Chapter 11

Chapter 11: Techniques of Antidifferentiation

The focus of the next six chapters is calculus. We will consider three approaches that are differ-
ent but interconnected: antidifferentiation, integration and the solving of differential equations.

(A) Antidifferentiation and Integration

Antidifferentiation is the process of finding antiderivatives of functions. The notation  f  x  dx

is used to represent the general antiderivative of a function f , and called this an indefinite in-
tegral.

Indefinite integrals that we already know include

r 1 r+1
For all r  – 1 ,  x dx = ----------- x +c
r+1

1
 --x- dx = ln x + c

kx 1 kx
e dx = --- e + c
k

1
 sin  kx  dx = – --- cos  kx  + c
k

1
 cos  kx  dx = --- sin  kx  + c
k

2 1
 sec  kx  dx = --- tan  kx  + c
k

Integration is the process of finding integrals of functions. If a function is expressed as

y = f  x  , the integral of f is a sum of signed areas between the curve y = f  x  and the x axis.
b
The notation  f  t  dt is used to refer to the integral of f from t = a to t = b , and we call this
a
a definite integral.
Often, we find integrals by antidifferentiation.
We can do this because of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus:
If f is continuous on  a b  and if F is any antiderivative of f then
b
a f  x  dx = F b – F a

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 Chapter 11

This theorem links differential calculus (i.e. rules about derivatives and antiderivatives) with in-
tegral calculus (rules about adding up areas, volumes and so on).

Example 1
5
2 2
Find  x dx and evaluate 0 x dx

Solution
3
2 x
 x dx = ----3- + c
and
5 3 5 3
2 x 5 125
0 x dx = ----3- 0
= ----- – 0 = ---------
3 3

Note: Don’t forget to include the arbitrary constant when finding indefinite integrals!

In Chapters 11 and 12, we will study techniques for antidifferentiation that all aim to simplify
expressions for integrals by rewriting them in terms of integrals that we already know. Then, in
Chapter 13, we will study an application of these techniques.

Many of the integrals that are of interest to scientists and engineers, however, involve functions
for which we do not have a nice formula for the antiderivative. Thus, these integrals cannot be
found by antidifferentiation. In Chapter 14, we will study methods that approximate the values
of definite integrals.

(B) Substitution with the derivative present

When solving trigonometric equations and inequalities, often we find it useful to simplify the
question by making a substitution that changes the variable. We then solve this simpler trigono-
metric question, and at the end return to the original variable to express our answer. We now
will find integrals by applying a similar idea.

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 Chapter 11

If we wish to find an integral,  h  x  dx , say, that is not in our table of integrals, then sometimes
it is possible to find a substitution u as some function of x for which we may rewrite
du
h  x  = g  u   ------
dx
with the result that
du-
 h  x  dx =  g  u  -----
dx
dx =  g  u  du .
The aim of this change of variable is to express the integral in terms of integrals that we already
know. Once we have integrated (by antidifferentiating g  u  with respect to u ), we convert our
answer back to the original variable x .

du
Because we must be able to write h  x  so that the derivative ------ of our substitution u appears
dx
as a term in our product, we refer to this technique for antidifferentiation as a substitution with
the derivative present. You may also find it referred to as u-substitution or substitution with
u.

Example 2
3 12 2
Find   1 + x  3x dx

Solution
3 du 2 2
If we let u = 1 + x then ------ = 3x or du = 3x dx .
dx
Therefore,
13
3 12 2 12 u------- 1 3 13
  1 + x  3x d x =  u d u =
13
+ c = ------  1 + x  + c .
13

Example 3
x+1
Find  ---------------------------------
- dx
2 2
 x + 2x + 4 

Solution
2 du 1
If we let u = x + 2x + 4 then ------ = 2x + 2 or --- du =  x + 1 dx .
dx 2
Therefore,
x+1 1 1 1 –1 1
 ---------------------------------
2
- dx = ---  ----2- du = – --- u + c = – ----------------------------------
2 2 u 2 2  x
2
+ 2x + 4
-+c

 x + 2x + 4 

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 Chapter 11

du
In Example 3, we constructed the derivative ------ of our substitution u by using
dx

Rule 1: For any constant k and for any integrable function f , we have

 kf  x  dx = k  f  x  dx .

Another useful rule for integration is

Rule 2: For any integrable functions f and g , we have

 f  x  + g  x  dx =  f  x  dx +  g  x  dx .

These rules can be established from the corresponding rules for differentiation.

Example 4
sin x
Find  cos xe + tan x dx

Solution
We have
sin x sin x
sin x
 cos xe + tan x dx =  cos xe
dx +  ----------- dx
cos x
du
For the first integral on the right hand side we let u = sin x so that ------ = cos x , or
dx
du = cos xdx , while for the second integral on the right hand side we let v = cos x so that
dv
------ = – sin x , or – dv = sin xdx .
dx
Therefore, sin x u dv
 cos xe + tan x dx =  e du –  ----v-
u sin x
= e – ln v + c = e – ln cos x + c

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 Chapter 11

Example 5
7
Use a substitution with the derivative present to find  3x  1 – x  dx

Solution
du
If we let u = 1 – x then ------ = – 1 , or dx = – du , and x = 1 – u .
dx
7 7
 3x  1 – x  dx = – 3   1 – u u du
8 9
u u
= – 3  u – u du = – 3  ----- – ----- + c
7 8
8 9
8 9
1 – x 1 – x
= – 3  ------------------- – ------------------- + c
8 9
3 8 1 9
= – ---  1 – x  + ---  1 – x  + c
8 3

Example 6
0
3 12 2
Evaluate – 1  1 + x  3x dx

Solution
3 du 2 2
As in Example 2, let u = 1 + x so that ------ = 3x , or du = 3x dx .
dx
Here, however, we have a definite integral. Since the terminals are x values, once we make our
change of variable from x to u , we must also change our terminals so that they become u val-
ues.
3 3
That is, when x = – 1 u = 1 +  – 1  = 0 , and when x = 0 u = 1 + 0 = 1 .
Therefore,
0 1 13 1 13
3 12 2 12 u - 1 1
–1  1 + x  3x dx = 0 u du = ------
13 0
= ------- – 0 = ------
13 13

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 Chapter 11

(C) Integration of powers of trigonometric functions

To integrate products of powers of sine and cosine, often we first use a substitution with a de-
rivative present that simplifies the integral.

m n
Part 1: Finding  sin  x cos  x  dx , where m and n are non-negative integers.

Example 7
2
Find  sin  x  cos  x  dx

Solution
du
If we let u = sin x then ------ = cos x , or du = cos xdx .
dx
Therefore,
3
2 2 u----- 1 3
 sin  x  cos  x  dx =  u du = 3 + c = --3- sin x + c

This technique may be extended to find indefinite integrals involving any non-negative integer
powers of sine and cosine, so long as at least one of these powers is odd.

If the power of cosine is odd, then it is helpful to

2 2
• use the trigonometric identity cos x = 1 – sin x to express all but one power of cosine in
terms of sine, so that
m n
 sin  x cos  x  dx =  f  sin x  cos x dx
du
• make the substitution u = sin x , for which ------ = cos x is present.
dx

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 Chapter 11

Example 8
3
Find  cos  x  dx

Solution
Here we have an odd power of cos x .
du
If we let u = sin x then ------ = cos x , or du = cos xdx .
dx
Therefore,

3 2
 cos  x  dx =  cos x cos x dx
2
=   1 – sin x  cos x dx
3
2 u
=   1 – u  du = u – ----3- + c
1 3
= sin x – --- sin x + c
3

Similarly, if the power of sine is odd then it is helpful to

2 2
• use the trigonometric identity sin x = 1 – cos x to express all but one power of sine in
terms of cosine, so that
m n
 sin  x cos  x  dx =  f  cos x  sin x dx
du
• make the substitution u = cos x , for which ------ = – sin x .
dx

If the powers of both sine and cosine are odd, then we can choose either of the methods.

If the powers of sine and cosine are both even, however, then it is not useful to make this type
of substitution. Instead, we simplify the integral by reducing the powers of the trigonometric
functions. Recall the following two double-angle formulas for cosine:
2 2
cos  2x  = 1 – 2sin x and cos  2x  = 2cos x – 1 .
These can be rearranged to give
2 1 2 1
sin x = ---  1 – cos  2x   and cos x = ---  1 + cos  2x   ,
2 2
the first of which can be used to reduce the power of sine terms, and the second of which can be
used to reduce the power of cosine terms.

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 Chapter 11

Example 9
2
Find  cos  x  dx

Solution
Here we have an even power of cos x .
Using the double-angle formula we have
2 1
 cos  x  dx = --2-   1 + cos 2x  dx
1 1 1 1
= ---  x + --- sin 2x + c = --- x + --- sin 2x + c
2 2 2 4

Example 10
2 x 4 x
Find  sin  --- cos  --- dx
 2  2

Solution
Here we have even powers of both sine and cosine.
Using the double-angle formulas we have
2 x 4 x 1--- 2
 1---  1 + cos x  dx
 sin  --2- cos  --2- dx = 2  1 – cos x 
2 
1 2
= ---   1 – cos x   1 + 2 cos x + cos x  dx
8
1 2 3
= ---  1 + cos x – cos x – cos x dx
8
Using results from Examples 8 and 9 we get
2 x 4 x 1 x 1 1 3
 sin  --2- cos  --2- dx = --8-  x + sin x –  --2- + --4- sin  2x  –  sin x – --3- sin x  + c
1 x 1 1 3
= ---  --- – --- sin  2x  + --- sin x + c

8 2 4 3 

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 Chapter 11

m n
Part 2: Finding  tan  x sec  x  dx , where m  N   0  and n  N .

Up to now we have considered integrals with non-negative powers of both sine and cosine.
These are the most common. It is possible, however, that one or both powers might not be pos-
itive. Here we consider the case where the power of cosine is negative. We write this in the form
above since
m –m–n m n
 sin xcos x dx =  tan xsec x dx .

If the power of secant is even, then it is helpful to

2 2
• use the trigonometric identity sec x = 1 + tan x to express all but two powers of secant in
terms of tangent, so that
m n 2
 tan xsec x dx =  f  tan x sec x dx
du 2
• make the substitution u = tan x , for which ------ = sec x is present.
dx

If the power of tangent is odd, then it is helpful to

2 2
• use the trigonometric identity tan x = sec x – 1 to express all but one power of tangent in
terms of secant, so that
m n
 tan xsec x dx =  f  sec x  sec x tan x dx
(remembering that the power of secant is at least one)
du
• make the substitution u = sec x , for which ------ = sec x tan x is present.
dx

The case of an odd power of secant and an even power of tangent is difficult and not examinable.
For further information on this case, consult the references cited at the end of the chapter.

Note: A case of no secant term, that is an integral of powers of tangent only, has been considered
in Example 4.

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 Chapter 11

Example 11
2 4
Find  tan  x sec  x  dx

Solution
Here we have an even power of sec x .
du 2 2
If we let u = tan x then ------ = sec x , or du = sec xdx .
dx
Therefore,

2 4 2 2 2 2 2 2
 tan  x sec  x  dx =  tan xsec xsec xdx =  tan x  1 + tan x sec x dx
2 2 2 4
= u  1 + u  du = u + u du
3 5
u u
= ----- + ----- + c
3 5
1 3 1 5
= --- tan x + --- tan x + c
3 5

Example 12
3
Find  tan  x sec  x  dx

Solution
Here we have an odd power of tan x .
du
If we let u = sec x then ------ = sec x tan x , or du = sec x tan xdx .
dx
Therefore,
3 2
 tan  x sec  x  dx =  sec x sec x tan x dx
2 1 3
= udu = --- u + c
3
1 3
= --- sec x + c
3

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 Chapter 11

Summary
The following table lists the various substitutions that have been considered within this section
on integrating powers of trigonometric functions.

u = sin x du This substitution is helpful if

------ = cos x
dx there is an odd power of cos x .

u = cos x du This substitution is helpful if

------ = – sin x
dx there is an odd power of sin x .

u = tan x du This substitution is helpful if

------ = sec 2 x
dx there is an even power of sec x .

u = sec x du This substitution is helpful if

------ = sec  x  tan  x 
dx there is an odd power of tan x .

Historical Note.
Many of the underlying ideas of calculus were developed by the ancient Greeks. In par-
ticular, the work of Archimedes was important in this respect. Interestingly, such ideas
did not gain momentum until subjected to rigourous treatment by many 16th and 17th
century mathematicians, including Fermat, Roverval, Cavalieri, Torricelli, and Barrow.
The research culminated in controversial fashion when both Newton and Leibniz
arrived independently at the calculus we use today. Newton described his work in a
manuscript he had written in Latin in 1671. However, at the time publishers had
become wary of mathematical work and an English translation didn’t appear until 1736.
Leibniz wrote a manuscript in 1675 using the popular notation  f  x  dx .
Newton and Leibniz corresponded over the issue in 1676, which resulted in Newton
worrying that his ideas were stolen by Leibniz, and Leibniz realising, with urgency, the
need to publish his ideas, which he did in 1684 and 1686.
In 1713 the Royal Society “impartially” decided (under the governance of Newton him-
self) that Newton was the inventor of calculus. Today both Newton and Leibniz are
credited with its invention.

References
• Calculus, J. Stewart (Brooks/Cole).
• Calculus and Analytic Geometry, G.B. Thomas and R.L. Finney (Addison-Wesley 1988).
• Calculus: Concepts and Contexts (Single Variable), J. Stewart (Brooks/Cole).
• The MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/
• The History of Mathematics: A Reader, edited by J. Fauvel and J. Gray (The Open Univer-
sity 1987).

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