from depth d to d + h
below the surface.
 Pressure and depth, cont.

• Three forces act on the

region:
– Downward force on the top,
P0 A
– Upward on the bottom, PA
– Gravity acting downward,
Mg

•The mass can be found from

the density:
M = ρ V = ρ A h.

Pressure and depth, final

 Pressure at the same level
“Pressures at the same level will be equal in a
continuous body of fluid”.

Atmospheric pressure

• If the liquid is open to the atmosphere, and P0

is the pressure at the surface of the liquid, then
P0 is atmospheric pressure.
• P0 = 1.00 atm = 1.013 ·105 Pa
 Example: Diving bell.
If the atmospheric pressure at the surface of the
sea is P0 = 105 N/m2, what is the pressure inside
a diving bell (which is like an inverted jar) when
the level of the water in it is 6 m below the
surface of the sea? (ρsea = 1030 kg/m3)
Solution:

Pascal’s law
• The pressure in a fluid depends on depth and on
the value of P0.
• An increase in pressure at the surface must be
transmitted to every other point in the fluid.
• This is the basis of Pascal’s law.
– Named for French scientist Blaise Pascal.
• Pascal’s Law states a change in the pressure
applied to a fluid is transmitted undiminished to
every point of the fluid and to the walls of the
container.
Example: hydraulic press

Hydraulic press, cont

 Example: Hydraulic press.
The area of the pistons in a hydraulic press are A2 = 8·10-3 m2 and A1 =
2·10-4 m2. The larger piston has to apply a force of F2 = 2400 N. What is
the pressure of the oil inside the press, and what force must be
applied to the smaller piston to make it work, assuming that the
efficiency as a machine is 100%?
Solution:

Pascal’s law, other applications

Hydraulic jack
Forklift

Hydraulic brakes
 Pressure measurements: barometer
• Invented by Torricelli.
• A long closed tube is filled
with mercury and inverted
in a dish of mercury.
– The closed end is nearly a
vacuum.
• Measures atmospheric
pressure as Po = ρHg g h
• 1 atm = 1.013 ·105 Pa
= 0.760 m (of Hg)

Pressure measurements: manometer

• A device for measuring the
pressure of a gas contained in a
vessel.
• One end of the U-shaped tube is
open to the atmosphere.
• The other end is connected to the
pressure to be measured.
• Pressure P at B is the same as at
A, which is P = Po+ρgh
• The height h can be calibrated to
measure the pressure P.
 Absolute vs. Gauge pressure
• P = P0 + ρ g h
• P is the absolute pressure.
• The gauge pressure is P – P0.
– This is also ρ g h. It can be measured by stating the vertical height of a fluid
of density ρ.
– The reference pressure P0 is often taken as atmospheric pressure.
– This is what you measure in your tires.
•The lower limit of pressure is zero. This is the pressure of a perfect vacuum.

For most practical applications:

Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure

Pabsolute = ρ g h + Patmospheric

Archimedes
• c. 287 – 212 BC
• Perhaps the greatest scientist of
antiquity
• Greek mathematician, physicist and
engineer
• Computed ratio of circle’s
circumference to diameter (i.e. π).
• Calculated volumes and surface
areas of various shapes
• Discovered nature of buoyant force
• Inventor
– Catapults, levers, screws, etc.
 Buoyant Force (upthrust)
• The buoyant force (upthrust) is the upward
force exerted by a fluid on any immersed object.

• Let us consider a parcel of fluid immersed into

the same fluid, which is obviously in
equilibrium:
– There must be an upward force to balance the
downward gravitational force.
– The magnitude of the upward (buoyant) force must
equal (in magnitude) the downward gravitational
force.

• Thus: The buoyant force (upthrust) is the

resultant force due to all forces applied by the
fluid surrounding a given parcel of fluid.

• And: A parcel of the same volume, but of a

different material, will be subject to the same
buoyant forces like the given parcel of fluid.

Archimedean principle (slogan)

“The upthrust is equal to the weight of the

liquid displaced.”
Archimedean principle (more scientific)

• The magnitude of the buoyant force (upthrust)

always equals the weight of the fluid displaced by
the object.
– This is called the Archimedean Principle.
• The Archimedean Principle does not refer to the
makeup of the object experiencing the buoyant
force.
– The object’s composition is not a factor since the
buoyant force is exerted by the surrounding fluid.

Archimedean principle (quantitatively)

• The pressure Pbot at the bottom of the
cube is greater than the pressure Ptop
at the top of the cube.
• The pressure at the top of the cube
causes a downward force of Ptop A.
• The pressure at the bottom of the
cube causes an upward force of Pbot A.
• B = (Pbot – Ptop) A = (ρfluid g h) A
• B = ρfluid g Vdisp
– Vdisp = A h is the volume of the fluid
displaced by the cube.
•B=Mg
– Mg is the weight of the fluid displaced by the
cube.
 Totally submerged objects (theory)
• An object is totally submerged in a fluid of density ρfluid.
• The volume Vdisp of the fluid displaced is equal to the
volume of the object, Vobj.

• Forces:
– The upward buoyant force (upthrust) is
B = ρfluid g Vobject

– The downward gravitational force is

Fg = Mg = = ρobj g Vobj

–The net force is B - Fg = (ρfluid – ρobj) g Vobj

Totally submerged objects (discussion)

• If the density of the object is less
than the density of the fluid, the
unsupported object accelerates
upward.
• If the density of the object is more
than the density of the fluid, the
unsupported object sinks.
• If the density of the submerged
object equals the density of the fluid,
the object remains in equilibrium.
• The direction of the motion of an
object in a fluid is determined only
by the densities of the fluid and the
object.
 Example: Solid immersed in two liquids
A beaker contains two liquids which do not mix, densities ρ1=900
kg/m3 and ρ2=1200 kg/m3. What is the density of a solid, which floats
with 80 % of its volume in the liquid of higher density, and 20 % in the
other liquid?

Solution:

Apparent weight
 Example: Crown problem
(general)

Example: Crown problem

(general)

• Archimedes was (supposedly) asked, “Is the crown

made of pure gold?”
• Crown’s weight in air = 7.84 N
• Weight in water (submerged) = 6.84 N
• Buoyant force will equal the apparent weight loss
– Difference in scale readings will be the buoyant force
• Categorize the crown as a particle in equilibrium.
 Discussion of crown problem
• ΣF = B + T2 – Fg = 0
(equilibrium)
• B = Fg – T2
(Upthrust = Weight in air –
apparent “weight” in water)
• Archimedean principle says
B = ρwatergV
• Find V
• Then to find the material of
the crown:
ρcrown = Fg/(gV)

Example: Apparent weight.

A piece of copper, mass m = 3.6 kg and density ρcopper = 9000 kg/m3 is
suspended from a spring balance. What is the reading of the balance
(in N) (a) with copper in air, (b) with copper in water (ρwater = 1000
kg/m3), (c) with copper in brine (ρbrine = 1200 kg/m3), and (d) what is
the density of a liquid in which it gives a reading of 33 N?
Solution (a):
 Example: Apparent weight.
A piece of copper, mass m = 3.6 kg and density ρcopper = 9000 kg/m3 is
suspended from a spring balance. What is the reading of the balance
(in N) (a) with copper in air, (b) with copper in water (ρwater = 1000
kg/m3), (c) with copper in brine (ρbrine = 1200 kg/m3), and (d) what is
the density of a liquid in which it gives a reading of 33 N?
Solution (b):

Example: Apparent weight.

A piece of copper, mass m = 3.6 kg and density ρcopper = 9000 kg/m3 is
suspended from a spring balance. What is the reading of the balance
(in N) (a) with copper in air, (b) with copper in water (ρwater = 1000
kg/m3), (c) with copper in brine (ρbrine = 1200 kg/m3), and (d) what is
the density of a liquid in which it gives a reading of 33 N?
Solution (c):
 Example: Apparent weight.
A piece of copper, mass m = 3.6 kg and density ρcopper = 9000 kg/m3 is
suspended from a spring balance. What is the reading of the balance
(in N) (a) with copper in air, (b) with copper in water (ρwater = 1000
kg/m3), (c) with copper in brine (ρbrine = 1200 kg/m3), and (d) what is
the density of a liquid in which it gives a reading of 33 N?
Solution (d):

Floating objects (general)

• The density of the object is less than the density of

the fluid.
• The object is in static equilibrium.
• The object is only partially submerged.
• The upward buoyant force is balanced by the
downward force of gravity.
• Volume of the fluid displaced corresponds to the
volume of the object beneath the fluid level.
 Floating objects (theory)

Example: Iceberg
• Question: What fraction of the
iceberg is below water?

• Answer:

– The iceberg is only partially

submerged.

– Therefore Vdisp / Vice = ρice / ρseawater

applies.

After filling in data for the densities

of ice and water , it turn out that
about 89% of the ice is below the
water’s surface.
 Example: Car on a ferry.
The water-line cross sectional area of a car ferry is A = 40 m2. How
much lower does it float when a vehicle of mass m = 1200 kg drives
on? (ρsea = 1030 kg/m3)

Solution:

Example: A swimmer.
An man of mass m = 80 kg floats with 4 % of his volume above the
surface in fresh water. (a) What is his volume Vbody? (b) What
percentage of his volume would be above surface in sea water?
(ρwater = 1000 kg/m3, ρsea = 1030 kg/m3)
Solution (a):
 Example: A swimmer.
An man of mass m = 80 kg floats with 4 % of his volume above the
surface in fresh water. (a) What is his volume Vbody? (b) What
percentage of his volume would be above surface in sea water?
(ρwater = 1000 kg/m3, ρsea = 1030 kg/m3)
Solution (b):

End of Hydrostatics!