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PARTICLE REINFORCED COMPOSITES &

FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITES

CHEM-347
Department of Chemistry, UOG
Structure of Composites: 2
Structure of a composite material determines its properties to a significant extent.

Structure factors affecting properties of composites are as follows:

 Bonding strength on the interface between the dispersed phase and matrix;
 Shape of the dispersed phase inclusions (particles, flakes, fibers, laminates);
 Orientation of the dispersed phase inclusions (random or preferred).

Interfacial bonding

Good bonding (adhesion) between matrix phase and dispersed phase provides
transfer of load, applied to the material to the dispersed phase via the interface.
Adhesion is necessary for achieving high level of mechanical properties of the
composite.
There are three forms of interface between the two phases:
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 Direct bonding with no intermediate layer. In this case adhesion (”wetting”) is
provided by either covalent bonding or van der Waals force.

 Intermediate layer in form of solid solution of the matrix and dispersed phases
constituents.

 Intermediate layer (interphase) in form of a third bonding phase (adhesive).

Particle Reinforced Composites:
Particulate Composites consist of a matrix reinforced with a dispersed phase in form of particles. 4
Effect of the dispersed particles on the composite properties depends on the particles dimensions.
The dispersed phase for particle-reinforced composites is equiaxed (i.e., particle dimensions are
approximately the same in all directions).

The two sub-classifications of particle-reinforced composites are:

a) Large-particle composites
b) Dispersion-strengthened composites
The distinction between these is based upon reinforcement or strengthening mechanism.

a) Large Particle Composites

 The term “large” is used to indicate that particle–matrix interactions cannot be treated on the atomic
or molecular level; rather, continuum mechanics is used.
 For most of these composites, the particulate phase is harder and stiffer than the matrix.
 These reinforcing particles tend to restrain movement of the matrix phase in the vicinity of each
particle.
 In essence, the matrix transfers some of the applied stress to the particles, which bear a fraction of
the load.
 The degree of reinforcement or improvement of mechanical behavior depends on strong bonding
at the matrix–particle interface.
 Some polymeric materials to which fillers have been added are really large-
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particle composites. Again, the fillers modify or improve the properties of the
material and/or replace some of the polymer volume with a less expensive
material—the filler.
 Another familiar large-particle composite is concrete, which is composed of
cement (the matrix), and sand and gravel (the particulates).

 Particles can have quite a variety of geometries, but they should be of

approximately the same dimension in all directions (equiaxed).

 For effective reinforcement, the particles should be small and evenly distributed
throughout the matrix.

 Furthermore, the volume fraction of the two phases influences the behavior;
mechanical properties are enhanced with increasing particulate content.
Large-particle composites are utilized with all three material types (metals, 6
polymers, and ceramics).

Cermets
The cermets are examples of ceramic–metal composites.
The most common cermet is the cemented carbide, which is composed of
extremely hard particles of a refractory carbide ceramic such as tungsten carbide
(WC) or titanium carbide (TiC), embedded in a matrix of a metal such as cobalt or
nickel.
These composites are utilized extensively as cutting tools for hardened steels.
The hard carbide particles provide the cutting surface but, being extremely brittle,
are not themselves capable of withstanding the cutting stresses.
Toughness is enhanced by their inclusion in the ductile metal matrix, which isolates
the carbide particles from one another and prevents particle-to-particle crack
propagation.
Both matrix and particulate phases are quite refractory, to withstand the high
temperatures generated by the cutting action on materials that are extremely
hard.
 Both elastomers and plastics are frequently reinforced with various particulate materials.
 Our use of many of the modern rubbers would be severely restricted without reinforcing particulate
materials such as carbon black.
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 Carbon black consists of very small and essentially spherical particles of carbon, produced by the
combustion of natural gas or oil in an atmosphere that has only a limited air supply.
 When added to vulcanized rubber, this extremely inexpensive material enhances tensile strength,
toughness, and tear and abrasion resistance.
 Automobile tires contain on the order of 15 to 30 vol% of carbon black.
 For the carbon black to provide significant reinforcement, the particle size must be extremely
small, with diameters between 20 and 50 nm; also, the particles must be evenly distributed
throughout the rubber and must form a strong adhesive bond with the rubber matrix.
 Particle reinforcement using other materials (e.g., silica) is much less effective because this special
interaction between the rubber molecules and particle surfaces does not exist.
 Figure 16.5 is an electron micrograph of a carbon black-reinforced rubber.
Concrete:
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 Concrete is a common large-particle composite in which both matrix and dispersed
phases are ceramic materials.

 Since the terms “concrete” and “cement” are sometimes incorrectly interchanged,
perhaps it is appropriate to make a distinction between them.

 In a broad sense, concrete implies a composite material consisting of an aggregate

of particles that are bound together in a solid body by some type of binding
medium, that is, a cement.

 The two most familiar concretes are those made with portland and asphaltic
cements, where the aggregate is gravel and sand.

 Asphaltic concrete is widely used primarily as a paving material, whereas portland

cement concrete is employed extensively as a structural building material.
b) Dispersion-strengthened composites: 9
 For dispersion-strengthened composites, particles are normally much smaller,
with diameters between 0.01 and 0.1 m (10 and 100 nm).
 Particle–matrix interactions that lead to strengthening occur on the atomic or
molecular level.
 The mechanism of strengthening is similar to that for precipitation hardening.
 Whereas the matrix bears the major portion of an applied load, the small
dispersed particles hinder or impede the motion of dislocations.
 Thus, plastic deformation is restricted such that yield and tensile strengths, as
well as hardness, improve.
 Metals and metal alloys may be strengthened and hardened by the uniform
dispersion of several volume percent of fine particles of a very hard and inert
material.
 The dispersed phase may be metallic or nonmetallic; oxide materials are often
used.
 Again, the strengthening mechanism involves interactions between the
particles and dislocations within the matrix, as with precipitation hardening.
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 The dispersion strengthening effect is not as pronounced as with precipitation
hardening; however, the strengthening is retained at elevated temperatures
and for extended time periods because the dispersed particles are chosen to
be unreactive with the matrix phase.
 For precipitation-hardened alloys, the increase in strength may disappear upon
heat treatment as a consequence of precipitate growth or dissolution of the
precipitate phase.
 The high-temperature strength of nickel alloys may be enhanced significantly
by the addition of about 3 vol% of thoria (ThO2) as finely dispersed particles; this
material is known as thoria-dispersed (or TD) nickel.
 The same effect is produced in the aluminum–aluminum oxide system.
 A very thin and adherent alumina coating is caused to form on the surface of
extremely small (0.1 to 0.2 m thick) flakes of aluminum, which are dispersed
within an aluminum metal matrix; this material is termed sintered aluminum
powder (SAP).
Fiber Reinforced Composites: 11
 Dispersed phase in form of fibers (Fibrous Composites) improves strength, stiffness
and Fracture Toughness of the material, impeding crack growth in the directions
normal to the fiber.
 Effect of the strength increase becomes much more significant when the fibers
are arranged in a particular direction (preferred orientation) and a stress is
applied along the same direction.
 The strengthening effect is higher in long-fiber (continuous-fiber) reinforced
composites than in short-fiber (discontinuous-fiber) reinforced composites.
 Short-fiber reinforced composites, consisting of a matrix reinforced with a
dispersed phase in form discontinuous fibers (length < 100*diameter), has a limited
ability to share load.
 Load, applied to a long-fiber reinforced composite, is carried mostly by the
dispersed phase - fibers. Matrix in such materials serves only as a binder of the
fibers keeping them in a desired shape and protecting them from mechanical or
chemical damages.
Technologically, the most important composites are those in which the dispersed 12
phase is in the form of a fiber.
Design goals of fiber-reinforced composites often include high strength and/or
stiffness on a weight basis.

These characteristics are expressed in terms of specific strength and specific

modulus parameters, which correspond, respectively, to the ratios of tensile
strength to specific gravity and modulus of elasticity to specific gravity.

Fiber-reinforced composites with exceptionally high specific strengths and moduli

have been produced that utilize low-density fiber and matrix materials.
Fiber-reinforced composites are sub-classified by fiber length.
For short fiber, the fibers are too short to produce a significant improvement in
strength.
Influence of fiber length:
The mechanical characteristics of a fiber-reinforced composite depend not only on the properties of
the fiber, but also on the degree to which an applied load is transmitted to the fibers by the matrix
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phase.
Important to the extent of this load transmittance is the magnitude of the interfacial bond between
the fiber and matrix phases.
Under an applied stress, this fiber–matrix bond ceases at the fiber ends, yielding a matrix deformation
pattern as shown schematically in Figure 16.6;

In other words, there is no load transmittance from the matrix at each fiber extremity.
Some critical fiber length is necessary for effective strengthening and stiffening of the composite material. This
critical length lc is dependent on the fiber diameter d and its ultimate (or tensile) strength σf* and on the fiber–matrix
bond strength τc (or the shear yield strength of the matrix, whichever is smaller) according to:
Critical fiber length—dependence on: Fiber strength and diameter, Fiber-matrix bond Strength/matrix shear ield
strength.
For a number of glass and carbon fiber–matrix combinations, this critical length is on the order of 1 mm, which
ranges between 20 and 150 times the fiber diameter.
To affect a significant improvement in strength of the composite, the fibers must be continuous.
Influence of fiber orientation and concentration:
The arrangement or orientation of the fibers relative to one another, the fiber
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concentration, and the distribution all have a significant influence on the strength and
other properties of fiber-reinforced composites.
With respect to orientation, two extremes are possible:
(1) a parallel alignment of the longitudinal axis of the fibers in a single direction,
(2) a totally random alignment.
Continuous fibers are normally aligned (Figure a), whereas discontinuous fibers may be
aligned (Figure b), randomly oriented (Figure c), or partially oriented.
Better overall composite properties are realized when the fiber distribution is uniform.
 Applications involving totally multidirectional applied stresses normally use
discontinuous fibers, which are randomly oriented in the matrix material. 15

 Consideration of orientation and fiber length for a particular composite will

depend on:
I. The level of the applied stress
II. The nature of the applied stress
III. Fabrication cost.

 Production rates for short-fiber composites (both aligned and randomly

oriented) are rapid, and intricate shapes can be formed that are not possible
with continuous fiber reinforcement.

 Furthermore, fabrication costs are considerably lower than for continuous and
aligned; fabrication techniques applied to short-fiber composite materials
include compression, injection, and extrusion molding.
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Processing of Fiber Reinforced

Composites
To fabricate continuous fiber-reinforced plastics that meet design specifications, the fibers should be
uniformly distributed within the plastic matrix and, in most instances, all oriented in virtually the same
direction. 17
Pultrusion
Pultrusion is used for the manufacture of components having continuous lengths and a constant cross-
sectional shape (i.e., rods, tubes, beams, etc.).With this technique, illustrated schematically in Figure

continuous fiber rovings, or tows, are first impregnated with a thermosetting resin; these are then pulled
through a steel die that preforms to the desired shape and also establishes the resin/fiber ratio.
The stock then passes through a curing die that is precision machined so as to impart the final shape;
this die is also heated to initiate curing of the resin matrix. A pulling device draws the stock through the
dies and also determines the production speed.
 Tubes and hollow sections are made possible by using center mandrels or 18
inserted hollow cores.

 Principal reinforcements are glass, carbon, and aramid fibers, normally added
in concentrations between 40 and 70 vol%.

 Commonly used matrix materials include polyesters, vinyl esters, and epoxy
resins.

 Pultrusion is a continuous process that is easily automated; production rates are

relatively high, making it very cost effective.

 Furthermore, a wide variety of shapes are possible, and there is really no

practical limit to the length of stock that may be manufactured.
Prepreg Production Processes 19
Prepreg is the composite industry’s term for continuous fiber reinforcement preimpregnated
with a polymer resin that is only partially cured.
This material is delivered in tape form to the manufacturer, who then directly molds and fully
cures the product without having to add any resin.
It is probably the composite material form most widely used for structural applications.
The prepregging process, represented schematically for thermoset polymers in Figure, begins
by collimating a series of spool-wound continuous fiber tows.
 These tows are then sandwiched and pressed between sheets of release and carrier
paper using heated rollers, a process termed “calendering.”
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 The release paper sheet has been coated with a thin film of heated resin solution of
relatively low viscosity so as to provide for its thorough impregnation of the fibers.
 A “doctor blade” spreads the resin into a film of uniform thickness and width.
 The final prepreg product—the thin tape consisting of continuous and aligned fibers
embedded in a partially cured resin—is prepared for packaging by winding onto a
cardboard core.
 As shown in Figure 16.14, the release paper sheet is removed as the impregnated
tape is spooled.
 Typical tape thicknesses range between 0.08 and 0.25 mm tape widths range
between 25 and 1525 mm (1 and 60 in.), whereas resin content usually lies between
about 35 and 45 vol%.
 At room temperature the thermoset matrix undergoes curing reactions; therefore,
the prepreg is stored at or lower.
 Also, the time in use at room temperature (or “out-time”) must be minimized. If
properly handled, thermoset prepregs have a lifetime of at least six months and
usually longer.
 Both thermoplastic and thermosetting resins are utilized; carbon, glass, and aramid
fibers are the common reinforcements.
 Actual fabrication begins with the “lay-up”—laying of the prepreg tape onto a 21
tooled surface.
 Normally a number of plies are laid up (after removal from the carrier backing
paper) to provide the desired thickness.
 The lay-up arrangement may be unidirectional, but more often the fiber
orientation is alternated to produce a cross-ply or angle-ply laminate. Final
curing is accomplished by the simultaneous application of heat and pressure.
 The lay-up procedure may be carried out entirely by hand (hand lay-up),
wherein the operator both cuts the lengths of tape and then positions them in
the desired orientation on the tooled surface. Alternately, tape patterns may be
machine cut, then hand laid.
 Fabrication costs can be further reduced by automation of prepreg lay-up and
other manufacturing procedures (e.g., filament winding, as discussed below),
which virtually eliminates the need for hand labor.
 These automated methods are essential for many applications of composite
materials to be cost effective.
Filament Winding
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Filament winding is a process by which continuous reinforcing fibers are accurately
positioned in a predetermined pattern to form a hollow (usually cylindrical) shape.
The fibers, either as individual strands or as tows, are first fed through a resin bath and then
are continuously wound onto a mandrel, usually using automated winding equipment
(Figure).
 After the appropriate number of layers have been applied, curing is carried out 23
either in an oven or at room temperature, after which the mandrel is removed.
 As an alternative, narrow and thin prepregs (i.e., tow pregs) 10 mm or less in
width may be filament wound.
 Various winding patterns are possible (i.e., circumferential, helical, and polar) to
give the desired mechanical characteristics.
 Filament-wound parts have very high strength-to-weight ratios. Also, a high
degree of control over winding uniformity and orientation is afforded with this
technique.
 Furthermore, when automated, the process is most economically attractive.
 Common filament-wound structures include rocket motor casings, storage tanks
and pipes, and pressure vessels.
 Manufacturing techniques are now being used to produce a wide variety of
structural shapes that are not necessarily limited to surfaces of revolution (e.g., I-
beams).
 This technology is advancing very rapidly because it is very cost effective.
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References:
Callister Jr W.D. - Materials science and engineering_ An introduction-
Wiley (2007)
Deborah D.L. Chung (auth.) - Composite Materials_ Science and
Applications-Springer-Verlag London (2010)
(http://www.substech.com/dokuwiki/doku.php?id=structure_of_comp
osites) 16-0-20 9:00pm