The Kingdom Of Saudi Arabia

~ i n i s t Of
j Communications

Highway Design Manual

Volume I
Highway Development
This is the first of four volumes
comprising the Highway Design Manual

This manual is one of a series of manuals covering high-

way design and construction, construction materials,
highway and bridge maintenance, surveying and map-
ping, and uniform traffic control devices, prepared in
cooperative effort by the Ministry of Communications of
the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Federal Highway
Administration o i the United States of America.
 The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Ministry of Communications
Highway Design Manual
Volume 1-Highway Development

Table of Contents
Preface
Part I-General
Section 1.01 Introduction
A. Manual Format
B. Other Manuals
Section 1.02 Glossary
Section 1.03 MOC Organization (vacant)
Section 1.04 Functional Classification of Highways
A. Introduction
B. Purpose of Classification
C. Classes of Highways
D. Characteristics of Each Class
E. Description of Classes
I. Primary Highways
2. Secondary Highways
3. Feeder Highways
F. Continuity of the Functional Classification System
G. Classification of Highways
H. Permanency of Classification
Section 1.05 Route Designations
A , lntroduction
B. Purpose
C. Route Numbers
D. Expressways
E. Additions, Deletions, and Revisions
Section 1.06 Approval Process
A. Policy
B. Specific Requirements
C. Form of Approval
D. Approval Schedule
E. Approving Authority
Part 2-Predesign Elements
Section 2.01 General
Section 2.02 Design Classes
A. lntroduction
B. Purpose of Design Classes
C. Principles Considered in Establishing Classes
1. General
2. Function
3. Traffic Volume
4. Traffic Flow Characteristics
5 . Running Speed
6. Vehicle Types
7. Connections
D. Description of Design Classes
1. General
2. Description of Design Classes
a. Rural Locals
b. Rural Collectors
c. Rural Arterials
d. Expressways
e. Urban Local Streets
f. Urban Collector Streets
g. Urban Arterial Streets or Highways
h. Urban Expressways
Section 2.03 Corridor Studies and Environmental Assessment
A. Background Data
1. General
2. Interministry and Public Involvement
3. Preliminary Data
a. Traffic
b. Termini
c. Maps and Photographs
R. Information to be Obtained During Study
1. Proposed Geometrics
2. Land Use Activities
3. Geology
4. Topography
5. Hydrology-Climate
6. Economic Activity
7. Biological Data
8. Sociological Data
C. Field Investigation
1. Traffic Surveys
2. Field Surveys
3. Cemeteries and Mosques
I . Antiquities and Historic Sites
5. Other
D . Corridor Evaluation
1. Social and Environmental Impacts
a. Water
h. Earth
c. Vegetation
d. Wildlife
e. Agriculture Lands
f. Natural Kesources
g. Economics
h. Public Services
i. Antiquities/Historical
j. Air
k. Noise
I. Light and Glare
m. Land Use
n. Risk of Upset
o. Population
p. Housing
q. Transportation/Circulation
r. Energy
s. Utilities
t. Human Health
u. Aesthetics
v. Recreation
2. Terrain and Aesthetics
3. cos1s
E. Reconnaissance Report
1. Analysis
a. Introduction
b. Comparison of Alternatives
2. Recommendations
a. Recommended Corridor
b. Recommendations for Further Study
Section 2.04 Surveys and Mapping
A . Surveys
1. General
2. Vertical Datum Planc and Coordinate System
3. Accuracy of Surveys
a. General
b. Geodetic First and Second Order Traverses
c. Geodetic Third Order Traverses
d. Plarle Third Order Traverses
e. Plane Fourth Order Traverses
f. Plane Fifth Order Traverses
g. Geodetic First and Second Order Leveling
h. Geodetic Third Order Leveling
i. Plane Third Order Leveling
j. Plane Fourth Order Leveling
k. Plane Fifth Order Leveling
4. Types of Surveys
a. General
b. Traverse Surveys
c. Centerline Surveys
5. Survey Data
a. Photogrammetric Mapping Data
b. Manual Mapping and Final Design Data
6. Documentation
B. Mapping
1 . Introduction
2. Purpose of Maps
a. Route Reconnaissance Studies
b. Location Studies
c. Rural Design
d. Crhan Design
e. Selected Site Design
3. Data for Map Preparation
a. General
b. Mapping Datum and Coordinate System
4. Mapping Scales and Contour Intervals
5. Content of Maps
6. Finished Map
a. General
b. Size
c. Material
d. Accuracy
e. Draftsmanship
7 . Review, Approval, and Acceptance of Maps
a. Final Review and Acceptance
b. Disposition
Section 2.05 Centerline Location and Preliminary Design
A. Introduction
B. Route Selection
1. Office and Field Review
2. Map Studies
3. Alignment Considerations
 4. Alternate Koutes Through the Corridor
C. Large Scale Mapping
D. Centerline Pnjection
1. General
2. Yongrade-Controlled Locations
3. Grade-Controlled Locations
E. Ccnterline Evaluation and Preliminary Design Keport Format
1. Alternate Centerline
2. Comparison of Alternate Routes
3. Preliminary Design Report
a. Cover
b. Table of Contents
c, Introduction
d. Summary of Recommendations
e. Description of Alternates
f. Design Data and Geomctrics
g. Surveys and Mapping
h. Geotechnical and Pavcnient Design
i. Hydrologic and Hydraulic Studies
j. Environmental Factors
k. Cost Comparisons
1. Engineers' Recommendation
4. Transmittal of Design Report
5 . Centerline Staking
Section 2.06 Geotechnical Engineering (Being Developed)
Section 2.07 Hydrology
A. General
B. Hydrologic Data
1. Topographic Maps
2. Photographs
3. Land Use
4. Water Use
5 . Rainfall Data
6. Gaging Station Data
7. Highwater Marks
C. Hydrologic Analysis
1. Drainage Area
2. Watershed Parameters
a. Basin Length
b. Basin Slope
c. Percent Impervious
d. Infiltration
e. Detention Depression Storage
f. Drainage Basin Roughness Coefficients
g. Channel or Conduit Slope
h. Channel or Conduit Cross Section
i. Channel or Conduit Roughness
3. Flood Estimates
a. Rational Equation
b. Gumbel Distribution
c. Indirect Estimates
d. Regression Equations
Section 2.08 Traffic Surveys and Projections
A. Introduction
I Minimum MOC Procedures for Traffic Volume Studies
C. Traffic Projections
List of Tables
1.04.1 Characteristics of Highway Classes
2.02.1 Summary of Rural Design Classes
2.02.2 Summary of Urban Design Classes
2.03.1 Interministry Coordination List
2.04.1 Geodetic Traverses
2.04.2 Plane Traverses
2.04.3 Geodetic Leveling
2.04.4 Plane Leveling
2.04.5 Mapping Scale vs. Cross-Section Method
2.04.6 Map Scales and Contour Intervals for Highway Development
2.07.1 Map Scales
2.07.2 Values of the Roughness Coefficient "n"
2.07.3 Flood Estimating Methods
2.07.4 Typical C Coefficients, Urban Areas
2.07.5 Typical C Coefficients, Rural Areas
2.07.6 Frequency Factor K(T N ,
2.07.7 Regression Equations for Flood Magnitudes

List of Figures
2.04.1 Record of Control Surve) Stat~on
2.04.2 Standard Mapping Symbols
2.04.3 Standard Title Blocks

2.07.3 Intensity Duration Frequency Curve

2.07.4 Rainfall Zones in Saudi Arabia
2.07.5 Time of Concentration for Use with Rational
Equation-Urban Areas
2.07.6 Discharge Recurrance Interval
2.07.7 Hydrologic Regions in Saudi Arabia
 Preface

The Ministry of Communications (MOC) has Highway projects shall be planned arid engi-
assembled this manual to provide guidance neered in accordance with the manual. How-
and assistance to those engaged in developing ever, deviations are permitted where circum-
plans, specifications, and estimates for high- stances or conditions indicate that the criteria
ways in thc Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. This specified in the HDM are impractical or are
manual, entitled Highwuy Design Manual and undesirable in comparisoll with an alternate by
referred to as the HDM. includes four volumes reason of safety, aesthetics, or excessive cost.
as follows: Such deviations shall be based on a thorough
H D M ]-Highway Development engineering study and must be approved by the
H D M 2-Design of Roadways Ministry as specified in HDM-1-1.06.
H D M 3-Design of Structures The mar~ualstandardizes highway design pro-
HDM 4-Standard Drau-ings cedures, which will expedite the preparation of
It sets forth the Ministry's standards and es- plans. Star~darddrawings will reduce both de-
tablishes uniform policies and procedures for sign time and construction costs. Maintenance
planning, locating and designing highways. operations will be simplified and the highway
This manual also describes cffectivc engineer- user's safety will be improved.
ing techniques, and includes figures, tables, In order to provide vehicular access to all
exhibits and other useful information for high- areas in the Kingdom as rapidly as possible
way engineers. Should any conflicts arise he- within the constraints of financial responsibil-
tween the instructions, standards, policies or ity, low volume links are sometimes merely
procedures set forth in the HDM and any upgraded from unimproved tracks to surfaced
circulars or other instructions issued prior to roads. Such upgrading is accomplished with
the date of issuance of this manual, the con- minimal earthwork and without regard for
tents of the H D M shall govern. However, he- specific design standards. Guidelir~esgoverning
fore implementing any such conflicting in- the degree or level of improvements are speci-
structions, standards. policies, or procedures, fied by the Ministry on a project-hy-project
the manual user shall discuss pertinent subject basis and therefore thc requirements of this
matter with appropriate Ministry personnel. manual do not apply to those improvements.
 Section 1.01 Introduction
A. Manual Format and r c i ~ ~ h r c ccclncrete
d box culvert\.
I'his Highway Ilcsign Rlanual ( H D M ) is in l i ) l u r ~ ~d-;Srurrdord
e l r u w i g s : I l i s bound
four v ~ ~ l u m cVolumes
s. 1. 2, and 3 are in loose- volume includes the approveti stui~tlarddraw-
leaf fornt and Volun~e4 i? bound. The thur ings for hishways urrdcr rhc jurisdictiori of the
volumes are 21s follows: MOC. Volume 4 is a multipurpose d o c u n i e ~ ~ l ;
applicable 10 design, and when appropriate be-
!~)IIIIIIPI--1lighwuy I)ev~loprnc~111: Volume 1
comes part of the tender doc~trnents.
covet-s the [)redesign elements ranging i'rom
system? development through the final route The loose-leaf volun~eshave heen desiened to
selection. I t pro\ridec guidalice for the collec- facilitate chat~gcand expal~sion.Yew instroc-
lion, analysis. a n d application of data needed tinns consisting of additional or revised pages
tor highway devel~~pment. Volume 1 describe? will be &sued by the MOC. Volume 4 will he
prclvcn tncth(>dsTor evaluating highway low- periotlically revised a r ~ dreprintcil. 170r case of
tion'; and their inrpact (311 lhe c~lviro~imcnl. usage the volumes h a w been subdivided i i ~ t n
parts and sections according to either type or
Volur~~c Z-l)r\ig~r of Korrdn~ajs: Volume 2 is
sequence of work.
divided into three parts. These are Part 1, De-
sign l~lclncrtts; I'art 2. Kight-of-Way and Each volume is intended to he all inclusive;
IJtilitics; ant1 Part 3, I'la~~s.
Snecific;rtiol~\,and however, some referencing between sections

a Ectim;~tes.
Part I outline\ the policies and procedures
relative to geonietric design. pavement de-
sign, drainage. lighting, trallic control, road-
and volumes ir necesury. For exaniplt. a reier-
ence to Sectiort 2.04 Surveys and Mapping of
Voluine I \vould he referenced in Volume 2 as
HDM-1-2.04. Where the reference is in the
samc volume. the initials, H D M . arc omitted.
side development, and safety features.
I'art 2 outlii~csthe MOC'\ policies and cngi- B. Other Manuals
-
neering requirements for expropriation of The IIDM is one of a series of manuals issued
right-of-w;ly and relocation of utilities. by the MOC. The others are
I'art 3 describe\ the policier and methods for
~p
Highway Construction Manual
development of construction plans, special Highway Materials Manual
spccificatio~tsand estimates, and design re- Highway Maintenance Manual
ports. Manual on Utiiform Traffic C ~ ~ n t r Devices
ol
I.i)lume 3-Dr.~ign of Structtrrc~r.:Volume 3 in- Surveying and Mapping Martual
cludes the guidelines arid requirements to be Consultant Management Manual
used in the desig~iof bridges, retaining walls, General Specifications for Road and Bridge
Construction
 GLOSSARY

AADT (Average Annual D a i l y T r a f f i c ) J 5

:=
, -J + d k.p-J1
l ) AADT
- The t o t a l y e a r l y t r a f f i c volume JJ,-JI ' pl-^ d'--l - (.&&I
d i v i d e d by t h e number of d a y s i n : d l J& & L ~ aL- 4 1
t h e year.

AASHTO - A b b r e v i a t i o n f o r American 'ib+I-JI p'd ,Leu! - AASHTO

A s s o c i a t i o n of S t a t e Highway and 9 ~s-wl &>-bJ b&,-d' I
Transportation Officials. .L&~>I

Abney L e v e l - A hand-held s u r v e y i n g ++I! 3 JLL r" a1 J! - &I :Iy

instrument or c l i n o m e t e r , having an Jh, , L I
a d j u s t a b l e i n c l i n e d l i n e of s i g h t . .&&d
~ 4

Abney L e v e l L i n e o r F l a g L i n e - An 6
- - ,&l,Jl L f, c U l 21- JG
p &L L
*+.
i n c l i n e d l i n e run i n t h e f i e l d w i t h c2J "Is-- +. p+I
a n Abney Level t o e x p l o r e t h e pos- Lapp J-j-ll cr,,dI
s i b l e g r a d e s a v a i l a b l e f o r a high- pd
..,a
m a
~ J Y ul +> .?Y
way l o c a t i o n . U s u a l l y , t h e l.ine i s 3 ~ ~ &
9 1 d+.d+Jl b ~ l &L3
marked t e m p o r a r i l y by t y i n g p l a s - ~4 La iP_) I ,-9l9
t i c r i b b o n s t o s t a k e s , t r e e s , and . ".-I> L " +I
bushes, hence, the term "flag
line. "

A b s c i s s a - The d i s t a n c e measure i n p ed-l - 41s1-r-91

t h e "x" o r h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n on , & -91 O+YI i f "Xu a+Yl
a graph. . vC-
A c c e l e r a t i o n Lane - A s p e e d change s
i' ,.dl 4 b,L - I Z J L
lane t o enable a vehicle entering a + ++ 3 1 h l l l J I a+5pJI ;----1
roadway t o i n c r e a s e i t s s p e e d t o ,>+! bS
.r p c ~ LI+.s., ~ h3U
4,
merge w i t h t h r o u g h t r a f f i c . .&+I &
Access C o n t r o l - The r e g u l a t e d l i m - J93U +I d l - J+dI A+i
i t a t i o n of a c c e s s t h a t i s a c h i e v e d J9-LJI eiiLI &&
t h r o u g h t h e r e g u l a t i o n of p u b l i c I -
i ?lell E3,iJ13
a c c e s s r i g h t s t o and from p r o p e r - . pc-" &&I +l,L
t i e s a b u t t i n g t h e highway f a c i l i -
ties .
Access Openings - Openings i n t h e L & i- - J+JI rjlz;i
right-of-way l i n e t h a t serve ahut- ~ " 1 ~ 9.1 p& C~LJI &+I
t i n g l a n d o w n e r s h i p s whose r e - ;LI_)mJl h,ljg h dl .-a!
m a i n i n g a c c e s s r i g h t s have been .I Jrl"(9+ b+G &
a c q u i r e d by t h e XOC.

Accuracy - The d e g r e e of agreement -' &I+! +

.J
, - --dl
between a measured v a l u e and a t r u e .a& M
' ;> b-y
value.

A c t i v e P r e s s u r e o n Walls - The -1 - ,
.
,
+
lJI & cTLjJ! Wl
h o r i z o n t a l p r e s s u r e e x e r t e d on t h e I ,& & -91
back of a r e t a i n i n g w a l l by e a r t h . I a U I 9
,-.1 cLl+I
l o a d s and w a t e r . i f D r e s e n t .
Admixture ( A d d i t i v e ) - A s u b s t a n c e
added t o a m i x t u r e t o i m p a r t a spe-
c i f i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , s u c h a s poz-
z o l i t h i n concrete, antistripping
a g e n t s i n bituminous mixes, calcium
chloride or sodium c h l o r i d e t o
clay, etc.

ADT (XX) (Average D a i l y T r a f f i c ) - ,>+I isY k

.- - ( XX) ADT
The c u r r e n t o r p r o j e c t e d a v e r a g e I. JWI L+l - (.++I
two-way d a i l y t r a f f i c f o r t h e y e a r 35 4 '&+I >,+I as+ p'sl-'~
1 4 X X used t o d e f i n e t h e t r a f f i c f o r asy +3;-1 ( 1 Z X X ) .d @ U Y I
t h a t year i n t h e Hegira Calendar. .is~ ? d I i"+b 1 3 4 j3+l

Adverse Grade - On a l o n g , descend-

i n g g r a d e , a s h o r t s e c t i o n of a s -
c e n d i n g r o a d and v i c e v e r s a .

Advertisement - The p u b l i c an-

nouncement, i n v i t i n g Tenders for
t h e Work.

Aeolian Deposits - Wind d e p o s i t e d

m a t e r i a l such a s dune s a n d s and
loess deposits.

Aerial Photography - The pho-

t o g r a p h i n g of t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e
from t h e a i r , u s u a l l y , w i t h s p e c i a l
cameras.

A e s t h e t i c s - A b r a n c h of p h i l o s o p h y
d e a l i n g w i t h b e a u t y and t h e b e a u t i -
f u l and judgments of t a s t e con-
c e r n i n g them. I n highway e n g i -
n e e r i n g , a e s t h e t i c judgments have
t o do p r i m a r i l y w i t h t h e highway a s
a whole and t h e r o a d s i d e s , i n c l u d -
i n g s c r e e n i n g o u t u n p l e a s a n t views.

Aggregates - An a g g r e g a t i o n of
sand, g r a v e l , crushed s t o n e , o r
o t h e r m a t e r i a l o f m i n e r a l compo-
s i t i o n , used e i t h e r a l o n e o r i n
c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h a b i n d i n g medium
t o form b i t u m i n o u s and p o r t l a n d
cement c o n c r e t e , m o r t a r , p l a s t e r ,
etc.

Aggregrates (Coarse) - Aggregates

p r e d o m i n a n t l y r e t a i n e d on t h e 4.75
mm (No. 4 ) s i e v e .

Aggregrates (Fine) - Aggregates

p a s s i n g t h e 9.5 mm ( 3 1 8 i n . ) s i e v e
and a l m o s t e n t i r e l y p a s s i n g t h e
4 . 7 5 mm. (No. 4 ) s i e v e , and predom-
i n a n t l y r e t a i n e d on t h e 0.075 mm
(No. 200) s i e v e .
 Air-Dry M a t e r i a l - M a t e r i a l s d r i e d
by a n a t u r a l method s u c h a s expo-

a s u r e u n d e r ambient a t m o s p h e r i c con-
d i t i o n s o r by a n a r t i f i c i a l method
t h a t s i m u l a t e s exposure t o t h e a t -
mosphere.

A i r E n t r a i n i n g Agent - An a d m i x t u r e
u s e d i n p o r t l a n d cement c o n c r e t e t o
e n t r a i n a i r i n t h e mixture.

Air-Voids - The s p a c e i n a com-

p a c t e d m i x t u r e not f i l l e d w i t h s o l -
i d s or liquids.

A l k a l i n i t y - The d e g r e e of s t r e n g t h
of a n a l k a l i . A liquid is said to
he a l k a l i n e i f i t has a pH f a c t o r
g r e a t e r t h a n seven.

All-Terrain Vehicle (ATV) - A + 41 4 , I - ATV

vehicle with f l o t a t i o n tires, four- .dP- 4,PI p p 4
tlg-1
wheel d r i v e , and sometimes a r t i c - L L 'A+ &"& '&y GI,Lbl i.1 A
ulated. ,+ ~ l _ u f > '&> @L! p 1 3 i l 2
. r&
Alluvium - Soil, the constituents
& .. - Alluvium .&I
of which have been t r a n s p o r t e d i n L.+> ,
L . rl_o 4 +L L&L+
s u s p e n s i o n by f l o w i n g w a t e r and . LIL,
s u b s e q u e n t l y d e p o s i t e d by sedimen-
tation.

Angle of I n t e r n a l F r i c t i o n - The
a n g l e whose t a n g e n t i s t h e r a t i o
between t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f f e r e d t o
s l i d i n g a l o n g any p l a n e i n t h e s o i l
and t h e component of t h e a p p l i e d
f o r c e a c t i n g normal t o t h a t p l a n e .
Values a r e g i v e n i n d e g r e e s .

a Angle of Repose - The a n g l e between

t h e h o r i z o n t a l and t h e maximum
s l o p e t h a t a s o i l assumes t h r o u g h
n a t u r a l processes. For d r y granu-
l a r s o i l s t h e e f f e c t of t h e h e i g h t
of s l o p e i s n e g l i g i b l e ; f o r cohe-
s i v e s o i l s , t h e e f f e c t of h e i g h t of
s l o p e i s s o g r e a t t h a t t h e a n g l e of
repose i s meaningless.

Anhydrous - F r e e from w a t e r .

Approach - A l l l a n e s by which ve-

h i c l e s may l a w f u l l y p r o c e e d toward
an intersection.

Approach D e l a y - That d e l a y e x p e r -
i e n c e d on t h e a p p r o a c h t o a n i n t e r -
section.

Approach Lights - Low beam head-

lights.
Approach Nose - An end of a n i s -
l a n d , o r n e u t r a l a r e a between road-
ways, which f a c e s a p p r o a c h i n g t r a f -
f i c t h a t p a s s e s e i t h e r on one o r
both sides.

A r b i t r a r y C o o r d i n a t e s - A s y s t e m of
c o o r d i n a t e s based upon a n a r b i -
t r a r i l y c h o s e n o r i g i n and n o t based
upon a cartographic projection.
( S e e P l a n e C o o r d i n a t e System.)

A r c h i t e c t u r a l F e a t u r e s - A s used i n
roadside enhancement, t h e s e may
include stepped retaining walls t o
minimize t h e v i s u a l impact of mas-
s i v e w a l l s , rock s c u l p t u r i n g t o
blend d i s t u r b e d a r e a s i n t o t h e nat-
u r a l t e r r a i n , and s p e c i a l t r e a t m e n t
of b r i d g e a b u t m e n t s and c u l v e r t
h e a d w a l l s t o b l e n d them i n t o t h e
landscape.

A r r e s t o r Bed Escape Ramp - A r o a d

t h a t runs e i t h e r u p h i l l o r downhill
from t h e main t r a v e l e d way and
whose s u r f a c e i s a deep bed of
l o o s e sand o r g r a v e l , i n which t h e
v e h i c l e becomes mired and slowed t o
a stop. ( S e e a l s o G r a v i t y Escape
Ramp ) .
Arterial Highway o r S t r e e t - A
highway p r i m a r i l y f o r t h e movement
of t h r o u g h t r a f f i c . I t may have
either grade intersections with
o t h e r highways o r g r a d e s e p a r a t e d
intersections. A design c l a s s i f i -
c a t i o n used t o d e f i n e t h e s e types
of r o a d s .

A-Scale Sound L e v e l - Sound w e i g h t - -4V* --,dl 6_FiLJ ( I ) V-L+L

ed a c c o r d i n g t o t h e American Na- ,Wl 51.4-1971 , ,- uj
t i o n a l S t a n d a r d s I n s t i t u t e (ANSI) cp+I '&91 3 4 4
S t a n d a r d S1.4-1971, and d e s i g n a t e d yLg-, .J&I ( 1 ) ,,-ws (ANSI)
A-scale. A-scale sound l e v e l s em- P"- G&\ (I)
p h a s i z e t h e h i g h f r e q u e n c e y sound u, *> 'Llljl. eJUl & U I
by e l i m i n a t i n g some of t h e low f r e - . 'iAAL+d 'i+L+iJI * j
quency sound.

Asphalt - A d a r k brown t o b l a c k
cementitious material; s o l i d , semi-
s o l i d , or liquid i n consistency; i n
which t h e p r e d o m i n a t i n g c o n s t i t u -
e n t s a r e bitumens t h a t o c c u r i n
n a t u r e a s s u c h o r which a r e ob-
t a i n e d a s r e s i d u e i n r e f i n i n g pe-
troleum.
 A s p h a l t Cement - A f l u x e d o r un-
fluxed a s p h a l t e s p e c i a l l y prepared
as t o q u a l i t y and c o n s i s t e n c y f o r

a d i r e c t u s e i n b i t u m i n o u s pavements,
and h a v i n g a p e n e t r a t i o n a t 25O C
o f between 5 and 300 u n d e r a l o a d
o f 100 g a p p l i e d f o r 5 s.

Asphalt Concrete - See Bituminous

Concrete.

A s p h a l t Emulsion - See E m u l s i f i e d
Asphalt.

Asphalt Overlay - A bituminous

p a v i n g c o u r s e p l a c e d o v e r a n ex-
i s t i n g s u r f a c e t o p r o v i d e smooth-
n e s s and i n c r e a s e s t r e n g t h .

Asphalt M a t e r i a l - See Rituminous

nlaterial.

a ASTM - A b b r e v i a t i o n f o r American
S o c i e t y f o r T e s t i n g and M a t e r i a l s .

ATV ( A l l T e r r a i n V e h i c l e ) - A ve- 4
' i d 1

+
"

a.lp - (&,91
,-9
. "-'I+Is
4
,U\

1
,+U

'&A
- ASTM +1
kgLP?l

) - ATV
t'+9=t p- 4
h i c l e with f l o t a t i o n t i r e s , four- GI"
wheel d r i v e , and sometimes a r t i c u - -1" L k b L p ~4
'-9 ijl,Lbl
lated. A LA-!, '+~f p a
. a&
A u x i l i a r y Lane - The p o r t i o n of t h e
roadway a d j o i n i n g t h e t r a v e l e d way
f o r weaving, t r u c k c l i m b i n g , speed
c h a n g e , o r f o r o t h e r p u r p o s e s sup-
p l e m e n t a r y t o t h r o u g h t r a f f i c move-
ment.

A v a i l a b l e Head - The h i g h e s t head-

w a t e r caused by a c h a n n e l c o n s t r i c -
t i o n t h a t can be t o l e r a t e d w i t h o u t

a damage t o
adjacent property.
roadway structure or

Average Annual D a i l y T r a f f i c (AADT)

- The t o t a l y e a r l y t r a f f i c volume
d i v i d e d by t h e number of d a y s i n
t h e year.

Average D a i l y T r a f f i c (xx) (ADT) - - '-.-&I I '5- J=-- ( ADT)

The c u r r e n t o r p r o j e c t e d a v e r a g e '6sA 1 &w! L 4 1
two-way d a i l y t r a f f i c f o r t h e y e a r ,llxx b d 4
14xx u s e d t o d e f i n e t h e t r a f f i c f o r 4 2.4' "P e" -&& ,"JL"y.?
t h a t year i n t h e Hegira c a l e n d a r . . L I a d 1 LLL

Average Highway Speed - The w e i g h t -

e d a v e r a g e of t h e d e s i g n s p e e d s
w i t h i n a highway s e c t i o n when e a c h
subsection within the section i s
c o n s i d e r e d t o have an i n d i v i d u a l

a d e s i g n speed.
Average I n i t i a l H o r i z o n t a l Illum-
inance - The a v e r a g e l e v e l of h o r i -
z o n t a l i l l u m i n a n c e on t h e pavement
a r e a of a t r a v e l e d way a t t h e t i m e
t h e l i g h t i n g system i s i n s t a l l e d ,
when lamps a r e new and l u m i n a i r e s
a r e c l e a n ; e x p r e s s e d i n l u x (lumens
per square meter o r h o r i z o n t a l
surface).

Average O v e r a l l T r a v e l Speed - The

summation of d i s t a n c e s t r a v e l e d by
a l l vehicles, or a specified c l a s s
of v e h i c l e s , over a given s e c t i o n
of highway during a specified
p e r i o d of t i m e , d i v i d e d by t h e sum-
m a t i o n of o v e r a l l t r a v e l t i m e s .

Average S p o t Speed - The a r i t h m e t i c

mean of t h e s p e e d s of a l l t r a f f i c ,
o r a component t h e r e o f , a t a s p e c -
i f i e d point.

Axle Load - The t o t a l l o a d t r a n s - -deJ4-'l LC]Cd3L1 - +

,I -dy
m i t t e d by a l l wheels on a s i n g l e .,is,,gy. & Y U I JL e l G I
axle extending across the f u l l J>CLell .'4_p_lI &+
, 3-ulr
w i d t h of t h e v e h i c l e . Tandem a x l e s ,I+ L* ,y _L91 " d l L+iAl+l
1 m o r l e s s a p a r t s h a l l be c o n s i d -
ered a s a single axle.
. d p m ,+ $1 >I +L

Azimuth -The a n g l e c l o c k w i s e i n
g r a d s from t r u e North t o a g i v e n
survey l i n e .

B a c k f i l l - M a t e r i a l used t o r e -
p l a c e , o r t h e a c t of r e p l a c i n g ,
m a t e r i a l removed d u r i n g c o n s t r u c -
t i o n ; a l s o denotes material placed,
o r t h e a c t of p l a c i n g , m a t e r i a l
adjacent t o structures.

Backslope - I n c u t s , t h e s l o p e from
t h e bottom of t h e d i t c h t o t h e t o p
of t h e c u t .

Backwater - Temporary ponding o r

s t o r a g e of f l o o d f l o w u p s t r e a m from
a drainage structure.

B a l a n c e - ( 1 ) An i n s t r u m e n t u s e d
f o r weighing. ( 2 ) To d e s i g n a s e c -
t i o n of highway s u c h t h a t t h e v o l -
ume of e a r t h n e c e s s a r y f o r embank-
ment e q u a l s t h e volume of excava-
t ion.
 B a l l a s t - ( 1 ) G r a v e l , broken s t o n e ,
g r a n u l a r m a t e r i a l s , e t c . , used t o
p r o v i d e added s t a h i l i t y . (2) A

a d e v i c e used w i t h a n e l e c t r i c d i s -
c h a r g e lamp t o o b t a i n t h e n e c e s -
sary c i r c u i t conditions (voltage,
c u r r e n t , and waveform) f o r s t a r t i n g
and o p e r a t i n g t h e lamp.

Balled - Plant transplanted with

r o o t s i n a b a l l of e a r t h .

Bareroot - Plant transplanted with

no s o i l on t h e r o o t s .

B a r r i e r Curb - A c u r b t h a t i s de-
signed with a near v e r t i c a l face
t o prevent or discourage v2hicles
from l e a v i n g t h e t r a v e l e d way.

Base Course - The l a y e r , o r l a y e r s ,

of s ~ ~-~ e c i f-~i e d o r s e l e c t e d m a t e r i a l

a o f d e s i g n e d t h i c k n e s s p l a c e d on a
subbase o r a subgrade t o support a
s u r f a c e course.

Basic C a p a c i t y - The maximum number

of p a s s e n g e r c a r s t h a t can p a s s a
g i v e n p o i n t on a l a n e o r roadway
d u r i n g 1 h o u r u n d e r t h e most n e a r l y
i d e a l roadway and t r a f f i c c o n d i -
t i o n s t h a t can be a t t a i n e d .

Beacon - A t y p e of t r a f f i c c o n t r o l
s i g n a l , g e n e r a l l y u s e d w i t h a n ap-
p r o p r i a t e s i g n , i n which t h e r e d o r
yellow l e n s o r l e n s e s a r e a l t e r -
n a t e l y i l l u m i n a t e d and d a r k e n e d a t
a r a t e of a b o u t once p e r s e c o n d .

1 Bedrock - Rock of r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t
t h i c k n e s s and e x t e n t i n i t s n a t i v e
location.

Bench Mark - A permanent o r s e m i -

permanent marker of known e l e v a t i o n
above t h e datum p l a n e .

B e r m - ( 1 ) A r a i s e d and e l o n g a t e d
a r e a of e a r t h i n t e n d e d t o d i r e c t
t h e f l o w of w a t e r , s c r e e n h e a d l i g h t
g l a r e , or r e d i r e c t out-of-control
vehicles. ( 2 ) Embankment widening
t o provide l a t e r a l support f o r t h e
roadway.

B i c y c l e - Any v e h i c l e t h a t h a s two
w h e e l s and i s p r o p e l l e d s o l e l y by
t h e muscular e n e r g y of t h e p e r -
s o n ( ~ )on t h a t v e h i c l e by means of

a p e d a l s o r hand c r a n k s
Bid - See Tender. . =& rl, - Bid

B i d d e r ( T e n d e r e r ) - An i n d i v i d u a l ,
f i r m , or corporation submitting a
T e n d e r f o r t h e Work.

B i l l o f Q u a n t i t i e s - A l i s t showing
Work q u a n t i t i e s and s p e c i f y i n g u n i t
p r i c e s a n d / o r lump sums f o r s p e c i f -
i c i t e m s of t h e Work.

Binder - N a t e r i a l used t o s t a b i l i z e
o r bind t o g e t h e r loose s o i l o r
aggregates.

B i n d e r Course - A p l a n t mix of
graded a g g r e g a t e and bituminous
m a t e r i a l p l a c e d between t h e b a s e
c o u r s e and a b i t u m i n o u s s u r f a c e
course.

Bituminous Concrete - A combination

of m i n e r a l a g g r e g a t e s and a s p h a l t
cement mixed i n a c e n t r a l p l a n t .
Bituminous concrete is usually
m i x e d , l a i d , and compacted w h i l e
hot.

Bituminous M a t e r i a l - (1) M a t e r i a l
c o n t a i n i n g bitumen. ( 2 ) A general
term encompassing a s p h a l t cements,
c u t b a c k s , and e m u l s i f i e d a s p h a l t s .

B i t u m i n o u s Pavement - A pavement
composed o f c r u s h e d r o c k o r o t h e r
a g g r e g a t e cemented t o g e t h e r w i t h
bitumen.

B i t u m i n o u s S u r f a c e T r e a t m e n t - The
a p p l i c a t i o n of l i q u i f i e d b i t u m i n o u s
m a t e r i a l and a g g r e g a t e t o a n ex-
i s t i n g road surface.

Bond (Tack C o a t ) - The a p p l i c a t i o n

of a l i q u i d b i t u m e n t o c a u s e a new
s u r f a c e t o adhere t o an e x i s t i n g
hard s u r f a c e .

Borrow - The m a t e r i a l n e c e s s a r y t o
c o n s t r u c t t h e embankment t h a t i s
n o t a v a i l a b l e from t h e d e s i g n e x c a -
vation.

Boulder - A rock fragment, u s u a l l y

rounded by w e a t h e r i n g o r a b r a s i o n ,
w i t h a n a v e r a g e d i a m e t e r of 7 5 nun
o r more.
 Brake Reaction Distance - The dis-
tance traversed by the vehicle from

a the instant the driver sights an

object necessitating a stop to the
instant the hrakes are applied.

Braking Distance - The distance re-

quired to stop the vehicle From the
instant brake application begins.

Branch Connection - A multilane

connection between two expressways
(motorways).

Breakaway (Yielding) Supports - A

support for a roadside device that
yields or collapses readily when
struck by a vehicle.

Bridge - A structure exceeding 6 m

a
clear span measured along the cen-
terline of the roadway, which car-
ries traffic over a watercourse or
opening.

Broken Back Curve - An arrangement

of curves in which a short tangent
separates two curves in the same
direction.

Buffer Zone (Buffer Strip) - Lands

adjacent to a highway acquired by
the highway authority for the pur-
pose of preventing development
that would be adversely affected
by traffic noise, or for erecting
noise harriers.

Bullet-Nosed Median - On a divided

a
highway intersection at a grade, a
long-radius configuration of the
median end to permit flatter turns
Erom the crossroad.

Bus - A self-propelled vehicle used

for the transportation of passen-
gers with a wheel base of 8 m or
more including articulated vehi-
cles.

Bus Bay - An auxiliary lane at

intersections or midblock with ta-
pered entrance and exit for un-
loading and loading passengers.

Bus Lane - A traffic lane reserved

for buses.

a
Bypass - A hizhway that permits
traffic to avoid part or all of an
urhan area.
Calcareous - Material containing o r
s i m i l a r t o calcium carbonate o r
lime.

C a l e n d a r Day - Every day shown on

t h e Hegira calendar.

C a l i f o r n i a B e a r i n g R a t i o (CBR) -
The r a t i o of t h e f o r c e r e q u i r e d t o
p e n e t r a t e a s o i l mass w i t h a c i r -
c u l a r p i s t o n of 5 cm d i a m e t e r t o
t h e Force r e q u i r e d t o p e n e t r a t e a
mass of h i g h q u a l i t y c r u s h e d s t o n e
w i t h t h e same p i s t o n . The r a t e oE
p e n e t r a t i o n i n b o t h c a s e s i s 1.27
mm o e r m i n u t e .

Camber - A s l i g h t a r c h d e s i g n e d o r
b u i l t i n t o a s t r u c t u r e t o compen-
sate for the natural deflection
a f t e r loading.

Candela ( c d ) - The u n i t of lumi-

nous i n t e n s i t y .

Candlepower ( c p ) - Luminous i n t e n -
s i t y expressed i n candelas. It i s
no i n d i c a t i o n of t h e t o t a l l i g h t
output.

Capacity - The naximilm number of

v e h i c l e s t h a t have a r e a s o n a h l e
e x p e c t a t i o n of p a s s i n g o v e r a g i v e n
s e c t i o n of a l a n e o r a roadway
d u r i n g a given time period under
p r e v a i l i n g roadway and t r a f f i c con-
ditions.

C a p i l l a r y Moisture - Moisture t h a t
c l i n g s t o s o i l p a r t i c l e s by s u r f a c e
t e n s i o n and r e a c h e s t h e p a r t i c l e s
by s u r f a c e t e n s i o n e i t h e r when f r e e
w a t e r p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e s o i l o r by
c a p i l l a r y a t t r a c t i o n from a w e t t e r
stratum. W i t h i n l i m i t s , i t can
move i n any d i r e c t i o n .

C a r r i a g e w a y - See T r a v e l e d Way.

C a t i o n i c Emulsion - An a s p h a l t
emulsion t h a t contains p o s i t i v e l y
charged p a r t i c l e s that are at-
t r a c t e d t o a negative electrode
(cathode).

CBD ( C e n t r a l B u s i n e s s D i s t r i c t ) -
That p o r t i o n of a municipality
where t h e dominant l a n d u s e i s f o r
intense business a c t i v i t y .
 CBR ( C a l i f o r n i a B e a r i n g R a t i o ) -
The r a t i o of t h e f o r c e r e q u i r e d t o
- -(-
L L ' 9
I
, ; I
J-)
a+\ ,a
CBR

p e n e t r a t e a s o i l mass w i t h a c i r - 3dJUl .a@! Jl O a+ *$I>

c u l a r p i s t o n of 5 cm d i a m e t e r t o I +I p
.& -r
the force required to penetrate a ,uiSJ~4
mass of h i g h q u a l i t y c r u s h e d s t o n e
w i t h t h e same p i s t o n . The r a t e of
I
. .-dl
.LA_,
p ps ,
,rv u. d c j l 4
p e n e t r a t i o n i n b o t h c a s e s is 1.27
mm p e r minute.

C e n t e r l i n e - ( 1 ) For a two-lane
highway t h e c e n t e r l i n e i s t h e mirl-
d l e of t h e t r a v e l e d way, and f o r
a d i v i d e d highway t h e c e n t e r l i n e
may be t h e c e n t e r of t h e median.
For a d i v i d e d hizhway w i t h i n d e p e n -
d e n t roadways, e a c h roadway h a s i t s
own c e n t e r l i n e . ( 2 ) The d e f i n e d
and s u r v e y e d l i n e shown on t h e
p l a n s from which t h e highway con-
s t r u c t i o n is c o n t r o l l e d .

Centerline Projection - A line

drawn on a t o p o g r a p h i c map t o ex-
p l o r e i t s p o s s i b i l i t i e s a s a high-
way r o u t e .

C e n t r a l B u s i n e s s D i s t r i c t (CBD) -
That p o r t i o n of a municipality
where t h e dominant l a n d u s e is f o r
intense business a c t i v i t y .

C h a n n e l i z a t i o n - The s e p a r a t i o n of
t r a f f i c flow i n t o d e f i n i t e p a t h s ,
by means of t r a f f i c m a r k i n g s o r
islands.

Channelized I n t e r s e c t i o n - A grade
i n t e r s e c t i o n where t r a f f i c i s d i -

a
-
r e c t e d i n t o d e f i n i t e p a t h s by is-
lands.

Channel S t a b i l i z a t i o n - P r o t e c t i o n
o f open c h a n n e l s from e x c e s s i v e
e r o s i o n and s c o u r by c h a n n e l l i n -
i n g . L i n i n g s may be f l e x i b l e , such
a s rock r i p r a p and v e g e t a t i o n , o r
of r i g i d c o n c r e t e .

Check-Dam - A s t r u c t u r e u s u a l l y
made of s o d , r o c k , o r s t o n e , ? l a c e d
i n a watercourse t o r e t a r d water
flow, thereby reducing erosion.

City o r Village - A subdivision

comprised of a c o l l e c t L o n of h o u s e s
a n d l o r farms, used t o d e s i g n a t e or
i d e n t i f y t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e pro-

a
posed ~ b r k .
Classification - The grouping of
highways, materials, soils, etc.,
according to similar traffic or
physical characteristics.

Clay - A fine-textured soil, usu-

ally plastic and sticky when wet,
which usually breaks into hard
lumps when dry. When the moist
soil is pinched between the thumb
and finger, it will form a long,
flexible ribbon.

Clay Sized - That portion of the

soil finer than 0.002 m.

Climbing Lane - An additional traf-

fic lane provided for slow moving
vehicles on the up-grade side of a
highway.

Cloverleaf Interchange - A four-leg

interchange with loops for left
turns, and other connections for
right turns. A full cloverleaf has
ramps for two turning movements in
each quadrant.

Coefficient of Utilization (CU) -

The ratio of the luminous flux
(lumens) from a luminaire received
on the surface of the roadway to
the lumens emitted by the lumi-
naires' lamp(s) alone.

Cohesion - That property of mater-

ial that tends to make its par-
ticles stick together.

Cohesionless Soil - A soil that,

when unconfined, has little or no
strength when air dried, and little
or no cohesion when submerged.
Sand is an example of cohesionless
soil.

Cohesive Soil - A soil that when

unconfined has considerable
strength when air dried and that
has significant cohesion when sub-
merged.

Collector Highway or Street - A

highway that provides a combina-
tion of land access and movement of
through traffic. A design classi-
fication for these type roads.
C o l l o i d s - That n o r t i o n of t h e s o i l
f i n e r t h a n 0.001 mm.

Compaction - The a r t i f i c i a l d e n s i -
f i c a t i o n of a mass by r o l l i n g ..
t a m p i n g , v i b r a t i n g , o r o t h e r means.

C o m p r e s s i b i l i t y - The p r o p e r t y of a
m a t e r i a l t h a t e n a b l e s it t o remain
compressed a f t e r compaction.

Compressive S t r e s s - The s t r e s s
produced i n a member when t h e f o r c -
e s a c t i n g on i t t e n d t o push t h e
p a r t i c l e s together.

Concrete (Bituminous) - See R i t u -

minous C o n c r e t e .

C o n c r e t e ( P o r t l a n d Cement) - A mix-
t u r e of p o r t l a n d cement, w a t e r ,
f i n e a g g r e g a t e , and c o a r s e a g g r e -
g a t e w i t h o r without an admixture.

C o n s i s t e n c y - The d e g r e e of cohe-
s i v e n e s s o r r e s i s t a n c e t o movement
of c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t i c l e s i n a mass
of m a t e r i a l . Some of t h e t e r m s
used t o e x p r e s s c o n s i s t e n c y a r e :
f i r m , h a r d , f r i a b l e ( e a s i l y crum-
bled), sticky, or soft.

C o n s o l i d a t e - To d e n s i f y by compac-
t i o n o r n a t u r a l means.

C o n t i n u o u s L i g h t i n g - The l i g h t i n g
of roadways between i n t e r c h a n g e s ,
t u n n e l s , and u n d e r p a s s e s .

Contour G r a d i n g P l a n -
A drawing
showing an a r r a n g e m e n t of c o n t o u r s
intended t o i n t e g r a t e construction
and t o p o g r a p h y , improve a p p e a r a n c e ,
r e d u c e e r o s i o n , and improve d r a i n -
age.

Contour L i n e - A l i n e ( a s on a map)
t h a t c o n n e c t s p o i n t s of e q u a l e l e -
v a t i o n on a l a n d s u r f a c e .

C o n t r a c t I t e m (Pay I t e m ) - A s p e c i -
f i c a l l y d e s c r i b e d u n i t of work f o r
which a u n i t p r i c e i s p r o v i d e d i n
the tender.
Contract Time - The number of
working days or calendar days al-
lowed for completion of the con-
tract, including authorized time
extensions. When a calendar date
of completion is shown in the ten-
der, in lieu of the number of work-
ing or calendar days, the work con-
templated shall be completed by
that date.

Contractor - The individual, firm,

or corporation contracting with the
MOC for performance of the pre-
scribed Work.

Coordinates - A set of numbers used

in describing the location of a
point on a surface or in space.

Corridor - A strip of land between

two termini within which traffic,
topography, environment, and other
characteristics are evaluated for
transportation purposes.

Corrugated Metal - A sheet of metal

that has been formed into a series
of small regular parallel undula-
tions.

Cost - A Saudi Riyal value that can

be attributed to a specific ser-
vice, product, or activity.

Course - (1) A layer of road ma-

terial separately compacted, used
as a wearing surface or as a base
for a wearing surface. (2) One el-
ement of the pavement structure of
finite depth, e.g. bituminous wear-
ing course.

Crash Cushion (Impact Attenuator) -

A device placed before a fixed
roadside object to absorb and dis-
sipate collision energy, thus re-
ducing the severity of injuries and
property damage.

Creep - The slow movement of a ma-

terial under stress usually imper-
ceptible except to observations of
long duration.

Crest Vertical Curve - A vertical

curve having a convex shape in pro-
file.
C r i t i c a l D e n s i t y - The d e n s i t y of
t r a f f i c when t h e volume i s a t capa-
c i t y on a g i v e n roadway o r l a n e .
A t a density e i t h e r g r e a t e r or
smaller than t h e c r i t i c a l d e n s i t y
t h e volume of t r a f f i c w i l l be de-
creased. C r i t i c a l density occurs
when a l l v e h i c l e s a r e moving a t o r
a b o u t t h e same s p e e d .

C r i t i c a l Depth - The d e p t h of w a t e r
f l o w i n g i n an open c h a n n e l o r a
c o n d u i t p a r t i a l l y f i l l e d , f o r which
t h e v e l o c i t y head e q u a l s o n e - h a l f
t h e h y d r a u l i c mean d e p t h .

C r i t i c a l Flow - A c o n d i t i o n t h a t
e x i s t s a t t h e c r i t i c a l d e p t h ; under
t h i s c o n d i t i o n , t h e sum of t h e ve-
l o c i t y head and s t a t i c head i s a
minimum.

C r i t i c a l L e n g t h of Grade - That &Y - , d l &+J J+I

c o m b i n a t i o n of g r a d i e n t and l e n g t h 631 , d l I J-+bJ, c,dl
of g r a d e t h a t w i l l c a u s e a d e s i g -
n a t e d t r u c k t o o p e r a t e a t some p r e - Jii .&>I
b_lu9n
+UI>
'be
.l-eL.
3
1
i~&
h J
*J>-
d e t e r m i n e d minimum s p e e d . A lower i3L *3;-~l> \1+ b>&Y CUL)
s p e e d t h a n t h i s i s u n a c c e p t a b l e and -I,L+-L! .i&Ll k & b i &>;
u s u a l l y r e q u i r e s t h a t an a u x i l i a r y
c l i m b i n g l a n e be p r o v i d e d f o r s l o w
. S b J+ "-1

moving v e h i c l e s .

C r i t i c a l S l o p e - The g r a d i e n t of a
channel that sustains a given
d i s c h a r g e a t a u n i f o r m and c r i t i c a l
depth. A grade l e s s than c r i t i c a l
is c a l l e d a mild grade o r slope
whereas a s t e e p e r t h a n c r i t i c a l
slope is called a steep slope.

C r i t i c a l V e l o c i t y - The v e l o c i t y i n
a n open channel o r a c o n d u i t par-
t i a l l y f i l l e d where t h e v e l o c i t y
head e q u a l s one-half t h e h y d r a u l i c
mean d e p t h .

Crossing Sight Distance - A d i s -

t a n c e a l o n g a n i n t e r s e c t i o n ap-
proach l e g such t h a t v e h i c l e oper-
a t o r s c a n s e e o t h e r v e h i c l e s on
crossroads i n time t o avoid c o l l i -
sion.

C r o s s S e c t i o n - The t r a n s v e r s e pro-
f i l e of a r o a d showing h o r i z o n t a l
and v e r t i c a l d i m e n s i o n s .
Cross Slope - Two-lane and u r b a n - ~ - -
c u r b e d a r t e r i a l highways on t a n - c-l_r,4)!1 ili "dl9 &Wl
g e n t s o r f l a t c u r v e s h a v i n g a crown
o r h i g h p o i n t i n t h e c e n t e r of t h e
b+
L d
& '
. I
4,
",L -
9 4 " ~ i . &I>
a +- ILLd- ylie;

pavement and sloping downward

toward t h e e d g e s . These pavements
may be s u p e r e l e v a t e d toward t h e
r i g h t o r l e f t s h o u l d e r on a p p r e -
c i a b l e curves.
On d i v i d e d highways on t a n g e n t o r
f l a t c u r v e s , e a c h one-way pavement
may have a u n i d i r e c t i o n a l s l o p e
a c r o s s t h e e n t i r e w i d t h of pave-
ment, u s u a l l y downward toward t h e
o u t e r edge.

Cross Walk - Any p o r t i o n of a road-

way a t a n i n t e r s e c t i o n o r e l s e w h e r e
d i s t i n c t l y indicated for pedestrian
c r o s s i n g by sip;ns and by l i n e s o r
o t h e r markings on t h e s u r f a c e .

Crown - The h i g h e s t p o i n t of t h e
s u r f a c e of a t a n g e n t t r a v e l e d way
i n cross section.

Crushed Gravel - The p r o d u c t r e -

s u l t i n g from t h e c r u s h i n g of o r d i -
nary gravel with substantially
a l l f r a g m e n t s h a v i n g one o r more
f a c e s r e s u l t i n g from f r a c t u r e .

Crushed Stone - The p r o d u c t r e -

s u l t i n g from t h e c r u s h i n g of f r a g -
ments of b e d r o c k o r l a r g e s t o n e s
with a l l fragments having a l l f a c e s
r e s u l t i n g from f r a c t u r e .

Cul-De-Sac S t r e e t - A l o c a l s t r e e t
open a t one end o n l y , and w i t h
special provisions for turning
around.

Culvert - A c l o s e d c o n d u i t , o t h e r
t h a n a b r i d g e , which conveys w a t e r
c a r r i e d i n a n a t u r a l channel o r
waterway from one s i d e of a highway
t o t h e o t h e r s i d e . C u l v e r t s may be
p r e f a b r i c a t e d p i p e s of c o n c r e t e ,
s t e e l , or v i t r i f i e d clay, or they
may be c a s t - i n - p l a c e s t r u c t u r e s of
r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e , s u c h a s box
c u l v e r t s and a r c h c u l v e r t s .

Curb - A s t r u c t u r e w i t h a v e r t i c a l
o r sloping face placed along t h e
edge of a pavement o r s h o u l d e r
f o r m i n g p a r t of a gutter, and
strengthening o r protecting t h e
edge.
 Curing Material - A material, such
as saturated burlap, polyethylene
sheets, or a sprayable compound,
that prevents the evaporation of
mixing water from portland cement
concrete.

Curve Widening - The widening of

the highway traveled way on sharp
curves to compensate for the fact
that the rear wheels of a vehicle
do not follow exactly in the track
of the front wheels.

Curvilinear Alignment - A flowing

alignment in which the majority of
its length is composed of circular
and spiral curves.

Cutoff - (1) (IESIANSI) A luminaire

light distribution is designated as
cutoff when the candlepower per
1,000 lamp lumens does not numeri-
cally exceed 25 (2-112 percent) at
an angle to 90" above nadir (hori-
zontal) and 100 (10 percent) at a
vertical angle of 80' above nadir.
This applies to any lateral angle
around the luminaire. (2) The ex-
cess length of piling after re-
quired bearing is achieved.

Cut Section - That part of the

roadway that, when constructed, is
lower in elevation than the origi-
nal ground.

m
Daily Flat Rate - An amount charged
the equipment user for possession
of user-rate equipment, unless the
equipment is broken down, sometimes
referred to as an ownership rate.

Date - The day, month, and year are

reckoned according to the Hegira
calendar and the applicable date
corresponding to the Gregorian cal-
endar.

Datum Plane - A reference plane to

which vertical measurements and
elevations are referred. Gener-
ally, the datum plane (elevation
0.00) is mean sea level.
.
Deadman - A buried obiect
" -
serving ..
s~,.. :
.~..
II C+
..
,+ - Deadman
as an anchor, such as cable-guard- Q r&&,L '+I\ >I&\ 6- JL
rail guy anchors. .-La
I
Design Speed - A s p e e d s e l e c t e d
f o r p u r p o s e s of d e s i g n and c o r r e l a -
t i o n of t h e g e o m e t r i c f e a t u r e s of a
highway and a measure of t h e q u a l -
i t y of s e r v i c e o f f e r e d by t h e h i g h -
way. It i s t h e h i g h e s t c o n t i n u o u s
s p e e d where i n d i v i d u a l v e h i c l e s c a n
t r a v e l w i t h s a f e t y upon a highway
when w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s a r e f a v o r -
a b l e , t r a f f i c d e n s i t y i s low and
t h e g e o m e t r i c d e s i g n f e a t u r e s of
t h e highway a r e t h e g o v e r n i n g con-
d i t i o n s f o r s a f e speed.

Design S u b g r a d e Value - The s u b -

grade s t r e n g t h value t h a t i s equal
t o o r l e s s t h a n a p p r o x i m a t e l y 90
p e r c e n t of a l l t e s t v a l u e s i n t h e
section.

D e s i g n T h i c k n e s s - The t o t a l t h i c k -
ness of t h e pavement structure
d e t e r m i n e d from t h e t h i c k n e s s de-
s i g n c h a r t s as a d e q u a t e f o r a g i v e n
t o t a l 8-ton e q u i v a l e n t s i n g l e - a x l e
loads s o i l strength value.

Design T r a f f i c Number - The a v e r a g e

d a i l y number of e q u i v a l e n t 80 kN
single-axle loads estimated f o r the
design lane during the design
period.

Design V e h i c l e s - S e l e c t e d motor
v e h i c l e s w i t h t h e w e i g h t , dimen-
sions, and operating character-
i s t i c s u s e d t o establish highway
d e s i g n c o n t r o l s f o r accommodating
v e h i c l e s of d e s i g n a t e d c l a s s e s .

D e s i g n V e h i c l e T u r n i n g R a d i u s - The
t u r n i n g r a d i u s of a Design V e h i c l e
used p r i m a r i l y t o determine t h e
minimum r a d i u s u s e d i n t h e d e s i g n
of t u r n i n g and i n t e r s e c t i n g r o a d -
ways.

Design Year - The f u t u r e y e a r u s e d

t o estimate the probable t r a f f i c
volume f o r which a highway i s
designed. A t i m e 10 t o 20 y e a r s
f r o m t h e s t a r t of c o n s t r u c t i o n i s
u s u a l l y used.

Destination - The l o c a t i o n of where

a t r i p ends.

Detector - A d e v i c e by which ve-

h i c l e s and p e d e s t r i a n s a r e e n a h l e d
t o r e g i s t e r t h e i r presence o r pas-
sage.
 D e t e n t i o n - S t o r a g e of s u r f a c e ruu-
o f f from a d r a i n a g e a r e a i n n a t u r a l
o r manmade d e p r e s s i o n s .

D e t o u r - ( 1 ) A temporary r e r o u t i n g
of t r a f f i c . ( 2 ) The r o u t e of t h e
temporary r e r o u t i n g .

DHV (Design Hour Volume) - The rz - + +

( CSU ~I w) DHV
f u t u r e two-way h o u r l y t r a f f i c v o l - +"'dl 4 ' L C U l 4 ,>,A1 asy
ume f o r u s e i n d e s i g n , u s u a l l y t h e + I 4 &Li.-JI 4
3 0 t h h i g h e s t h o u r l y volume of t h e 4 1 4 ,&LLlI ,-=-Jl 9 3
d e s i g n y e a r (30 HV). . ( 30 DV) +I 'd
is U l

Diamond I n t e r c h a n g e - A f o u r - l e g
i n t e r c h a n o e w i t h a s i n g l e one-way
ramp i n e a c h q u a d r a n t . All left
t u r n s a r e made d i r e c t l y on t h e
minor roadway.

Dip (Low Water C r o s s i n g ) - A road-

stream c r o s s i n g designed t o allow
occasional flooding. The r o a d
g r a d e i s lowered t o s t r e a m bed
l e v e l from bank t o bank.

D i r e c t Connection - A form of ramp

t h a t d o e s not d e v i a t e a p p r e c i a b l y
i r o n t h e i n t e n d e d d i r e c t i o n of t r a -
vel. The i n n e r l o o p f o r l e f t -
t u r n i n g movement i s a v o i d e d by t h e
u s e of s e p a r a t e s t r u c t u r e s . An
o u t e r c o n n e c t i o n i s a d i r e c t con-
nection for right-turning move-
ments .
Direct Cost - A monetary v a l u e t h a t
i s t h e sum of e x p e n d i t u r e s t h a t c a n
be r e l a t e d t o a s p e c i f i c s e r v i c e ,

a
product, o r a c t i v i t y without prora-
t ion.

D i r e c t i o n a l D i s t r i b u t i o n - The one- ,-, -

way volume i n t h e predominant d i -
r e c t i o n of t r a v e l , e x p r e s s e d a s a
d+Yl
0 5 4 4 - 4 1
I-U P b->L
abL+Yl

b&
a+Y(
bs I-
* ?;+I

,&I
p e r c e n t a g e of t h e two-way Design 6.L 14 &+2l 4 +I h5+1
Hour Volume. . 'LC L.

D i r e c t i o n a l I n t e r c h a n g e - An i n t e r -
c h a n g e , g e n e r a l l y h a v i n g more t h a n
one highway s e p a r a t i o n , w i t h d i r e c t
connections f o r t h e major l e f t -
t u r n i n g movements.

Directional Island - A triangular

i s l a n d used t o d i r e c t t u r n i n g move-
ments a l o n g t u r n i n g roadways.
D i r e c t Shear T e s t -
h shear t e s t i n
which s o i l u n d e r an a p p l i e d normal
l o a d i s s t r e s s e d t o f a i l u r e by
moving one s e c t i o n of t h e s o i l con-
t a i n e r r e l a t i v e t o the other sec-
t ion.

D i s c h a r g e Frequency - The runofE

that c a n be e x p e c t e d t o o c c u r
d u r i n g t h e l i f e of a highway.
Design may be on a lo-, 25-, or
50-year f l o o d .

D i t c h - A t r e n c h dug i n t h e e a r t h
f o r drainage purposes.

D i v e r g i n g - The d i v i d i n g of a s i n -
g l e s t r e a m of t r a f f i c i n t o s e p a r a t e
s t reams.

D i v i d e d Highway - A highway w i t h
s e p a r a t e d roadways f o r t r a f f i c i n
opposite directions.

Divisional Island - A longit~ldinal

i s l a n d t o s e p a r a t e opposing t r a f -
f i c , t o provide p r o t e c t i o n f o r l e f t
t u r n b a y s , and t o c h a n n e l t r a E E i c
i n t o t h e proper approach paths a t
skewed i n t e r s e c t i o n s .

Dormant S t a g e - The p e r i o d i n p l a n t
l i f e when s e a s o n a l growth c e a s e s .

Drainage - (1) Provision f o r the

d i s p o s a l of w a t e r . ( 2 ) The mode i n
which s u r f a c e w a t e r i s c a r r i e d o f f .

Drawings - See P l a n s .

D r i v e r - Any p e r s o n who d r i v e s a
motor vehicle or other vehicle
( i n c l u d i n g a c y c l e ) , o r who g u i d e s
animals s i n g l y or i n herds o r
f l o c k s , o r d r a f t , pack, or s a d d l e
a n i m a l s on a road.

Driveways - Minor roadway connec-

tions that a i n t o three cat-
egories: p r i v a t e , commercial, and
puhlic.

Driving Lights - High beam hend-

lights.

Dry Masonry - Stone laid without

mortar.

Ductility (Steel) -
The a b i l i t y of
a m a t e r i a l t o deform p l a s t i c a l l y
under t e n s i l e f o r c e s h e f o r e f r a c -
turing.
D u r a b i l i t y - That p r o p e r t y t h a t
enables a material t o r e s i s t dis-
r u p t i v e f o r c e s of n a t u r e and t h o s e
a p p l i e d i n s e r v i c e over a n extended
p e r i o d of t i m e .

EAL ( E q u i v a l e n t Single-Axle Load) - - (EAL) 3 4 1 +

,I & JJL
The e f f e c t on pavement p e r f o r m a n c e p i s $1 p p91_FJ1 /LJl
of any c o m b i n a t i o n of a x l e l o a d s of b~_remJ1 +I .~+L;lpJl ~L-91
varying magnitude, equated t o t h e &I3 3 4 1 &&I & jg-1
number of reference single-axle JL~~ YIJ i ,&L
l o a d s r e q u i r e d t o produce an e q u i v - 3 2 c(-Y?r koj4ill uI '0 3 41

a l e n t number of r e p e t i t i o n s of a n A Jd 3 4 1 2 4 1 cp J ) L
R-ton s i n g l e a x l e . .&
Ecology - The b r a n c h of s c i e n c e
c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of
o r g a n i s m s and t h e i r environment.

Economic A n a l y s i s - A j u s t i E i c a t i o n
of t h e e x p e n d i t u r e r e q u i r e d v e r s u s
t h e comparative worth c o s t p r o j e c -
t i o n of a proposed improvement and
a s compared t o o t h e r a l t e r n a t e
plans.

Ecosystem - An e c o l o g i c a l commun-
i t y , considered together with the
n o n l i v i n g f a c t o r s of t h e e n v i r o n -
ment a s a u n i t .

E i g h t y - f i f t h P e r c e n t i l e Speed - The
s p e e d a t o r below which 85 p e r c e n t
of t h e v e h i c l e s a r e b e i n g o p e r a t e d .

E l a s t i c i t y - That p r o p e r t y of a
material t h a t permits it t o r e t u r n
approximately t o i t s o r i g i n a l d i -
mensions upon t h e removal of a n
a p p l i e d load.

E l a s t i c L i m i t - The g r e a t e s t s t r e s s
t h a t a m a t e r i a l i s c a p a b l e of s u s -
t a i n i n g w i t h o u t any permanent de-
f o r m a t i o n r e m a i n i n g upon c o m p l e t e
r e l e a s e of t h e s t r e s s .

E l e v a t e d Highway - A highway whose

roadway i s on f i l l o r s t r u c t u r e
above t h e l e v e l of t h e a d j a c e n t
ground.

E l e v a t i o n - Height above s e a l e v e l
o r o t h e r datum.

E l o n g a t i o n - The i n c r e a s e i n gauge
l e n g t h of a t e n s i o n t e s t specimen,
u s u a l l y e x p r e s s e d as a p e r c e n t a g e
of t h e o r i g i n a l gauge l e n g t h .
Embankment - A r a i s e d e a r t h s t r u c -
t u r e on which t h e roadway pavement
s t r u c t u r e is placed.

Embankment F o u n d a t i o n - The mater-

i a l below t h e o r i g i n a l ground s u r -
face, the physical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of which a f f e c t t h e s u p p o r t of t h e
embankment.

Emergency Escape Ramp - A s h o r t

s e c t i o n of road a d j a c e n t t o a s t e e p
downgrade f o r s l o w i n g down and
stopping out-of-control vehicles.

Emergency V e h i c l e - A v e h i c l e be-
l o n g i n g t o t h e armed f o r c e s , c i v i l
d e f e n s e , p o l i c e , o r any ambulance
rescue u n i t v e h i c l e , o r o t h e r des-
i g n a t e d v e h i c l e used f o r a n s w e r i n g
emergency c a l l s f o r a s s i s t a n c e .

E m p i r i c a l - Developed from e x p e r -
i e n c e o r observations without re-
g a r d t o s c i e n c e and t h e o r y .

E m u l s i f i e d A s p h a l t - A m i x t u r e of
a s p h a l t cement and w a t e r mixed w i t h
an emulsifying agent.

E m u l s i f i e d A s p h a l t T r e a t e d Base - A
b a s e c o n s i s t i n g of a m i x t u r e of
m i n e r a l a g g r e g a t e and e m u l s i f i e d
a s p h a l t s p r e a d on a p r e p a r e d s u r -
face t o support a surface course.

Encroachment - U n a u t h o r i z e d u s e of
t h e right-of-way o r easements a s
f o r signs, fences, buildings, etc.

Energy Dissipater - A r i p r a p b a s i n
or concrete s t r u c t u r e placed a t t h e
o u t l e t end o f a c u l v e r t t o d i 4 s i -
p a t e t h e s t r e a m e n e r s y and r e d u c e
s c o u r and e r o s i o n .

Engineer - The d u l y a u t h o r i z e d
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e M i n i s t r y a t
the project s i t e , acting directly
or through h i s duly authorized
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , who i s r e s p o n s i b l e
f o r e n g i n e e r i n g s u p e r v i s i o n of t h e
Work.

E n t r a n c e L o s s - The l o s s o f e n e r g y
a t a c u l v e r t e n t r a n c e due t o t h e
s h a p e of t h e e n t r a n c e .

Environment - The t o t a l i t y of man's

s u r r o u n d i n g s -- s o c i a l , p h y s i c a l ,
n a t u r a l , and manmade.
 E n v i r o n m e n t a l Design - The l o c a t i o n
and d e s i g n of a highway t h a t i n -
c l u d e s c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e impact
of t h e f a c i l i t y on t h e community
o r r e g i o n based on a e s t h e t i c , eco-
logical, cultural, sociological,
economic, h i s t o r i c a l , c o n s e r v a t i o n ,
and o t h e r f a c t o r s .

E q u i v a l e n t Single-Axle Load (EAL) - - (EAL) I +

,I & JJL
The e f f e c t on pavement performance ip +1 p +i-Jl
of any c o m b i n a t i o n of a x l e l o a d s of &>+I +I b y ~ ~ gJ L
~ ~ !I
varying magnitude, equated t o t h e &I> 3 4 1 &+I &
numher of reference single-axle +WI ~ ~ 4 2 9 1el , g "~ g ~
l o a d s r e q u i r e d t o produce a n e q u i v - J 9 L,
U I , > d l 'iJ+l
a l e n t number of r e p e t i t i o n s of a n A & >+I Jy-dI &,, ip p L
8-ton s i n g l e a x l e . .&
E r o s i o n - A slow w e a r i n g away of
t h e s u r f a c e by n a t u r a l a c t i o n of

a
wind o r w a t e r .

- E r o s i o n C o n t r o l - The p r e v e n t i o n o r
r e d u c t i o n of e r o s i o n .

E s t i m a t e - The e x p e c t e d t o t a l c o s t
of t h e p r o j e c t .

E x c a v a t i o n - ( 1 ) The a c t of t a k i n g
out material. ( 2 ) The m a t e r i a l s
taken out. ( 3 ) The c a v i t y r e -
maining a f t e r m a t e r i a l s have been
removed.

E x i s t i n g Noise L e v e l s - The n o i s e ,
made up of a l l t h e n a t u r a l and man-
made n o i s e s , c o n s i d e r e d t o be usu-
a l l y present within a particular
area's acoustical environment.
Unique n o i s e e v e n t s may be ex-
cluded.

E x i t - The p o i n t where t r a f f i c
l e a v e s a n expressway t o t r a v e l t o
an i n t e r s e c t i n g road.

Expansion - The i n c r e a s e i n volume

of a n a t e r i a l due t o i n c r e a s e i n
temperature.

Expansion J o i n t - A narrow s p a c e
l e f t between two p a r t s of a con-
c r e t e s t r u c t u r e t o a l l o w f o r ex-
p a n s i o n and c o n t r a c t i o n of t h e con-
c r e t e w i t h changes i n t e m p e r a t u r e
and l o a d i n g .
Expressway - A m u l t i l a n e , d i v i d e d
highway d e s i g n e d t o move l a r g e
volumes of t r a f f i c a t h i g h s p e e d s
u n d e r f r e e - f low c o n d i t i o n s . Ex-
p r e s s w a y s have f u l l c o n t r o l of
access with grade-separated i n t e r -
changes.

Expropriation - Acquisition of
p r o p e r t y f o r highway p u r p o s e s .

F a b r i c a t i n g P l a n t - A p l a n t where
component p a r t s a r e f o r m e d , w e l d e d ,
o r b o l t e d t o g e t h e r t o f o r m assem-
b l e d u n i t s , s u c h a s beams, t r u s s e s ,
o r o t h e r p a r t s of m e t a l s t r u c t u r e s .

F a c t o r of S a f e t y ( S a f e t y F a c t o r ,
Cut and F i l l S l o p e s ) - That f a c t o r
by which t h e s h e a r s t r e n g t h may be
reduced i n o r d e r t o b r i n g t h e s l o p e
i n t o a s t a t e of l i m i t i n g e q u i l i b -
rium a l o n g a g i v e n s l i p s u r f a c e .

F e a s t s and H o l i d a y s - A l l r e c o g -
n i z e d f e a s t s , h o l i d a y s , d a y s of
r e s t , and o t h e r r e l i g i o u s customs
r e c o g n i z e d i n t h e Kingdom.

F e e d e r Road - A t y p e of r o a d s e r v -
i n g two d i s t i n c t f u n c t i o n s . It
p r o v i d e s a t r a f f i c s e r v i c e hetween
primaries, arterial-collectors,
o t h e r l o c a l r o a d s , a town, v i l l a g e ,
i n d u s t r i a l o r commercial d e v e l o p -
ment, o r a r e c r e a t i o n a l a r e a . It
also provides direct vehicular
a c c e s s t o privately-owned proper-
ties. Land s e r v i c e i s t h e f i r s t
c o n s i d e r a t i o n , but t r a f f i c s e r v i c e
may have more than incidental
significance.

F i l l Section - See Embankment.

F i l l Slope - I n f i l l s , t h e s l o p e
from t h e t o p of t h e s u b g r a d e t o t h e
t o e of t h e f i l l .

Fines - ( 1 ) Aggregates - P o r t i o n 1 - I ( ) - I Jl+I

f i n e r t h a n t h e 4.75 mm (No. 4 ) (1). ,- XJYO raJ L j cp @JI
s i e v e . ( 2 ) S o i l s - P o r t i o n of a JL* ip _p, GLJI s_tJI -CAI
s o i l f i n e r t h a n a .075 mm (No. 200) . (T.. ,d,) p".,.yo
sieve.
 F i x e d o r Permanent C o u n t e r s - Em-

a
p l o y e d f o r c o n t i n u o u s c o u n t s , re-
c o r d i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t r a f f i c
by h o u r s of t h e day, d a y s of t h e
week, months of t h e y e a r , and from
year t o year.

F l a r e d I n t e r s e c t i o n - An unchan-
nelized intersection, or a divided
highway i n t e r s e c t i o n w i t h o u t i s -
l a n d s o t h e r t h a n m e d i a n s , where
t h e t r a v e l e d way of any i n t e r s e c -
t i o n l e g i s widened o r a n a u x i l i a r y
l a n e added.

F l e x i b l e Base - A b a s e w i t h low
r e s i s t a n c e t o bending, e n a b l i n g i t
t o s t a y i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e under-
lying structure. T h i s t y p e of b a s e
d i s t r i b u t e s loads t o t h e subbase.
Examples a r e d e n s e g r a d e d a g g r e g a t e
b a s e s and a s p h a l t t r e a t e d b a s e s .

F l e x i b l e Pavement - A pavement
s t r u c t u r e t h a t maintains intimate
c o n t a c t w i t h and d i s t r i b u t e s l o a d s
t o t h e s u b g r a d e , and depends on
aggregate intergranular particle
f r i c t i o n , and c o h e s i o n f o r s t a b i l -
ity.

Flood Frequency - The a v e r a g e i n -

t e r v a l of t i m e , based on t h e p e r i o d
of r e c o r d , between f l o o d s e q u a l t o
o r g r e a t e r than a specified dis-
charge o r h e i g h t . G e n e r a l l y , ex-
pressed i n years.

Flood P l a i n - The a r e a a d j a c e n t t o
a n a t u r a l wadi t h a t i s i n u n d a t e d
d u r i n g f l o o d s of a l l f r e q u e n c i e s .
Normally, i n highway d r a i n a g e de-
s i g n , t h e a r e a i n u n d a t e d by a 100-
year flood.

Flow L i n e - The bottom of a w a d i ,

c u l v e r t , d i t c h , o r o t h e r water-
course.

Foliage - The leafy portion of a

plant.

F o o t i n g - P o r t i o n of t h e f o u n d a t i o n
of a s t r u c t u r e t h a t t r a n s m i t s l o a d s
directly to the soil.

F o r e s l o p e - The s l o p e from t h e edge

of t h e s u r f a c e d s h o u l d e r t o t h e t o p
of t h e s u b g r a d e , o r t h e b o t t o m of
the ditch i n cuts.
Grade Compensation - The p r a c t i c e , 1-" - -L,s" y &+I
on s h a r p c u r v e s , of r e d u c i n g t h e . ..
-4-1 ,I ( i l & s
p e r c e n t a g e of g r a d i e n t t o compen- ' i s 4 I I b-
s a t e f o r l o s s of v e h i c l e momentum . I a 3 t - h -I,UI
and i n c r e a s e d t r a c t i v e r e s i s t a n c e .

Grade Contour - The t r a c e of a p r e - iet. 3 d l U I ya - c,dl h+-

d e t e r m i n e d g r a d e l i n e p l o t t e d on a "-r y. j U I '&
t o p o g r a p h i c map o r t r a c e d on t h e 4J91 '& ry-d! > f 'el>&
ground by a n Abney L e v e l Line. For +I jlp I, 3 i l &.+L L lz;--L+
example, i f t h e c o n t o u r i n t e r v a l i s a _ a U ! c;LS I 3 1 ,JLL. Abney
5 m and t h e g r a d i e n t 5 p e r c e n t , t h e 4 0 'f L-JI .&> -c- 6
grade contour i n t e r s e c t i o n s with ! 19+% i-.LLCe-, a h J U l
P c-'
s u c c e s s i v e c o n t o u r s would be 100 m e a L & a+ l l eL ; u - I C i
apart. . A&*+ '02-

G r a d e - C o n t r o l l e d L o c a t i o n - A sec-
t i o n of highway where t h e highway
r o u t e i s c o n t r o l l e d by t h e maximum
a l l o w a b l e g r a d i e n t and t h e d i f -
f e r e n c e i n e l e v a t i o n between t e r -
mini.

Grade C r o s s i n g ( R a i l r o a d ) - The
i n t e r s e c t i o n of a highway and a
r a i l r o a d a t t h e same e l e v a t i o n .

Grade I n t e r s e c t i o n - An i n t e r s e c -
t i o n where a l l roadways j o i n o r
c r o s s a t t h e same l e v e l .

Grade L i n e , Grade Profile - See

P r o f i l e Grade.

Grade S e p a r a t i o n - A s t r u c t u r e t h a t
p r o v i d e s f o r highway t r a f f i c t o
p a s s o v e r o r under a n o t h e r highway
o r t h e t r a c k s of a r a i l r o a d .

G r a d i e n t - The r a t e of r i s e o r f a l l
with respect t o the horizontal dis-
tance.

G r a d i n g - (1) C o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e
e a r t h w o r k p o r t i o n of t h e Ilighway.
(2) P l a n i n g o r smoothing t h e s u r -
f a c e of v a r i o u s p a r t s of t h e r o a d
by means of a m o t o r - d r i v e n a d j u s t -
a b l e s t e e l blade.

Gravel - Aggregate composed of

hard, durable stones or pebbles,
crushed o r uncrushed, o f t e n i n t e r -
mixed w i t h s a n d .

G r a v i t y Escape Ramp - A r o a d t h a t
r u n s u p h i l l from t h e main t r a v e l e d
way, t o slow out-of-control ve-
hicles.
Ground C o n t r o l - An a c c u r a t e ground
.>

s u r v e y of t a r g e t s , o r o t h e r f e a -
tures visible i n a e r i a l photo-
g r a p h s , t o i n s u r e t h e a c c u r a c y of
p h o t o g r a m m e t r i c mapping.

Ground Cover - Herbaceous v e g e t a -

t i o n and low-growing woody p l a n t s
t h a t form a n e a r t h c o v e r .

Ground Water - F r e e w a t e r c o n t a i n e d
i n t h e zone below t h e w a t e r t a h l e .

Grout - M o r t a r , composed of s a n d ,
cement, and w a t e r , of s u c h con-
s i s t e n c y t h a t i t can be e a s i l y
worked.

Growth F a c t o r - A f a c t o r u s e d t o
predict increased t r a f f i c based
upon a n a v e r a g e a n n u a l p e r c e n t i n -
crease.

G u a r a n t o r - A bank approved by t h e
Government of Saudi A r a b i a , t h a t
provides the guarantees called f o r
i n t h e c o n t r a c t documents.

Guardrail - A protective cable or

r a i l d e v i c e p l a c e d a l o n g t h e road-
way edge f o r t h e p u r p o s e of r e d i -
r e c t i n g v e h i c l e s t h a t have l e f t t h e
roadway a t a p o i n t of h a z a r d .

G u n i t e ( S h o t c r e t e ) - A t y p e of
p o r t l a n d cement m o r t a r blown i n t o
p l a c e by compressed a i r . The ma-
terials are mixed while being
f o r c e d through a nozzle.

G u t t e r - A paved and g e n e r a l l y
s h a l l o w waterway p r o v i d e d f o r c a r -
rying surface drainage.

GVW - A b b r e v i a t i o n for gross ve-

h i c l e weight.

Hardpan - Layer of e x t r e m e l y d e n s e
soil.

Headwall - A v e r t i c a l w a l l , a t t h e
end o f a c u l v e r t t o p r e v e n t e a r t h
from s p i l l i n g i n t o t h e c h a n n e l .
Headwater Depth - Culverts con-
strict the natural stream flow and
catlse a rise in the water surface
at the culvert entrance. Headwater
depth is the total flow depth from
the inlet invert of the culvert to
the water surface at the inlet.

Herbaceous - Vegetation that is

nonwoody.

High Mast Lighting - Illumination

of a large area by means of a group
of luminaires designed to he
mounted in fixed orientation at the
top of a high mast (generally 25 m
or higher).

High Pressure Sodium Lamp - A so-

dium vapor lamp where the partial
pressure of the vapor during opera-
tion is of the order of 10 kPa (0.1
atmosphere).

Highway Planting - The installation

of plant materials and irrigation
systems on the highway right-of-way
for aesthetic and functional pur-
poses.

Highway, Street, or Road - These

are general terms denoting a public
way for purposes of vehicular tra-
vel, including the entire area
within the right-of-way.

Horizon (Soils) - One of the layers

of the soil profile, distinguished
principally by its texture, color,
structure, and chemical contents.

Horizontal Alignment - Horizontal

geometrics of the roadway.

Horizontal Curve - A circular curve

or transitional by means of which a
highway can change direction to the
right or left.

Rot Mix - A general term used for

hot plant-mixed bituminous concrete
and sheet asphalt mixtures manufac-
tured and laid at temperatures
ranging from 120° to 190" Celsius.

Hourly Volume - The number of ve-

hicles passing over a given sec-
tion of a lane or roadway during 1
hour.
 Housing - That p a r t of a s i g n a l

a
head t o which t h e o p t i c a l u n i t and
door a r e a t t a c h e d f o r s u p p o r t , pro-
t e c t i o n , and a t t a c h m e n t t o o t h e r
p a r t s of t h e s i g n a l a s s e m b l y .

Humidity ( R e l a t i v e ) - The amount of

m o i s t u r e i n t h e a i r compared w i t h
t h e amount t h a t t h e a i r c o u l d h o l d
i f s a t u r a t e d a t t h a t temperature.

Humus - A hrown o r b l a c k m a t e r i a l
formed by t h e p a r t i a l d e c o m p o s i t i o n
of v e g e t a b l e o r a n i m a l m a t t e r ; t h e
o r g a n i c p o r t i o n of s o i l .

Hyd. - Abbreviation f o r Hydraulic. .L.J,,A& bell ,LdLl - Hyd

Hydrated Lime - A d r y powder ob-

t a i n e d by t r e a t i n g quick-lime w i t h

a
enough w a t e r t o s a t i s f y i t s chemi-
c a l a f f i n i t y f o r water under t h e
c o n d i t i o n s of i t s h y d r a t i o n .

H y d r o s t a t i c P r e s s u r e - The p r e s s u r e
i n a l i q u i d under s t a t i c condi-
tions; t h e p r o d u c t of t h e u n i t
weight of t h e l i q u i d and t h e d i f -
f e r e n c e i n e l e v a t i o n between t h e
g i v e n p o i n t and t h e f r e e w a t e r e l e -
vation.

I g n e o u s Rock - Those r o c k s formed

by t h e c o o l i n g and c o n s o l i d a t i o n of
complex s i l i c i o u s s o l u t i o n s (mag-
mas) newly r i s e n from some d e e p e r
level.

I l l u m i n a n c e - The d e n s i t y of t h e
luminous f l u x i n c i d e n t on a s u r -
f a c e ; i t i s t h e q u o t i e n t of t h e
luminous f l u x d i v i d e d by t h e a r e a
of t h e s u r f a c e when t h e l a t t e r i s
uniformly illuminated.

I l l u m i n a n c e (Lux) Meter - An i n -
strument f o r measuring t h e i l l u m i -
nance on a p l a n e . The i n s t r u m e n t
i s comprised of some form of photo-
d e t e c t o r , with or without a f i l t e r ,
driving a d i g i t a l o r analog readout
through a p p r o p r i a t e c i r c u i t r y .

I l l u m i n a t i o n - The a c t of i l l u m i -
n a t i n g o r s t a t e of b e i n g i l l u m i -
n a t e d . P r e v i o u s l y t h i s t e r m was
u s e d f o r d e n s i t y of luminous f l u x
on a s u r f a c e ( i l l u m i n a n c e ) .
Impact Attenuator - A device placed
in front of a fixed object in or
near the roadway for the purpose of
stopping a vehicle at a controlled
rate.

Impervious - Resistant to the pen-

etration of a liquid or gas.

Independent Alignments - Each road-

way of a divided highway is de-
signed and located to take full
advantage of the terrain. The me-
dian need not be of uniform width,
and the two roadways need not be at
the same level.

Indication - The illumination of a

traffic signal lens.

Indigenous - Produced, growing, or

living naturally in a particular
region or environment.

Infiltration - The ability of the

soil of a drainage area to absorb
water, expressed in centimeters per
hour.

Inlet Control - A culvert operates

under inlet control when the flow
capacity is controlled by headwater
depth, culvert cross section, and
inlet edge configuration.

Interchange - A system of intercon-

necting roadways in conjunction
with one or more grade separations,
providing for the movement of traf-
fic between two or more roadways on
different levels.

Interchange Lighting - Two basic

types occur, complete and partial.
Complete interchange lighting is
considered the lighting of the
through-traffic lanes through the
interchange, the traffic lanes of
all ramps, the acceleration and
deceleration lanes, all ramp ter-
minals, and the crossroad between
the outermost ramp terminals.
Partial interchange lighting con-
sists of a few luminaires located
in the vicinity of some or all ramp
terminals. The usual practice is
to light those general areas where
the exit and entrance ramps connect
with the through-traffic lanes
through the interchange and gener-
ally those areas where the ramps
intersect the crossroad.*
 &
"1 ..&-L1 Fk,
: '&*A
*Note: These definitions are from ..
J1 p 633i-c4 4 1
the AASHTO "An Informa-
GL+ _WJ gs_, AASHTO
tional Guide for Roadway
Lighting" and some terms
+ "I> .a+\ Z ~ L I
&aI
.Ul
used may need to be changed
@ I b,L 4 &L
to conform with the ter- I 9 9 1 4
minology used in the HDM. ..b . d.. 1 e a l g

+
,.I &
. J--l.

Internal Friction - The resistance

to sliding within the soil mass.

Interrupted Plow - A condition

where a vehicle traveling in a sec-
tion of a lane is required to stop
by a cause outside the traffic
stream, such as signals or stop
signs.

Intersection - The area common to

two or more highways that come
together at an angle.

Intersection Angle - The angle be-

tween two intersection legs.

Intersection Leg - That part of any

one of the roadways radiating from
an intersection that is outside the
area of the intersection proper.
(Approach - The portion of a leg
that is used by traffic approach-
ing the intersection.) (Exit - The
portion of a leg that is used by
traffic leaving an intersection.)

Interval - Any one of the several

divisions of the time cycle during.
which the signal indications do not
change.
-
Invert - The lowest point of the
internal cross section of a closed
conduit or channel.

Invitation for Tenders - The adver-

tisement for tenders for the Work.
Such advertisement will indicate,
with reasonable accuracy, the quan-
tity and location of the Work, the
character and quantity of materials
to be furnished, and the time and
place of the opening of tenders.

Island - A defined area between

lanes for control of vehicle move-
ments or for pedestrian refuge.
Isolux L i n e - A l i n e p l o t t e d on any
a p p r o p r i a t e c o o r d i n a t e s t o show a l l
t h e p o i n t s on a s u r f a c e where t h e
i l l u m i n a n c e i s t h e same. For a
complete e x p l o r a t i o n , t h e l i n e i s a
c l o s e d curve. 4 s e r i e s of s u c h
l i n e s f o r v a r i o u s i l l r i m i n a n c e va-
l u e s i s c a l l e d a n i s o l u x diagram.

Keel - A l a r g e c r a y o n used for

marking s t a k e s o r s u r f a c e s .

Lamp Lumen Depreciation Factor

(LLD) - The m u l t i p l i e r t o be used
i n the illumination calculations t o
r e l a t e t h e i n i t i a l r a t e d o u t p u t of
l i g h t sources t o the anticipated
minimun r a t e d o u t p u t based on t h e
r e l a m p i n g program t o he used.

Landscaping - Enhancing t h e n a t u r a l
f e a t u r e s of t h e l a n d t h r o u g h t h e
d e s i g n and u s e of v e g e t a t i o n and
other materials.

Lane - A p o r t i o n of t h e t r a v e l e d
way p r o v i d i n g f o r a s i n g l e l i n e of
t r a f f i c i n one d i r e c t i o n .

Leading - As a p p l i e d t o a s i g n a l
indication and t h e accompanying
t r a f f i c movement, means t h a t t h e y
o c c u r heEore t h e p r i n c i p a l t r a f f i c
movement on t h a t a p p r o a c h . Most
frequently, it i s applied t o a l e f t
t u r n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t precedes the
d i s p l a y of t h e g r e e n i n d i c a t i o n f o r
t r a f f i c from t h e o p p o s i t e a p p r o a c h .

Ledge Rock - A l a y e r of s t o n e i n a
quarry.

Left Lane - On a two-lane, two-ay

road, t h e t r a f f i c l a n e t h a t is t o
t h e l e f t of t h e c e n t e r l i n e and n o r -
m a l l y used by t r a f f i c i n t h e oppo-
s i t e d i r e c t i o n ; o r on a m u l t i l a n e
r o a d , t h e extreme l e f t t r a f f i c l a n e
of t h o s e a v a i l a h l e f o r t r a f f i c t r a -
v e l i n g i n one d i r e c t i o n .
 Left-Turn Lane - 4 trafEic lane
within the normal surfaced width of
a roadway or an auxiliary lane
adjacent to or within a median,
reserved for left-turning vehicles
at an intersection.

Leq - The equivalent steady state

sound level that in a stated period
of time would contain the same
acoustic energy as the time-varying
sound level during the same time
period.

Level Crossing - The crossing of a

roadway and the tracks of a rail-
road at the same grade.

Leveling Course - The layer of

material placed on an existing sur-
face to eliminate irregularities
prior to placing an overlaying
course.

Level of Service - A qualitative

measure of the effect of a number
of factors, such as operating
speed, travel time, traffic inter-
ruptions, freedom to manuever and
pass, driving safety, comfort, con-
venience and operating costs on the
service a highway renders to its
users.

Light Distribution Pattern - An

illustrated description of the he-
havior of the light from a lumi-
.
a naire

L i-~ h tTruck (Pickup) - A motor ve-

hicle designed for the transpor-
tation of goods and materials whose
eSpJ1
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ifa -

.o=,Li
(4
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@h--" &L 2
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L
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.
--
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4 1

unladen weight does not exceed . pip ''

3,500 kg.

Lime - A general term that includes

the various chemical and physical
forms of quicklime, hydrated lime,
and hydraulic lime used for any
purpose.

Liquid Asphalt - Cutbacks or emul-

sified asphalts.

Lithology - A geological term deal-

ing with the physical properties of
rocks and their structure.
Load Factor - A ratio of the total
number of green signal intervals
that are fully utilized by traffic
to the total number of green inter-
vals for that approach during the
peak hour. Its maximum attainable
value is one.

Loam - A mixture of sand, silt or

clay, or a combination of any of
these with organic matter. It is
sometimes called topsoil in con-
trast to the subsoils that contain
little or no organic matter.

Local Street or Local Road - A

street or road primarily for access
to residence, business, or other
abutting property. A design clas-
sification for these types of
roads.

Locked Gate Access - On access con-

trolled highways, an opening in the
access control line to enable a
railroad or utility to service its
facility from the highway. The
public is denied the use of these
openings.

Loess - A uniform windblown deposit

of silty material having an open
structure and relatively high cohe-
sion due to cementation of clay or
calcareous material at grain con-
tacts.

Log, Drilling - A record of under-

ground conditions discovered by
drilling test holes. A drilling
log documents the thickness and
composition of underground geologi-
cal formations.
Longitudinal - Running or placed
lengthwise.

Longitudinal Joint - A joint that

extends lengthwise of the roadway.

Luminaire - A complete lighting

unit consisting of a lamp or lamps,
together with the parts designed to
distribute the light, to position
and protect the lamps, and to con-
nect the lamps to the power supply.
 Luminaire D i r t D e p r e c i a t i o n F a c t o r
(LLD) - The m u l t i p l i e r t o he used

a i n illuminance c a l c u l a t i o n s t o ac-
count f o r t h e r e d u c t i o n i n l i g h t
o u t p u t of t h e l u m i n a i r e o v e r a
g i v e n t i m e s p a n due t o a c c u m u l a t i o n
of d i r t on o p t i c a l l u m i n a i r e com-
ponents.

L u m i n a l r e E f f i c i e n c y - The r a t i o o f
lumens e m i t t e d by a l u m i n a i r e , t o
t h a t e m i t t e d by t h e l a m p ( s ) u s e d
therein.

L u m i n a i r e Maintenance F a c t o r (MF) -
The l u m i n a i r e m a i n t e n a n c e f a c t o r i s
t h e p r o d u c t of t h e I m n i n a i r e D i r e c t
D e p r e c i a t i o n F a c t o r (LDD) and t h e
Lamp Lumen Depreciation Factor
(LLD) (MF = LDD x L1,D). It i s t h e
t o t a l d e p r e c i a t i o n f a c t o r t h a t can
be a p p l i e d t o t h e c a l c u l a t e d i n i -
t i a l illuminance values t o deter-
mine t h e l o w e s t i l l u m i n a n c e v a l u e s
t h a t c a n be e x p e c t e d when t h e l i g h t
s o u r c e is a t i t s lowest o u t p u t
( j u s t b e f o r e r e l a m p i n g ) , and t h e
luminaire i s i n i t s d i r t i e s t condi-
t i o n ( j u s t before cleaning).

Luminance (L) - Luminance i s t h e $9 '++I MWI 9 - (JI) i * l d Y l

luminous i n t e n s i t y of any s u r f a c e i~ k b j Jg ~ ^ 9 d &'-+I 4 $-
i n a g i v e n d i r e c t i o n p e r u n i t of A a +I &jJ ' G A l GI d l
p r o j e c t e d a r e a of t h e s u r f a c e a s JL 4;s H, a+Yl d 3 Lc,ll
viewed from t h a t d i r e c t i o n , ex- .( y +I )
?/.U 4 c U 1
pressed i n candelas per square
m e t e r (cd/m2).

Luminance (Lv o r L) - Luminous F l u x

a
from a s u r f a c e e l e m e n t d i v i d e d by
t h e p r o d u c t of t h e p r o j e c t e d a r e a
of t h e element p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e
beam and t h e s o l i d a n g l e c o n t a i n i n g
t h e beam; i n lumens p e r s q u a r e
meter per s t e r a d i a n o r candelas per
s q u a r e meter.

Maintenance - The p r e s e r v i n g and

k e e p i n g of e a c h t y p e of roadway,
r o a d s i d e s t r u c t u r e , and f a c i l i t y
( a s n e a r l y a s ~ o s s i b l e )i n i t s o r i -
g i n a l or reconstructed condition.

Major S t r e e t - The roadway a p p r o a c h

o r approaches t o an i n t e r s e c t i o n
t h a t normally c a r r y t h e g r e a t e s t
volume of v e h i c u l a r t r a f f i c .
M a t e r i a l s - Any s u b s t a n c e s p e c i f i e d
f o r u s e i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e
p r o j e c t and i t s a p p u r t e n a n c e s .

M a t t i n g - M a t e r i a l used a s a s u r -
face protector i n conjunction with
seeding t h a t protects the surface
until v e g e t a t i o n becomes estab-
lished.

Maximum Annual Hourly Volume - The

h i g h e s t h o u r l y volume t h a t o c c u r s
on a roadway i n a d e s i g n a t e d y e a r .

M e c h a n i c a l A n a l y s i s ( S o i l s ) - Find-
i n g t h e g r a d a t i o n of a s o i l by t h e
u s e o f s p e c i f i e d s i e v e s and a hy-
drometer.

Median - The p o r t i o n of a d i v i d e d
highway separating the traveled
ways f o r t r a f f i c i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c -
t ions.

Median B a r r i e r - A l o n g i t u d i n a l
s y s t e m u s e d t o p r e v e n t an e r r a n t
v e h i c l e from c r o s s i n g t h e median of
a d i v i d e d highway.

Median Lane - A speed-change l a n e

w i t h i n t h e median t o accommodate
l e f t-turning vehicles.

Median Opening - A gap i n a median

p r o v i d e d f o r c r o s s i n g and t u n i i n g
traffic.

Median Speed - The s p e e d r e p r e -

s e n t e d by a m i d d l e v a l u e when a l l
speed values a r e a r r a y e d i n as-
c e n d i n g o r d e r . Half t h e s p e e d v a l -
u e s w i l l l i e above t h e median, h a l f
below.

Median Width T r a n s i t i o n - A smooth

a d j u s t m e n t from one median w i d t h t o
a d i f f e r e n t median w i d t h .

Mercury Lamp - An e l e c t r i c d i s -
c h a r g e lamp i n which t h e major por-
t i o n of t h e r a d i a t i o n i s produced
by t h e e x c i t a t i o n of mercury atoms.

Merging - The c o n v e r g i n g of s e p a r -
a t e s t r e a m s of t r a f f i c i n t o a s i n -
g l e stream.
Metal H a l i d e Lamp - An e l e c t r i c
d i s c h a r g e lamp i n which t h e l i g h t
i s produced by t h e r a d i a t i o n from a
m i x t u r e o f m e t a l l i c vapor ( i . e . ,
m e r c u r y ) and t h e p r o d u c t s of t h e
d i s a s s o c i a t i o n of h a l i d e s ( i . e . ,
h a l i d e s of scandium o r sodium).

Microfiche - A photographic process

by which a number of m i c r o f i l m ima-
g e s ( u p t o 98) a r e t r a n s f e r r e d t o a
s i n g l e s h e e t of f i l m , u s u a l l y 105 ran
x 149 m i n s i z e .

Microfilm - A photographic process

by which p l a n s , s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , and
other printed materials are greatly
r e d u c e d i n s i z e f o r permanent s t o r -
a g e , u s u a l l y a t a r a t i o of 24 t o 1.

M i n e r a l F i l l e r - A f i n e i n e r t min-
e r a 1 m a t t e r such a s l i m e s t o n e d u s t
o r p o r t l a n d cement, used i n b i t u m i -
nous c o n r r e t e m i x t u r e s .

Minimum T u r n i n g P a t h - The p a t h of
a d e s i g n a t e d p o i n t on a v e h i c l e
making i t s s h a r p e s t t u r n .

Minimum T u r n i n g R a d i u s - The r a d i u s
of t h e p a t h of t h e o u t e r f r o n t
wheel of a v e h i c l e making i t s s h a r -
pest turn.

M i n i s t r y - The MOC of t h e Kingdom

o f S a u d i A r a b i a , Riyadh.

Minor S t r e e t ( C r o s s S t r e e t ) - The
roadway a p p r o a c h o r a p p r o a c h e s t o
an i n t e r s e c t i o n t h a t normally c a r r y
l e s s vehicular t r a f f i c than the
major s t r e e t .

MOC - A b b r e v i a t i o n f o r M i n i s t r y of
Communications.

Modulus of E l a s t i c i t y - The r a t i o
of s t r e s s t o s t r a i n f o r a m a t e r i a l
u n d e r ~ i v e nl o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n s .

Modulus of R u p t u r e - A measure of
t h e s t r e n g t h of c o n c r e t e when i t i s
b r o k e n by bending.

M o i s t u r e C o n t e n t - The p e r c e n t a g e ,
by w e i g h t , of w a t e r c o n t a i n e d i n
s o i l or other material, usually
based on t h e d r y w e i g h t .
Monument o r R e f e r e n c e P o i n t - A
permanent o r semipermanent r e f e r -
e n c e p o i n t set d u r i n g t h e s u r v e y o r
c o n s t r u c t i o n of a highway s o t h a t
t h e s u r v e y can he r e e s t a b l i s h e d
later.

M o r t a r - A m i x t u r e of cement, s a n d ,
l i m e , and w a t e r .

Motor V e h i c l e - Every v e h i c l e t h a t
i s p r o p e l l e d by a motor o r e n g i n e
within i t s e l f .

Mountable Curb - One t h a t can be

r e a d i l y t r a v e r s e d by a moving ve-
hicle.

Muck - An o r g a n i c s o i l of v e r y s o f t
consistency.

Mulch - M a t e r i a l p l a c e d on exposed
earth t o p r o v i d e more d e s i r a b l e
m o i s t u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e r e l a t i o n -
s h i p s f o r p l a n t growth. It i s a l s o
u s e d t o c o n t r o l t h e o c c u r r e n c e of
unwanted v e g e t a t i o n .

M u l t i l a n e Road - A r o a d h a v i n g two
o r more l a n e s f o r t r a f f i c i n each
direction, or f o u r o r more l a n e s
for traffic in two d i r e c t i o n s . It
may be one-way o r two-way, d i v i d e d
o r undivided.

Noise - Noise i s unwanted sound.

The sounds made hy highway t r a f f i c ,
especially horn blowing, tire
s q u e a l , and i n a d e q u a t e m u f f l i n g of
engines, are generally described as
noise.

N o i s e B a r r i e r - A b a r r i e r oE e a r t h ,
s t o n e , c o n c r e t e , o r wood p l a c e d
a d j a c e n t t o t h e highway t o r e d u c e
t h e n o i s e l e v e l on a b u t t i n g pro-
perty.

Noise C o n t r o l - Reducing t o a n ac-

c e p t a b l e l e v e l , t h e amount of sound
received a t c r i t i c a l locations.

Noise L e v e l - The sound l e v e l &%..dl ij+1 6- - +I

o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h t h e u s e of A- i r . 2 4 1 ,
~ 140 ULZ ?I LXAL
w e i g h t i n g a c c o r d i n g t o ANSI S t a n - . ~ T V I / X - I p, - 0 ~ 4 ~ 9 1
d a r d 1.4-1971. The u n i t of measure , 4 1 (dB) L d l j.,L4JI
i s t h e d e c i b e l ( d B ) , commonly r e - Pk . .. L~ 3
~ B A $ i~3 L~ ~ I
f e r r e d t o a s dBA when A-weighting . A -44-
i s used.
 Noise Standards - The highway traf-
fic noise abatement procedures, co-
ordination requirements, and design
noise levels in the Highway Design
Manual.

Nutrient - Material that nourishes

and promotes plant growth.

OBD (Outlying Business District) -

That portion of a municipality or 1
,&I 4
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-&I3
- (OBD) L
;
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Uz

an area within the influence of a

municipality, normally separated
GI+ Z J L 'hl- ,.,>2L3 I.&
"."+>I YJI 14 49-
geographically by some distance
from the central business district
I 9 I ">&> ' b-,4Jl u,
and its fringe area, in which the .isic;JI + +I& &>I
principal land use is for business
activity.

One-Way Highway or Roadway - A

highway or roadway having one or
more lanes on which all vehicular
traffic must go in the same direc-
tion.

Open Channel - A natural or manmade

path in which water flows with a
free surface.

Open Channel Flow - Open channel

flow may be uniform or nonuniform,
steady or unsteady, and subcritical
or critical. Of these, nonuniform,
unsteady, and subcritical flow is
the most common type of flow in
open channels. However, to facili-
tate hydraulic computations,

a
steady, uniform or gradually varied
flow is generally assumed.

Open-Graded Aggregate - A graded

aggregate, containing little or no
fines, with a high percentage of
aggregate voids.

Open Space - An undeveloped area of

generally consistent quality, char-
acterized by a minimum of distract-
ing or conflicting influences.

Operating Speed - The highest over-

all speed that a driver can travel
on a given highway, under favorable
circumstances, without exceeding
the safe speed as determined by the
design geometrics.
Operational Delay - The delay re-
sulting from the influences of
other traffic, such as time lost, a
stop sign, waiting for a gap, con-
gestion, parking maneuvers, turning
movements, or pedestrians.

Optimum - The best quantity, num-

ber, or condition.

Orders of Accuracy - Standards of

accuracy for various types of sur-
veying. Generally, high standards
are set for the national coordinate
system and lesser standards for
more local work.

Ordinate - The distance measured in

the "y" or vertical direction on a
graph.

Origin - The location of where a

trip begins.

Outer Connection - A ramp used by

u

2-
is;

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631

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- u
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hb,J I
1
I a
traffic destined for a right-turn .&>yL + & J I .;lJUI La-

movement from one of the through &'+ 4-p iP 4 1 1'" dl,>J

roadways separated by a structure
to the second through roadway.
.;.c Jlp &+ JI ++
J+

Outer Separator - A separator be-

tween a frontage road and the road-
way of controlled-access highway or
major street.

Outlet Velocity - Is the speed of

flow measured at the downstream end
of a culvert and is usually higher
than the maximum natural stream
velocity.

Outlying Business District (OBD) - - (OBD)

That portion of a municipality or
p '+I
1 '9
,
dJA
&
.
$L +
,
'GsL
vS
an area within the influence of a
municipality, normally separated
geographically by some distance
from the central business district
and its fringe area, in which the
principal land use is for business
activity.

Overall Travel Speed - The speed

over a specified section of highway
that is the distance divided by the
running time. The average of all
traffic, or a component thereof, is
the summation of running times.

Overall Travel Time - The time of

travel, including stops and delays.
Overburden - The mass of soil that &I ' 1 'U - L+LJI - u l
overlies a source of rock, gravel, i l 41 >1 4 ,+ ;egs ~3-r
or other road material. This ma- "'M J l r , .&+91 &dl &yo; 3Ip
terial is removed before the mate- p ~+blI 3 1 4 1 & & k ~ L e l I
rials are quarried to avoid contam- .&+I @LbJ+I
ination.

Overlaying Course (Overlay) - A ,Ul + ' .LL& - f5+ dl-.&

bituminous surface course, either .&.$I & +I 4 b+I
plant mixed or road mixed.

Overlook (Scenic Overlook) - A - (' d

,J='L
& Li+- &) &
roadside area provided for motor- -L+9 L++s cL& &.+I --;L+ 'U
ists to stop their vehicles pri- 3 1 P1;IJ- &+I G I ~ W I
marily for viewing the scenery in ibL--J LLl U-)9 &.&I +,L+
safety. ..I-*& p-I

Overpass - A grade separation where

the highway passes over an inter-
secting highway or railroad.

Parcel - A tract of private or pub-

lic land of variable size required
for the right-of-way for a highway.

Parclo - An abbreviation for a par- ,

'i ~. s
I-, l - (Parclo)
tial cloverleaf interchange. . y-Al -%+
'GJ> & -' &
J

Parking - The condition of a ve-

hicle stationary for any reason
other than the need to avoid inter-
ference with another road user,
collision with an obstruction, to
comply with traffic regulations, or
for a period of time limited to
that needed to pick up or let off
persons or goods.

Parking Lanes - Additional width

&p c,
L GbI $2 - ,Llijjjl e1,L
outside the traveled way of a high-
" 31 &, &.> & G',W'
way or street that are designated
for the temporary storage of ve-
. ... -
'eJ.. a;
s y 6-, ++ GI,u\ 3-

hicles.

Parking Volume - The total number 9 dl - I yu

of vehicles parking in a particular ..e
. 'L9 i j l , U
area over a given period of time.
It is usually expressed in vehicles
*, . .?+I
'Le-
4
.st-, i_r;9
GI,UI 3+
153-4 &
i3Ls
per day.

Partial Control of Access - The

authority to control access is ex-
ercised to give preference to
through traffic to a degree that,
in addition to access connections
with selected public roads, there
may be some crossing at grade and
some private driveway connections.
pH - A scale of numbers from 0 - 14
that indicate the acidity or alka-
linity of a solution. Numbers be-
low seven indicate acidity and nurn-
hers above seven alkalinity.

Phase - A part of a signal cycle

during which a specific traffic
movement (and concurrent noncon-
flicting movements) receives the
right-of-way. It includes the
change and clearance intervals as-
sociated with those movements.

Photoelectric Device - Where detec-

tion is accomplished by the vehicle
passing between a source of light
and a photocell that is capable of
distinguishing between light and
lack of light.

Photogrammetric Mapping - A method

of mapping topography whereby the
ground is photographed from the air
and the information obtained is
translated to maps by the use of
stereoplotting instruments.

Pickup - A two-axle freight vehicle

with a total of four tires. In
general, this classification in-
cludes pickups, panels, and other
light two-axle vehicles with single
tires on the rear axle designed for
carrying freight.

Pigment - Any substance used to im-

part color; specifically, an insol-
uable, dry coloring matter that,
when mixed with a suitable medium,
forms a paint.

Pile - Relatively slender struc-

tural element composed of wood,
concrete, or steel that is driven
into the soil for the purpose of
providing vertical or lateral sup-
port.

Pipe, Clay - Pipe made of shale and

fire clay, unglazed, or glazed and
vitrified, with or without bell,
used for field drains, edge drains,
culverts, sewers, etc.

Pipe, Concrete - Modified bell and

spigot pipe made of concrete,
plain, or reinforced with steel,
used for culverts, sewers, etc.
 -
P i ~ e . Corrugated
A ,
Metal - Pipe fab-
ricated from corrugated steel
sheets, used for culverts.

Pipe, Perforated - Pipe with holes

on one-half of the periphery, used
to drain off water trapped in the
soil mass.

Pit - A natural deposit of gravel

or other type of soil that has
been, or may be, excavated.

Plane Coordinate System or Grid

System - A cartographic projection
that, by accepting small varia-
tions of scale, permits describing
the position of points on the sur-
face of the earth by their plane
coordinates on a cylindrical or

a
conical surface.

Planimetrics - All features both

manmade and natural of significant
value to the design of a proposed
highway.

Plans (Drawings) - The approved U W l - ( I ) r ; W I

plans (drawings), profiles, typical '-"Jl iLs->lg (~l-y$l)
cross sections, working drawings, I I 'k,o_rell pul,
and supplemental drawings, or exact ,+ 110~1 ,Jt4 ,i
reproductions thereof that show the , p_, ,+, ,L-
.~.:J.:-<-.JI
b d l ,
location, character, dimensions, .&dl Jbl,
and details of the Work.

Plant Mix - A term describing the

mixing of mineral aggregate and
asphaltic products in a mechanical
mixer, after which the finished mix
is transported and laid on the
road. The proportioning of aggre-
gate constituents and asphalt is
closely controlled, and the aggre-
gate is usually dried and heated
before mixing.

Plant Mixed Bituminous Base - A

base consisting of mineral aggre-
gate and bituminous material, mixed
in a central plant, laid and com-
pacted while hot, on subbase or
subgrade, to support a surface
course.

Plant Mixed Bituminous Surface

Course - A combination of mineral
aggregate and bituminous material
mixed in a central plant, laid, and
compacted while hot, on a pre-
viously prepared base.
 ksY - +I & &&
.& -djb Z a L
P l a n t Mixed S e a l - A c o m b i n a t i o n of
'L,b ">Lsv l - e d l ?~5_tll p
mineral aggregate and b i t u m i n o u s
n a t e r i a l mixed i n a central plant, pog-9 ' * s p &.-
il'-l3J- p
l a i d and compacted while hot. This
tidl .
I h9 b L . J l y 9 pq el&>
J&
l
: L +> ' L J j L J l b > U I
t y p e of s e a l i s usually laid i n . I A, ,- ' GL+
very t h i n l a y e r s .

Plumb - Vertical.
. 3 J Y - "-r,
$2 +i L+ - C ~ I
P o l l u t i o n - Contamination of any
>I $I>, GIYI >r .&LAI
component of t h e t o t a l environment
by harmful substances, sounds,
>I 1 -' * JJk b,L ,bL
,L & >I 6,jYI ' d l GLLLSLI
s m e l l s . o r s i e h t s deer
, , ad in^ o r i n -
+
I,.
j u r i o u s t o humans and o t h e r l i v i n g
organisms.

Porous - Having many s m a l l open-

i n g s , t h r o u g h which l i q u i d s may
pass.
,
L ..&A 'i+
. & I 4 1
GL-2
WL
+ -
- @L1
ill

Portable T r a f f i c Control Signal - A

s i g n a l t h a t i s d e s i g n e d t o be moved
a s a u n i t t o t h e s i t e and be o p e r -
a t e d f o r a l i m i t e d time. ( I t nor-
m a l l y c o n s i s t s of t h e n e c e s s a r y
s i g n a l f a c e s on p o l e s a t t a c h e d t o
moveahle h a s e s , a c o n t r o l u n i t , t h e
n e c e s s a r y e l e c t r i c a l c a b l e s , and a
power s u p p l y . )
-- - -

+.. ,2l - +Cr e G E J

P r o f i l e Grade - The t r a c e of a v e r -
t i c a l plane i n t e r s e c t i n g the top
s u r f a c e of t h e proposed w e a r i n g
&~;YD
w
I,I
1 4 9 1 +I
k>Cs &
li -r
p $&
, eM, c y L l !
,+ ~

surface, usually along the longitu- -3 .&&I e m J4kJ1 -!-$I

d i n a l c e n t e r l i n e of t h e roadbed. >f LLA,I L l ylWl t L b d 1 c,x
P r o f i l e g r a d e means e i t h e r e l e v a - .jWl 9 - 1 . 9 1 I ;LB & I, -1
t i o n o r g r a d i e n t of s u c h t r a c e
according t o t h e context.

P r o g r e s s i v e S i g n a l System - A t r a f -
f i c s i g n a l s y s t e m where t h e s u c -
cessive signal faces controlling
t r a f f i c a l o n g a s t r e e t g i v e s "GO"
i n d i c a t i o n s i n accordance with a
prearranged time schedule. This
schedule is designed t o allow ( a s
n e a r l y a s p o s s i b l e ) t h e continuous
o p e r a t i o n of g r o u p s of v e h i c l e 9
along t h e s t r e e t a t a planned r a t e
of s p e e d .

P r o j e c t - An u n d e r t a k i n g t o con- LP w $2 ?l_>+ - €>>

s t r u c t a p a r t i c u l a r p o r t i o n of a .4, 4-9
highway.

P r o j e c t P l a n s - Drawings d e p i c t i n g &l_kJI ,- G L -~ e , ~
kki ~
t h e e n g i n e e r i n g and c o n s t r u c t i o n .u--... t3-.-J 'i"c~'i!~ 'i+x41
d e t a i l s of a p a r t i c u l a r p r o j e c t .

P r o t e c t e d Movement - A traffic
movement d u r i n g which t h e r e i s no
S P
. L-
~ 3 u . $ 5 ~
4
, Lei ,>p s s p
- - L_B r
-A9
L2t
t r a f f i c movement that conflicts
w i t h t h e p r o t e c t e d movement.
Ramp - A s h o r t roadway, u s u a l l y one
way, t o a c c o m p l i s h t r a n s f e r move-
ments w i t h i n a n i n t e r c h a n g e from
t h e a r t e r i a l highway o r expressway
t o the crossroad.

Ramp T e r m i n a l - The g e n e r a l a r e a
where a ramp c o n n e c t s w i t h a road-
way. Ramps have b o t h e n t r a n c e and
e x i t terminals. The e n t r a n c e t e r -
m i n a l r e l a t e s t o a merging c o n d i -
t i o n ; the e x i t terminal r e l a t e s t o
a diverging condition.

Rate of Flow - The h o u r l y r e p r e s e n -

t a t i o n of t h e number of v e h i c l e s
p a s s i n g o v e r a g i v e n s e c t i o n of a
l a n e o r roadway f o r some p e r i o d
less t h a n 1 h o u r , s u c h a s 5 o r 10
minutes. It i s o b t a i n e d by m u l t i -
p l y i n g t h e number of v e h i c l e s d u r -
i n g t h e s p e c i f i e d t i m e p e r i o d by
t h e r a t i o of 60 t o t h e number of
m i n u t e s d u r i n g which t h e f l o w oc-
curred.

R e a c t i o n Time - The t i m e r e q u i r e d
f o r a d r i v e r t o apply foot pressure
t o t h e brake a f t e r he perceived
t h a t h e must s t o p .

R e b a r s o r R e i n f o r c i n g Bars - S t e e l
b a r s u s e d a s r e i n f o r c e m e n t i n con-
crete.

R e c l a m a t i o n - The r e s t o r a t i o n of
borrow and a g g r e g a t e p i t s t o a n a t -
u r a l form t h a t may i n c l u d e r e p l a c e -
ment of t o p s o i l and v e g e t a t i o n
(seeding).

Recurrence I n t e r v a l - Floods vary

g r e a t l y i n magnitude. Small f l o o d s
can cccur each year. The l a r g e r
f l o o d s have r e c u r r e n c e i n t e r v a l s of
10 t o 100 o r more y e a r s .

Refuge I s l a n d - An i s l a n d i n a wide
i n t e r s e c t i o n t o provide refuge f o r
pedestrians. Also, a place f o r
t r a n s i t p a s s e n g e r s t o l o a d and un-
l o a d from a bus.

Regional Factor - A numerical f a c -

t o r e x p r e s s e d a s a summation of t h e
values assigned f o r p r e c i p i t a t i o n ,
e l e v a t i o n , and d r a i n a g e . This fac-
t o r is u s e d t o a d j u s t t h e s t r u c -
t u r a l number.
 Reinforced Concrete - Concrete
where s t e e l r e i n f o r c e m e n t i s em-
bedded so t h a t t h e s t e e l and con-
c r e t e a c t together i n r e s i s t i n g
stress.

R e p r e s e n t a t i v e - T y p i c a l of a l a r g -
e r number of i t e m s o r q u a n t i t y .

R e s i d e n t i a l Area - That p o r t i o n of
a m u n i c i p a l i t y , o r an a r e a w i t h i n
t h e i n f l u e n c e of a m u n i c i p a l i t y i n
which t h e dominant l a n d u s e i s res-
idential development, b u t where
s m a l l b u s i n e s s a r e a s may be i n -
cluded.

R e s t Area - A r o a d s i d e a r e a w i t h
p a r k i n g f a c i l i t i e s s e p a r a t e d from
the roadway providing motorists
w i t h o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o s t o p and r e s t
f o r short periods.

R e s u r f a c i n g - The p l a c i n g of one o r
more new c o u r s e s on a n e x i s t i n g
surf ace.

R e v e r s e Curve - A c u r v e c o n s i s t i n g
of two a r c s of t h e same o r d i f -
f e r e n t r a d i i curving i n opposite
d i r e c t i o n s and h a v i n g a common t a n -
gent o r t r a n s i t i o n curve a t t h e i r
p o i n t of j u n c t i o n .

Right-of-way (ROW) - ( 1 ) Land gen-

erally publicly owned, acquired
f o r and d e v o t e d t o t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
purposes. ( 2 ) The p r i v i l e g e of t h e
immediate u s e of t h e highway. The
r i g h t of one v e h i c l e o r p e d e s t r i a n
t o proceed i n a l a w f u l manner i n
preference t o another vehicle or
pedestrian.

Right-Turn Lane - An a u x i l i a r y l a n e
or designated lane provided a t
grade i n t e r s e c t i o n s f o r right-turn
movements.

Ring Road - An a r t e r i a l highway f o r

c a r r y i n g t r a f f i c around a n u r b a n
area or portion thereof.

R i p r a p - A p r o t e c t i v e c o v e r i n g of
g r a d e d s t o n e s , w i t h o r w i t h o u t mor-
t a r , t o prevent erosion.

Road (Highway) - A g e n e r a l term de-

n o t i n g a p u b l i c way f o r p u r p o s e s of
v e h i c u l a r t r a v e l i n c l u d i n g t h e en-
t i r e a r e a w i t h i n t h e right-of-way.
Road Approaches - R u r a l and s u b u r -
ban minor c o n n e c t i o n s t o a highway
o r f r o n t a g e road from a d j o i n i n g
properties. These can be p r i v a t e ,
p u b l i c , o r commercial.

Roadbed - The g r a d e d p o r t i o n of a
r o a d o r highway, u s u a l l y c o n s i d e r e d
a s t h e a r e a between t h e i n t e r s e c -
t i o n of t o p and s i d e s l o p e s , upon
which t h e base course, surface
c o u r s e , s h o u l d e r s , and median a r e
constructed. The t o p of t h e sub-
grade.

Road Mix - A method of combining

s u r f a c i n g m a t e r i a l s , such a s min-
e r a l a g g r e g a t e combined w i t h li-
q u i d b i t u m i n o u s m a t e r i a l , i n which
t h e m a t e r i a l s a r e mixed on t h e road
by means of d i s c s , h a r r o w s , b l a d e s ,
o r o t h e r approved means.

Roadside - That p o r t i o n of t h e
right-of-way o u t s i d e t h e roadway.

Roadside B a r r i e r - A l o n g i t u d i n a l
s y s t e m u s e d t o s h i e l d v e h i c l e s from
h a z a r d s on t h e r o a d s i d e .

R o a d s i d e Development ( R o a d s i d e En-
hancement) - Treatment of t h e road-
s i d e t o c o n s e r v e , e n h a n c e , and e f -
f e c t i v e l y d i s p l a y t h e n a t u r a l beau-
t y of t h e l a n d s c a p e t h r o u g h which
t h e highway p a s s e s ; as w e l l a s pro-
v i d e s a f e t y , u t i l i t y , economy, and
highway-related r e c r e a t i o n f a c i l i -
t i e s by means of p r o p e r l o c a t i o n ,
design, construction, and main-
t e n a n c e of highways.

R o a d s i d e Hazards - Embankments;
ditches; f i x e d o b j e c t s s u c h as
t r e e s , b o u l d e r s , and p o l e s ; s i d e
r o a d i n t e r s e c t i o n s ; and narrow me-
dians are a l l potential roadside
hazards f o r out-of-control vehi-
cles.

Roadway - ( 1 ) The p o r t i o n of a
highway, i n c l u d i n g s h o u l d e r s , f o r
vehicular use. A d i v i d e d highway
h a s two o r more roadways. ( 2 ) Dur-
i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e p o r t i o n of a
highway w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s of con-
struction.
Roadway Connection - Provision for
entrance to view points, safety
rest areas; ramps constructed to
standards commensurate with the
standards established for the road-
way.

.
Root - Part of the plant that de-
scends and fixes itself in the
earth to anchor and nourish the
rest of the plant.

Rotary Interchange - A multi-leg

interchange where one highway is
grade separated from a rotary on
which all turning movements and
through movements of all other
highways are accommodated.

Roughness Coefficient - A coef- 4 P &L - i~ydl

ficient used in Manning's formula d41,
d Manning's FL.
,LA+
to estimate the time it will take & +.*u MI pi-o L
*

for rainwater to flow overland to .s'- is-?-= 1-47 +J91 +"'+

the nearest watercourse. A low 'Ldy 3 hips &I--e. >Wl,
roughness coefficient for a water- dJb p 1 +A>

shed results in a rapid concentra-

tion of water from that watershed.

Rounding - The removal of the angle

where cut and Fill slopes intersect
the natural ground, and the substi-
tution of a gradual transition, or
rounded surface.

Route - A line or direction of tra-

vel, a selected or rep;ularly tra-
versed passage between two distant
points.

Rumble Strip - A rough textured

surface, constructed for the pur-
pose of causing the tires of a
motor vehicle driven over it to
vibrate audibly as a warning to the
drivers.

Runoff - The surface discharge or

rate of discharge after a rainfall.

Running Speed - The speed of a ve-

hicle over a specified section of
highway is determined by dividing
the distance by the running time.
The average speed for a number of
vehicles is the summation of dis-
tances divided by the summation of
running times.
a S a f e t y R e s t Area - See R e s t Area.

S a f e t y Zone - The a r e a o f f i c i a l l y
e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h i n a roadway f o r
t h e e x c l u s i v e u s e of p e d e s t r i a n s ,
p r o t e c t e d o r s o marked o r i n d i c a t e d
a s t o be p l a i n l y v i s i b l e a t a l l
times.

Sag V e r t i c a l Curve - A v e r t i c a l "3 +-d- ?I, +%L

curve having a concave s h a p e i n . +I+ J W I -+L
profile .
Sample - A p o r t i o n of m a t e r i a l o r a
g r o u p of u n i t s t a k e n i n s u c h a way
a s t o represent a material.

Sand - A f i n e granular material,

which r e s u l t s from t h e n a t u r a l d i s -
i n t e g r a t i o n of r o c k .

S a u d i R i y a l (SR) - B a s i c monetary
u n i t of S a u d i A r a b i a .

Scour - Removal of bed m a t e r i a l

a r o u n d b r i d g e a b u t m e n t s and p i e r s
by h i g h - v e l o c i t y w a t e r f l o w .

S c r e e n i n g - The u s e of trees,
shruhs, fences, or other materials
t o o b s c u r e a n o b j e c t i o n a b l e view o r
t o r e d u c e a n o b j e c t i o n a b l e sound.

--
S c r e e n P l a n t i n g - T r e e s and s h r u b s

•
used f o r screening. I a& p L
' UI

S e a l Coat - A b i t u m i n o u s c o a t i n g S9PJ1 $dl 'U - iil. -d

with aggregate applied t o the sur- P"J pU>l, ,MI p &
'

f a c e of a pavement f o r t h e p u r p o s e
of w a t e r p r o o f i n g and p r e s e r v i n g t h e
T,
LLLf,
-
,+I
I
,+
,
'&lsell,
p_,& +
alsJl
t k , ~
surface, relivening a previous bi- .LJL".-,-is; >t d,yPJ1 $dl hic.
tuminous s u r f a c e , a l t e r i n g t h e s u r - .J3pJ!b S y J53.L 1
f a c e t e x t u r e of t h e pavement, o r
providing resistance to traffic
abrasion.
S i n g l e - A x l e Load - The t o t a l l o a d
t r a n s m i t t e d by a l l w h e e l s , t h e cen-
t e r of which may h e i n c l u d e d he-
tween two p a r a l l e l t r a n s v e r s e v e r -
t i c a l p l a n e s 1.0 m a p a r t , e x t e n d -
i n g a c r o s s t h e f u l l w i d t h of t h e
vehicle.

S i n g l e - U n i t Truck - A f r e i g h t ve-
h i c l e of two o r t h r e e a x l e s , l a r g e r
than a pickup.

S i t e - The l a n d s and o t h e r p l a c e s
p r o v i d e d by t h e X i n i s t r y f o r t h e
e x e c u t i o n of t h e Work.

S i t e Map - A l a r g e s c a l e map of a
s p e c i f i c small a r e a , s u c h a s a
bridge s i t e .

Skew - O b l i q u e , not at right an-

gles.

Skew a n g l e - The complement of t h e

a c u t e a n g l e between two c e n t e r -
l i n e s t h a t cross.

S l i p Ramp - An a n g u l a r c o n n e c t i o n
between a n e x p r e s s w a y and a p a r a l -
l e l f r o n t a g e road.

S l i v e r F i l l - An embankment s l o p e
t h a t is roughly p a r a l l e l t o t h e
natural s l o p e of the hillside.
S l i v e r f i l l s may be v e r y h i g h i n
proportion t o the thickness.

Slope - The f a c e of an embankment

or cut s e c t i o n ; any ground whose
surface makes a n a n g l e w i t h t h e
p l a n e of the horizon.

Slump - The measure of t h e con-

s i s t e n c y of p o r t l a n d cement con-
c r e t e by c o n s o l i d a t i n g i n a slump
c o n e , removing t h e c o n e , and a l -
lowing t h e c o n c r e t e t o s e t t l e under
i t s own mass.

S o i l - S e d i m e n t s o r o t h e r uncon-
solidated a c c u m u l a t i o n of solid
p a r t i c l e s p r o d u c e d by t h e n a t u r a l
p h y s i c a l and c h e m i c a l d i s i n t e g r a -
t i o n of r o c k s , and which may o r may
not contain organic matter.

S o i l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n - The a r r a n g e -
ment of s o i l s i n t o c l a s s e s ac-
cording t o t h e i r p h y s i c a l proper-
ties. T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l s y s t e m s of
soil classifications.
 S o i l S t a b i l i z a t i o n - Measures t a k e n

a
t o e l i m i n a t e o r minimize t h e e r o -
s i o n of s o i l , o r t o improve i t s
supporting capacity.

S p a c i n g - ( 1 ) The d i s t a n c e between
consecutive vehicles, measured
front t o front. ( 2 ) For roadway
l i g h t i n g t h e d i s t a n c e between s u c -
c e s s i v e l i g h t i n g u n i t s , measured
a l o n g t h e c e n t e r l i n e of t h e s t r e e t .

S p a c i n g t o Mounting H e i g h t R a t i o -
The r a t i o of t h e d i s t a n c e between
l u m i n a i r e s t o t h e mounting h e i g h t .

Spalling - Chipping a l o n g t h e u. L,
I, GI+! .&J--' - LY&LJI
edges, a s a t j o i n t s i n concrete -
',%I' 4 '&- l;s JWI
pavement and s t r u c t u r e s . .GI .I_;~I> a~,d~

S p e c i a l S p e c i f i c a t i o n s - Additions

a and r e v i s i o n s t o t h e G e n e r a l and
Supplemental Specifications cov-
e r i n g c o n d i t i o n s p e c u l i a r t o an
individual project.

S p e c i f i c a t i o n s - The f o r m a l d i r e c -
t i o n s , p r o v i s i o n s , and r e q u i r e m e n t s
t h a t o u t l i n e t h e work t o be d o n e ,
t h e way i t i s t o be done, t h e c h a r -
a c t e r of m a t e r i a l s and m i x t u r e s t o
be u s e d , o r t h e r e s u l t s t o he ob-
tained.

S p e c i f i e d Completion D a t e - The
d a t e on which t h e Work i s s p e c i f i e d
t o he completed.

Speed - The r a t e of movement of a

a
vehicle, generally expressed in
k i l o m e t e r s per hour.

Speed Change Lane - An a u x i l i a r y

lane including tapered areas pri-
m a r i l y f o r t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n o r de-
c e l e r a t i o n of v e h i c l e s e n t e r i n g o r
leaving the through-traffic lanes.

Spillway - A s u r f a c e apron o r
t r o u g h f o r c o n d u c t i n g w a t e r down a
r e l a t i v e l y steep slope.

S p l i t - The d i v i s i o n of t h e c y c l e
l e n g t h t h a t is a l l o c a t e d t o e a c h of
t h e phases (normally expressed i n
percent).
Spur Dike - An e a r t h embankment
projecting i n t o the flood p l a i n t o
guide water flow i n t o a b r i d g e
opening o r c u l v e r t . Dikes may he
armored by r i p r a p t o p r o t e c t them
from s c o u r .

Stabilization - Modification of
s o i l s o r a g g r e g a t e s by i n c o r p o r -
ating materials that w i l l increase
load-bearing capacity, firmness,
and r e s i s t a n c e t o weathering o r
displacement.

Stage C o n s t r u c t i o n - The construc-

t i o n of a highway by s t a g e s o r i n -
crements a s t r a f f i c develops. A
highway i s designed t o be adequate
f o r f u t i l r e t r a f f i c , but i n i t i a l l y
t o save expense, some of t h e f i n a l
f e a t u r e s may be omitted.

Standard - Something having r e -

cognized and usually permanent
v a l u e s and e s t a b l i s h e d a s a model
or c r i t e r i a .

Standard Drawings - Drawings i s s u e d

by t h e M i n i s t r y of Communications . I ! J ~-rp., G % O ~ ~ I
and approved f o r r e p e t i t i v e use. I j ha
,!, cjI-.*,Jl 6%

These a r e contained i n Volume 4 of *,J=JI e"" ,Y yl,Jl

t h e Highway Design Manual. 'JI

S t a t i o n - (1) A measure of d i s t a n c e
used f o r highways and r a i l r o a d s .
I n Saudi Arabia a s t a t i o n i s e q u a l
t o 1 km. ( 2 ) A p r e c i s e l o c a t i o n
a l o n g a survey l i n e .

Stockpass - A c u l v e r t of a s i z e
l a r g e enough f o r t h e passage of
domestic and wild animals.

Stone - Rock m a t e r i a l produced from

a quarry, i.e., nongravel mater-
ial.

Stop Line - A white l i n e , placed

t r a n s v e r s e l y on t h e pavement, a t an
i n t e r s e c t i o n , t o i n d i c a t e where t h e
v e h i c l e must s t o p when obeying a
t r a f f i c s i g n a l o r Stop s i g n .

Stopping S i g h t Distance - The d i s - h i m 1 - j+,.lJ i,,LdI iiUl

t a n c e r e q u i r e d by a d r i v e r of a I '.,WI J3G ,p 'G,Ld1
vehicle, traveling at a given A+ l - 8 ~ L,L+ LUr "1 I-. is-
speed, t o bring h i s vehicle t o a .*PJ' & L ,& at
s t o p a f t e r an o b j e c t on t h e roadway I kw l U U l dJh &&,

a
becomes v i s i b l e . It i n c l u d e s t h e 1
,- 6% +I 1 h &!,at
d i s t a n c e t r a v e l e d d u r i n g t h e per- &I b;UI L& ,n l r r
c e p t i o n and r e a c t i o n t i m e s , as w e l l ' L r J 1 I 'i,l+AI
a s t h e v e h i c l e braking d i s t a n c e .
 Storm D r a i n - A s y s t e m of c a t c h GL~U
p !0 - a& d-
conduits +I
a
basins and underground & ' L U I OI+I~
collecting, concentrating, and con- ,4
.., ALL41 6-1 &> A>>
veying water t o a d i s p o s a l point.

S t r a t i g r a p h y - The s t u d y of r o c k &"LII 'LI,J - 'L+I~I,LYI

s t r a t a , g e n e r a l l y by a n a l y z i n g r o c k cl '-c; ~ J L ell>3 , &+I
outcrops o r d r i l l cores. . b&,r"JI &I GI-&& >f 41
S t r e a m M o d i f i c a t i o n - Widening, "JL ,p-+ - &li
c h a n g i n g t h e s l o p e o r hank c o n d i - p" 6- i]i >1 ; U 1 >f J-LYJ\
t i o n s , o r r e l o c a t i n g an e x i s t i n g 1 "l
l.3 1
stream.

S t r e e t o r Highway - A p u h l i c &A >I e-,lL

t h a t i s open t o t h e movement of
hicular t r a f f i c , pedestrians,
way
ve-
and
I
s '-&
.
PC"' c_Fj_Lo Pk,L.--
bCJLeJ1, I
' G a l $9. G I
-
I , isy
&Ly
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n by o t h e r means or ~3y.J' + '-4 4 1 b+
conveyances. The e n t i r e w i d t h be- ~3y.J' 'isp C L l c9;49 &> <f 4
tween t h e right-of-way.. l i n e s of any . pncell
way open t o p u b l i c t r a f f i c .

S t r e e t L i g h t i n g L u m i n a i r e - A com- 'LU a s ~ GL++S_I;

l - t , ~ + ~ i,~!
p l e t e l i g h t i n g- d e v i c e c o n s i s t i n g of TIYU15
L - irldl -,a - d-k Lp

a l i g h t s o u r c e and b a l l a s t , where '&s Jl- ';&&dl '-+=+I+J

appropriate together with i t s d i - a' &-, e"21 ,
-
U , &Ul, k u ~ , J 1
r e c t appurtenances such a s g l o b e , 'A L+>I ~ l > ~ l _ ,.d .. .. . l
r e f l e c t o r , r e f r a c t o r , h o u s i n g , and >f 2 4 1 9, .,+++A!
such support a s i s i n t e g r a l w i t h . '6,LYJ + F> J W I,~
t h e housing. The p o l e , p o s t , o r
b r a c k e t i s n o t c o n s i d e r e d p a r t of
the lunimaire.

Strength Coefficient - A factor # 7 ' &L - i s ! &L

used f o r e x p r e s s i n g t h e relative aesJl >f ,y
strength, or substitution
l a y e r s , one t o t h e o t h e r ,
v a l u e , of
f o r con-
I
'&J+JI

.>y~-Jl
&&I
I j l
'&+-dl a+!
a h l _ ~ l
'+yS
.LU
&A1
v e r s i o n purposes in a pavement
structure.

a S t r e s s - The f o r c e p e r
a c t i n g w i t h i n a mass.
unit

S t r e s s - S t r a i n Diagram - A d i a g r a m
area

."+& y, - 3 4 r y l , &I
where c o r r e s p o n d i n g v a l u e s of t h e J p Jy k,bL_Lell ' 4 1 L&
s t r e s s and s t r a i n a r e p l o t t e d . .JLy9l_1

S t r u c t u r a l S e c t i o n - The p l a n n e d 3 1 4 1+,k I - & k l

e
l a y e r s of s p e c i f i e d m a t e r i a l s , nor- u L. * k J k AI
L , 'b J k
m a l l y c o n s i s t i n g of s u b b a s e , b a s e , 3 9 t"-F'3 c+ 1 , 9 8 y ~ y l

--
and s u r f a c e c o u r s e p l a c e d o v e r t h e .a s u ! &+
subgrade.

Subbase - The l a y e r o r l a y e r s of ~ J L f, ~
~ l i &
, , - -
a&~.i

s p e c i f i e d o r s e l e c t e d m a t e r i a l of 3 9 p9 y- 1 a>-
d e s i g n e d t h i c k n e s s p l a c e d on a sub- r.L' + Jj &,hJ- '+zc-JI ' U l
grade t o support a base course. I .ii&
Subgrade - (1) The top 30 cm layer
of embankments or excavated areas
on which the pavement structure
including shoulders is constructed.
(2) The top of a roadbed upon which
the pavement structure and shoul-
ders are constructed.

Substructure - All of that part of

the structure below the bearings of
simple and continuous spans, skew-
backs of arches and tops of foot-
ings of rigid frames, together with
the backwalls, wingwalls, and wing
protection railings.

Superelevation - The elevating of

the outside edge of a curve to par-
tially offset the centrifugal force
generated when a vehicle rounds the
curve.

Superelevation Runoff - The tran-

sition distance between normal
crown and fully superelevated road-
way.

Superstructure - The entire struc-

ture except for the substructure.

Supplemental Specifications - Addi-

tions and revisions to the General
Specifications that are adopted
subsequent to issuances of the
printed book.

Surface Course - One or more layers

of a pavement structure designed to
accomodate the traffic load, the
top layer of which resists skid-
ding, traffic abrasion, and the
disintegrating effects of climate.
The top layer is sometimes called
wearing course.

Surface Treatment - An application

of bituminous material and cover
aggregate.

Sustained Grade - A continuous

highway grade of appreciable length
and consistent, or nearly consis-
tent, xradient.

Tack Coat - An application of bitu-

minous material to an existing sur-
face to provide bond with a super-
imposed course.
 T a i l w a t e r Depth - T h i s i s t h e Flow 4 '+dl - 9-1 +
&-

a
depth i n the downstream c h a n n e l LC.S e(41! @ V~ +I '6-

measured from the invert a t the . 'LJl &. uj, ' o - , L c e l l

culvert outlet t o t h e water sur-
f ace.
I
Tandem-Axle Load - The t o t a l l o a d
t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e highway by two
o r more c o n s e c u t i v e a x l e s , t h e cen-
t e r s of which may be i n c l u d e d b e t -
ween p a r a l l e l t r a n s v e r s e v e r t i c a l
p l a n e s s p a c e d more t h a n 1.0 m and
n o t more t h a n 2.44 m a p a r t , ex-
t e n d i n g a c r o s s t h e f u l l w i d t h of
the vehicle.

Tender - The b i d o r o f f e r made by a

b i d d e r , on t h e p r e s c r i b e d form, t o
p e r f o r m t h e work and t o f u r n i s h t h e
l a b o r and m a t e r i a l s a t t h e p r i c e s
quoted.

Tender Documents - The approved

form on which t h e M i n i s t r y r e q u i r e s
L.*

b
&dl 4
d~d
~ 1

L*+
4 J-11

u t a-,-Yl
4

~
h
1 ,I + M I - * U l
J ~ Y l y~ J>WI
9 3 3 Lkell

- *UI
I s ~ l d l'o-,lj>I b
-
.pl"dl - 4 1
t e n d e r s t o be p r e p a r e d and sub- I &dL '&C;JI i;lpLLdl 3
m i t t e d f o r t h e Work. . -
' U

Tenderer - See B i d d e r . . ~Ulell ,Ll - . M I C"

Tender G u a r a n t e e - The s e c u r i t y 1AL-& - *Wl 3~

f u r n i s h e d w i t h a t e n d e r t o guaran- =Wl ? l e n I C U 2 e l k

t e e t h a t the bidder w i l l enter i n t o & &L&> , a;l-Lzs 31 &I

c o n t r a c t i f h i s t e n d e r is a c c e p t e d , L+-S -J
, 4 1 i ~ d CI,LLL'~I
l
and i n c l u d e s t h e s p e c i f i e d forms on +\a,' cL-I 5-1 ?LL
which t h e c o n t r a c t o r s h a l l f u r n i s h &dl ,&I yL a,JL
&-,A
required i n f o r m a t i o n as t o h i s . eL->
a b i l i t y t o p e r f o r m and f i n a n c e t h e
Work.

T e r m i n a l - The d e s t i n a t i o n , b e g i n - -b&

a
L -,I I A I &+I ,iLL ,
n i n g , o r e n d i n g p o i n t of a highway. .& *d=
T e r r a i n - The p h y s i c a l f e a t u r e s of +
!,. &, b d l &LdI - crr_rlh;
a t r a c t of l a n d , g e o g r a p h i c a r e a , .+I =l -I+ &, jt
or territory.

-
Texture
material
etc.
S u r f a c e a p p e a r a n c e of a
s u c h a s smooth, r o u g h , c;=~i L
-,-I
,- + J ~ &
k
I +I
I
, ~JLJ
$1..

3 0 t h H i g h e s t Annual Hourly Volume - - 4- &WI "-1 .r' ,-? &I

The h o u r l y volume t h a t i s exceeded LL 4s &dl 'LUI 4 +I
by 29 h o u r l y volumes d u r i n g a d e s - "- 4 "5" &$-, p; 4 pJ\-.Il
i g n a t e d year. u
Three-Leg Intersection - A roadway
intersection with three intersec-
tion legs. If one of these inter-
section legs is an approximate
prolongation of the direction of
approach of another and, iE the
third leg intersects this prolonga-
tion at an angle between 83G and
1 1 7 ~ the
~ three-way intersection
is classed as a T intersection. If
one leg is an approximate prolonga-
tion of the approach of another,
and the third leg intersects this
prolongation at an angle less than
83G or greater than 1 1 7 ~ 9 it is
classed as a Y intersection.

Time of Concentration - The time

required for storm runoff to flow
from the most remote point of a
drainage area to the point under
consideration. It is usually asso-
ciated with the design storm.

T-Intersection - A three-leg inter- I ; ' 4J +cp- - .L.- pLL

section in the general form of a ." T " -"v JG'&
"T".

Toe of Slope - The intersection of

a roadway embankment side slope
with the original ground surface.

Topography - The configuration of

the earth's surface, including the
shape and position of its natural
and manmade features.

Topsoil - Surface soil, usually

containing organic matter.

Toxic - Poisonous.

Tractive Resistance - Forces that

act to slow down or stop runaway
vehicles such as air resistance, an
upgrade, and the rolling resistance
between the tires and the road sur-
face.

Traffic - All types of vehicles,

together with their loads, either
singularly or as a whole, including
pedestrians, using a roadway for
the purpose of transportation.

Traffic Actuated Signal - A type of

traffic control signal in which the
length of most intervals and the
cycle, and in some types the se-
quence of phasing, are varied by
the demands of traffic.
T r a f f i c A n a l y s i s P e r i o d - A common
a n a l y s i s p e r i o d ( u s u a l l y 20 y e a r s )
used i n g e o m e t r i c d e s i g n .

T r a f f i c B a r r i e r s - Roadside b a r -
r i e r s , median h a r r i e r s , c r a s h cush-
i o n s , and b r i d g e p a r a p e t s i n t e n d e d
t o g u i d e o r p r o t e c t t r a f f i c from
roadside hazards, including c o l l i -
sion with other vehicles.

T r a f f i c Control Devices - Signs,

signals, markings, and devices
p l a c e d o r e r e c t e d by p r o p e r a u t h o r -
i t y having j u r i s d i c t i o n , f o r t h e
p u r p o s e of r e g u l a t i n g , w a r n i n g , o r
guiding t r a f f i c .

T r a f f i c C o n t r o l S i g n a l - An e l e c -
t r i c a l l y o p e r a t e d d e v i c e by which
t r a f f i c is alternately directed to
s t o p and p e r m i t t e d t o p r o c e e d by
t h e d i s p l a y of r e d , y e l l o w , and
green l i g h t indications.

T r a f f i c Generators - I n d u s t r i a l
p l a n t s , shopping c e n t e r s , m a r k e t s ,
universities, hospitals, holy
shrines, etc.

T r a f f i c I s l a n d - An i s l a n d p r o v i d e d
i n t h e roadway t o s e p a r a t e o r d i -
r e c t s t r e a m s of t r a f f i c ; i n c l u d e s
b o t h d i v i s i o n a l and c h a n n e l i z i n g
islands.

T r a f f i c Lane - That p o r t i o n of t h e
t r a v e l e d way f o r t h e movement of a
s i n g l e l i n e of v e h i c l e s .

T r a f f i c Markings - A t r a f f i c con-
t r o l d e v i c e c o n s i s t i n g of l i n e s ,
p a t t e r n s , words, symbols, o r c o l o r s
on t h e pavement, o r a d j a c e n t t o t h e
roadway.

T r a f f i c Noise I m p a c t s - I m p a c t s
that occur when the predicted
t r a f f i c n o i s e l e v e l s approach o r
exceed t h e design n o i s e l e v e l s , o r
when t h e p r e d i c t e d t r a f f i c n o i s e
levels s u b s t a n t i a l l y exceed the
existing noise levels.

T r a f f i c Sign - A t r a f f i c c o n t r o l
d e v i c e mounted on a s u p p o r t above
t h e l e v e l of t h e roadway t h a t con-
v e y s a s p e c i f i c message by means of
words o r symbols.
T r a f f i c Volume - The numher of ve-
h i c l e s passing a given point during
a s p e c i f i c p e r i o d of time.

T r a n s i t i o n - A s e c t i o n of v a r i a b l e
pavement w i d t h r e q u i r e d when chang-
i n g from one w i d t h of t r a v e l e d way
t o a g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r width.

T r a n s i t i o n a l L i g h t i n g - The g r a d -
uated l i g h t i n g i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n
zone from a b r i g h t l y l i g h t e d a r e a
t o darkness.

T r a n s i t i o n Curve ( S p i r a l ) - A c u r v e
of v a r i a b l e r a d i u s i n t e n d e d t o e f -
f e c t a s n o o t h t r a n s i t i o n from t a n -
g e n t t o curved a l i g n m e n t .

Transpiration - The e m i s s i o n o r
e x h a l a t i o n of w a t e r y v a p o r from t h e
s u r f a c e s of l e a v e s o r o t h e r p a r t s
of t r e e s and p l a n t s . Transpiration
r e d u c e s t h e r u n o f f of r a i n w a t e r
from v e g e t a t e d a r e a s .

Transverse - A t r i g h t angle t o the

longitudinal direction.

T r a v e l e d Way - The p o r t i o n of t h e
roadway f o r t h e movement of v e h i -
c l e s , e x c l u s i v e of s h o u l d e r s and
auxiliary lanes.

T r a v e l Speed - The a v e r a g e speed

a l o n g a s e c t i o n of s t r e e t . It i s
computed by d i v i d i n g d i s t a n c e by
t r a v e l time.

T r a v e l Time - The t o t a l e l a p s e d
t i m e of t r a v e l , i n c l u d i n g s t o p s and
delays, for a vehicle t o travel
o v e r a p r e s c r i b e d c o u r s e and a s p e -
c i f i e d r o u t e under p r e v a i l i n g t r a f -
f i c conditions.

T r a v e l Time Delay - The d i f f e r e n c e

between a c t u a l t r a v e l t i m e and
i d e a l t r a v e l t i m e under u n c o n g e s t e d
conditions, including deceleration
and a c c e l e r a t i o n d e l a y s a s w e l l a s
stopped delay.

Traverse - In surveying, a s e r i e s
of i n t e r c o n n e c t e d s t r a i g h t l i n e s .
The l e n g t h s o f t h e l i n e s and t h e
a n g l e s of d e v i a t i o n between them
a r e measured a s t h e t r a v e r s e d e v e l -
ops.

T r e e s - Large woody p l a n t s , u s u a l l y
w i t h a s i n g l e stem.
 T r i a x i a l Shear T e s t - A t e s t i n

a
which a c y l i n d r i c a l specimen of
s o i l , e n c a s e d i n a n i m p e r v i o u s mem-
brane, i s subjected t o a confining
p r e s s u r e and t h e n l o a d e d a x i a l l y t o
failure .
Truck - A motor v e h i c l e d e s i g n e d
f o r t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n of goods o r
m a t e r i a l whose u n l a d e n w e i g h t ex-
c e e d s 3,500 kg.

Truck Combination - A t r u c k t r a c t o r
and a s e m i t r a i l e r , e i t h e r w i t h o r
without f u l l t r a i l e r , or a truck
w i t h one o r more f u l l t r a i l e r s .

Trumpet I n t e r c h a n g e - An i n t e r -
change suitable for T-intersec-
t ions.

T u r n i n g Lanes - A u x i l i a r y l a n e s
provided a t grade i n t e r s e c t i o n s f o r
r i g h t - and l e f t - t u r n i n g movements.

T u r n i n g Movement - The t r a f f i c
making a d e s i g n a t e d t u r n a t an
intersection.

T u r n i n g P a t h - The p a t h of a d e s i g -
n a t e d p o i n t on a v e h i c l e making a
specified turn.

T u r n i n g Roadway - A c o n n e c t i n g
roadway f o r t r a f f i c t u r n i n g between
two i n t e r s e c t i o n l e g s .

T u r n i n g T r a c k Width - The r a d i a l
d i s t a n c e between t h e t u r n i n g p a t h s

a
of t h e o u t s i d e of t h e o u t e r f r o n t
t i r e and t h e o u t s i d e of t h e r e a r
t i r e t h a t i s n e a r e s t t h e c e n t e r of
the turn.

Typical Cross S e c t i o n - A t r a n s -
v e r s e s e c t i o n of a proposed highway
showing t h e l a t e r a l d i m e n s i o n s and
f u n c t i o n a l and s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s
of t h e highway.

U n d e r d r a i n - Porous o r p e r f o r a t e d
p i p e , o r graded a g g r e g a t e i n s t a l l e d
u n d e r a roadway o r s h o u l d e r t o p r o -
vide subsurface drainage.

Underpass - A grade separation

where t h e highway p a s s e s u n d e r a n
i n t e r s e c t i n g highway o r r a i l r o a d .
Undisturbed Sample - A sample that
has been obtained by methods in
which every precaution has been
taken to minimize disturbances to
the sample.

Uniformity of Illuminance - The

ratio of either the minimum illumi-
nance to the average illuminance
(GI), or the minimum illuminance to
the maximum illuminance (G2) on the
pavement area.

Uniformly Graded - Material with a

uniform gradation from coarse to
fine.

Uninterrupted Flow - A condition in

which a vehicle traversing a sec-
tion of a lane or roadway is not
required to stop by any cause ex-
ternal to the traffic stream al-
though vehicles may be stopped by
causes internal to the traffic
stream.

Unit Cost - The direct cost, in-

direct cost, or total cost for a
specific service, product, or ac-
tivity divided by a measure of
quantity such as total work units
completed.

Untreated Base Course - The layer

or layers of base course without
mineral filler or asphaltic binder.

Vehicle - Every device, in, upon,

or by which any person or property
is, or may be, transported or drawn
upon a highway (except devices used
exclusively upon rails or tracks).

Vented Dip - A stream crossing

formed by partially iowering the
highway grade for floods and pro-
viding a culvert for low water
flow.

Vertical Alignment - See Profile

Grade.

Vertical Curve - A curve on the

longitudinal profile of a road to
provide for change of gradient.
 V i s i b i l i t y - The q u a l i t y o r s t a t e
o f b e i n g p e r c e i v a b l e by t h e e y e .
I n many o u t d o o r a p p l i c a t i o n s , v i s i -
b i l i t y i s d e f i n e d i n terms of t h e
d i s t a n c e a t which a n o b j e c t c a n be
j u s t p e r c e i v e d by t h e e y e .

V i s t a - A d i s t a n t view s e e n from a
highway. Yoving V i s t a - a view
o b s e r v e d from a moving v e h i c l e .
S t a t i o n a r y V i s t a - a view s e e n from
a f i x e d p l a c e o r l o c a t i o n ; such a s
from a r e s t a r e a o r s c e n i c over-
look.

Wadi - A s t r e a m o r w a t e r c o u r s e t h a t
i s d r y e x c e p t d u r i n g p e r i o d s of
rainfall.

Waste - Excess e a r t h , r o c k , v e g e t a -
tion, o r other materials resulting
from highway c o n s t r u c t i o n .

Water-Cement R a t i o - The r a t i o of
t h e amount of w a t e r , e x c l u s i v e o n l y
of t h a t a b s o r b e d by t h e a g g r e g a t e s ,
t o t h e amount of cement i n a con-
c r e t e o r mortar mixture; p r e f e r -
a b l y s t a t e d a s a d e c i m a l by mass.

Water T a b l e - The t o p of t h e zone

of permanent s o i l s a t u r a t i o n . The
w a t e r t a b l e may r i s e o r f a l l s e a -
s o n a l l y , o r it may be drawn down by
removal of w a t e r by d r a i n a g e s t r u c -
tures.

Wearing Course ( S u r f a c e C o u r s e ) -
The t o p l a y e r of a pavement.
-
W e a t h e r i n g - The d e c o m p o s i t i o n of
r o c k , s h a l e , e t c . , b e c a u s e of t h e
a c t i o n of t h e w e a t h e r .

Weaving - The c r o s s i n g of t r a f f i c
s t r e a m s moving i n t h e same g e n e r a l
d i r e c t i o n a c c o m p l i s h e d by merging
and d i v e r g i n g .

Weaving S e c t i o n s - Highway segments

where t h e p a t t e r n of t r a f f i c en-
t e r i n g and l e a v i n g a t c o n t i g u o u s
p o i n t s of a c c e s s r e s u l t s i n v e h i c l e
p a t h s c r o s s i n g each o t h e r .

Weephole - A h o l e t h r o u g h an a h u t - I, & 3 . d@- k , l A

,& 4
( 9 1 4 1
.. U
L& ,y a:' y3 ,I*
ment o r r e t a i n i n g w a l l t o r e l i e v e
hydrostatic pressure. &
~IJ.
L;"( )
Well Graded - Aggregate material of
varying particle sizes that pro-
duce maximum density when mixed.

Wire Mesh - A network of wires used

as distributed reinforcement in
concrete.

Working Drawings - Stress sheets,

shop drawings, erection plans,
falsework plans, framework plans,
cofferdam plans, bending diagrams
for reinforcing steel, or any other
supplementary plans or similar data
that the Contractor is required to
submit to the Engineer for approv-
al.

Work Unit - A quantity used as a

measure of work for a specific ac-
tivity.

Yield (Concrete) - The ratio of the

volume of a mixture produced to
that which theoretically should be
produced.

Y-Intersection - A three-leg inter-

section in the general form of a
"Y".
Section 1.03 MOC Organization

(Vacant)
 Section 1.04 Functional Classifica-
tion of Highways
A. Introduction I. Primary Highways
All highways in the Kingdom that are under Primary highways are the backbone of the
the jurisdiction of the MOC are classified into network. They provide fast, safe arid efficient
one of three broad categories. Excluded from routes of travel between the major traffic
the classification system are those segments of generators that are usually found in urhan
streets and high\rrays that may be under the areas having populatioris of 100,000 or greater.
jurisdiction of another agency even though the This class provides service to all major interna-
MOC has been requested to assume responsi- tional connections and to all major military
bility for design, construction. operation, and installations. The strategic significance of these
maintenance. The division between classes in highways martdate that they be free from
the system of national highways is based upon weather induced closurcs such as washouts or
both objective and subjective consideratiotrs inundation. Primary highways are not in-
and, to some extent, must be arbitrary. It is terided to be land service facilities. Access to
important, however, that the system as estab- and egress from Primary highways are cotl-
lished be adhered to by all who use it. Also. trolled both legally and physically. Either fully
preservation of the classification desig~iation controlled access or partially controlled access

a
must transcend all but the most extensive is provided under criteria set forth in HDM-2-
changes in land use that affect the need for 1.04.
transportation facilities over a substantial At least 25 percent of the A D T (20) may be
length of highway. atiticipated to be trucks. Traffic movement on
B. Purpose of Classification Primary highways shall be free-flowing and
shall provide minimum level of service C (See
Each type of highway within the total system HDM-2- 1.03A).
performs a particular service in facilitating ve-
hicular travel between points of origin and Collectively. the number of kilometers of Pri-
destination and providing land access. The mary highways shall not exceed 35 percent of
principal purposes of highway classification the total length of the highway network. Total
are vehicle kilometers of travel on the Primary
system shall not be less than 50 percent of the
1. Establish groupings of highways that iden- total travel on the highway network.
tify the functional characteristics of each class.
2. Secondary Highways
2. Establish groupings of highways that re-
quire a comparable level of maintenance arld Secondary highways are of less national signifi-
operation within each class. cance than Primary highways, but are in-
tended to move large volumes of traffic at high
3. Establish groupings of highways such that
speeds between population centers of 50,000 or

a
comparable geometric design standards are ap-
more. International connections, military in-
plicable to each class.
stallations. and seaports not served by a Pri-
4. Establish a basis for developing long range mary highway are reached via Secondary high-
programs, improvement priorities and fiscal ways. Design considerations for Secondary
plans. highways recognize land service as only a nri-
nor or incidental function.
C. Classes of Highways
On the basis of the service to be provided, the A minimum of 20 percent of the A D 7 (20)
three functional classifications are Primary, will be trucks, as large numbers of trucks use
Secondary, and Feeder. the Secondary highways in the movement of
goods. Control of access may be established
D. Characteristics of Each Class but only to the degree necessary to sustain
flows at level of service C or higher. Secondary
Information required lo identify a functional
roads may connect two Primary highways.
class of highway includes population density, Secondary highways should not represent
level of service, degree of land service pro- more than 35 percent of the kilometers in the
vided, length, consequences of highway clo-
network, although they may be expected to
sure, and proximity of unique destinations.
carry at least 40 percent of the total travel
E. Description of Classes expressed in terms of vehicle kilometers.
As summarized in Table 1.04.1, the distln- 3. Feeder Highways
guishing characteristics of each class are as Feeder highways serve two distinct functions.
follow?: They provide direct traffic service between a
Primary, Secondary, or another Feeder high- traffic flow by stop ct~nditionsmay be expected
-
wav and towns. villaees. industrial and cum- at intersections and private road approaches.
~ ~

mercial developments, and recreational areas. The type of traffic on Feeder highways varies
They also provide direct vehicular access to with the adjacent land use. Light to medium
privately owned properties. trucks with an occasional heavv truck mav ac-
Control of a c c e s from adlacent -properties 1s
~
count for up to 30 percent of the total ~ o l u m c
not required. Design consideratior~sand opera- Not more than 30 percent of the total highway
tional practices are directed towards the main- network is allocated to the Feeder highway
tenance of traffic flow at a minimum level of percent of the total traf.
system that carries
service D . However, infrequent interruption of fic flow.

Table 1.04.1
Characteristics of Highway
- Classes
I I Primarv Secondary Feeder

Type of Service Traffic movement is Traffic movement is Land service is first

of primary importance basic consideration consideration but
Access is controlled. but may provide some traffic service may
land service function. have more than
Access may be incidental sig-
controlled. nificance. Access
control not normally
imposed.
Population Density Connections to urban Connections to urban
areas of 100,000 areas of 50,000
or more.
Weather Related Road
Closures--Allowable
Frequency Once per 100 years
Service to Unique Connects multiple Connects two regions. Recreational areas
Destination regions. Serves inter- Serves international not served by
national connections connections, military higher class.
and major military installations and
installations. seaports not served
by Primary road. May
connect two Primaries.
Minimum Level
of Service
Minimum Percent
of Trucks Other Than
Pickups
Percent of Kilometers
Percent Vehicle
Kilometers

F. Continuity of the Functional Classification MOC, including those scheduled for future de-
System velopment, have been placed in functional
classes, according to the above criteria. The
All highways in the three functional classes are class assigned to each Primary and Secondary
part of an Integrated network that is intended highway is shown in Figure * . A listing of
to provide continuous routes of travel from each segment of the highway system, with its
any given location to any other location within termini, route number, and functional class, is
the Kingdom for all of its residents. Functional given in Table * . When new routes are added
classification along continuous routes shall be to the highway network, each route will be
maintained irrespective of local conditions.
classified in accordance with the foregoing cri-
G . Classification of Highways teria.
All highways under the jurisdiction of the * N o i availublr ur rime ofprinting
H. Permanency of Classification even the absence of any development, will not
affect the established classification designation.
Unless there is a major change in land use
affecting a large region, adjustment of the Should changes become necessary. a review of
classification of a given section of highway the class assignment for all highways in the
shall not be made. The degree of highway de- region and, when appropriate, the entire na-
velopment, including stage construction, or tional network shall be undertaken.
 1.05 A,B,C,D,E

Section 1.05 Route Designations

A. Introduction within each classification. Resulting gaps i n
the assigned numbers pn~vidcfor a logical
Functional classification of the highways in the
distrihution of vacant numbers whe~~cvcr it he-
Kingdom that are under the jurisdiction of the comes ricccssary to expand or revise the basic
MOC is established in accordarice with the
classification system.
policy and criteria set forth in 1-1.04. Under
the classification system each MOC route, ex- L). Expressways
isting or proposed, is designated as a Primary,
Secondary, or Feeder highway. Although not a The term expressway designates a highway de-
criterion of the classification policy, route signed and constructed to provide for thc safe
numbering as depicted in figures * through * is arid rapid rnovenlent of people arid goods be-
dependent upon the highway classification tween major traliic generators. Expresbways
system. are usually constructed on the l'rirnary system.
They are normally rnulrilaned facilities that
B. Purpose arc designed and operated as lirr~ited access
highways. Expressways are assignzd route
A system of route designations is the basis for numbers in accordance with the scheme de-
the routing of traffic between origins and
scribed above, i.e., a one or two digit even
destinations through the use of roadside
number if i t is a west to cast highway on thc
markers and maps made available to the high-
Primary system. Route markers, including [he
way user. Route designation and numberirlg numerals displayed [hereon, which are placed
also facilitate the administration of such func- along expressways for user convenie~~ce shall
tions as the filing of correspondence and doc-
be different in size. shape, and color from tht~hc
uments, rapid and accurate identification of on other highways. (See MUTCD Sccriun
specific locations when emergencies develop,
2.05D.)
accident reporting and analysis, and the inven-
tory of roadside appurtenances such as signs, E. Additions, Deletions, and Revisions
drainage structures, guardrails, etc.
Assignment of a route number to a newly crc-
C. Route Numbers ated highway, cancellation of a number previ-
ously used to designate a deleted or
Highways that carry north-south traffic are abandonded highway. and route rrumbcr
assigned odd numbers and routes that carry revisior~sthat may become necessary by redson
east-west traffic are assigned even numbers. of a change in functional classification arc the
Highways that are part of the Primary system responsibility of the Director of th2 Dcpdrt-
are assigned one or two digit numbers (1 ment of Planning and Uudgst Fiillow-up
through 99). Secondary highways are desig- (MOC). Changes made by anyone else are in-
nated by three digit numbers (100 through valid. Users of this manual shall advisc thc
999) and highways on the Feeder system have Director if they perceive the need for
four digit numbers (1,000 through 9,999).
additions, deletions, or revisions to the num-
Route numbers assigned to all highways in- bering schen~e.
crease from south to north and from west to
east and utilize the full range of numbers * . V ~ ovailohir
I ai iirnc ofpririring
 1.06 A,B,C,D,E

Section 1.06 Approval Process

3. Design speed.
4. Centerline location.
It is the policy of the MOC that only compe- 5. Degree of access control.
tent administrators, engineers, and technicians 6. Access plan, if any.
shall be engaged as employees or agents of the 7. Interchange types and locations.
Ministry in the fulfillment of the highway de- 8. Pavement design.
velopment functions a r ~ dobjectives addressed 9. Uridge layout-type, size, and location of
in this manual. It is assumcd that those admin- bridges.
istrators, engineers, and technicians have un- 10. Rest areas-type and location.
dergone sufficient training and are properly 11. Kight-of-way plan.
motivated to represent the best interest of the 12. Methodology to be used in conducting
MOC in exercising professional judgment and traffic surveys and analysis including Equiva-
in making technical decisions. Accordingly, lent Axle Load (EAL) determination. (See
the MOC relies on the recommendations and 1-2.08 and HDM-2-1.09.)
decisions of its staff and agcnts. Except for 13. Deviations from policy or specific require-
specific itcms or milestones. the MOC shall not ments set forth in this manual or any supple-
provide direction nor exercise stage approval mental inslrument.
authority over most other preconstruction en-
gineering activities. Specific items, milestones, C. Form of Approval
or documents for which MOC approval is re-
quired during the highway de\,elopment proc- Acceptance and approval of the items identi-
ess are discussed in the following subdivisions fied in this section must be documented. Such
of this section. Others may bc specified in documentatio~~ shall be provided by an ap-
proval black or notation on the document itself
written instructions or by other documentatiori
by written minutes of meetings or by separate
prior to or during the initial phases of project
correspondence. Regardless of form, the scope
development.
of the approval must be clearly defined and the
B. Specific Requirements signature of the appropriate approving author-
ity must appear on the instrument.
As each of the four phases of preconstruction
engineering listed below are completed. the re- D. Approval Schedule
sulting documents shall be submitted for ac-
The above four phases shall be submitted for
ceptance
review and acceptance in accordance with a
Feasibility Report time schedule established prior to the begin-
Reconnaissance Report ning of work on the project or as otherwise
Preliminary Design Report directed. In general, completion of the work
Plans, Specifications and Estimates involved in the last two phases is dependent
The scope of the Feasibility report (when re- upon prior approval of items 1 through 13. It
quired) will be determined by the MOC on a is, therefore, usually desirable that project per-
project-by-project basis. These documcr~ts sonnel submit items 1 through 13 for individ-
shall be reviewed for compliance with this ual approval as they are developed. All re-
Manual or other written instructions. Accept- quests for approval under item 13 must he
ability of each report and of the PS&E package clearly identified as a deviation.
is documented by the appropriate MOC ap- E. Approving Authority
proval authority. In addition to MOC accept-
ance of the above four phases, separate or The approving authority for all actions cov-
independent approval must be obtained for any ered in this section is Assistant Deputy Min-
of the following items for which the design ister for Technical Affairs. Any other delega-
decisions have not been specified in writing tion of approval authority is at the direction of
before or during the initial phases of project the Deputy Minister. For administrative pur-
development. poses, all items for acceptance and approval
are submitted to the Director of the follow-up
I . Corridor location studies for Technical Projects Department.
2. Design class.
Section 2.01 General
Part 2 of Volume 1. describes the \~arious Section 2.06-Geotechnical Engineering
predesign task item5 that are to be completed Section 2.07-f Iydrology
before Dcsign oj'Roudways (Volume 2) and De- Section 2.08-Traffic Surveys and Projcc.
sign of Slrucrure.~(Volume 3) can begin. The tlons
task items described in this part are as follows: These sectiorls describe the policies and proce-
Section 2.02-Design Classes dures in performing the tasks. Section 2.04 re-
Section 2.03-Corridor Studies artd Envi- fers to the Surveyiyir~gurld :Lfoppitlg :Munuui for
ronmental Assessment describing technical steps in performirtg sur-
Section 2.04-Surveys and Mapping veys and preparing maps. Sectioll 2.06 refers to
Section 2.05-Centerline Location and Pre- the Highwuy Muteriu1.s Mur~uul for specific
liminary Design testing procedures.
 Section 2.02 Design
- Classes

a A. Introduction
The design classes discussed in this section ap-
ply to all highway networks in both rural and
under off-peak volume conditions will vary on
roads of the same class depending on the con-
dition of the pavement, intensity of land devel-
opment, type of terrain, vehicle types, and triif-
urban areas under the jurisdiction of the MOC. tic flow controls. Running specds generally
B. Purpose of Design Classes increase from locals to collectors. arterials, and
expressways.
For geometric design purposes both rural and
urban highways may be divided into four 6. Vehicle Types
classes. Each class is based on providing differ- Local roads are generally used by passenger
ent traffic and land services. All geometric cars and small trucks with a small percentage
standards and design features in the following of large trucks. Expressways and arterials gen-
text are directly related lo these classes. erally carry a higher proportion of heavy
trucks.
C. Principles Considered in Establishing
Classes 7. Connections
1. General In the highway network, locals should connect
with collectors, collectors with arterizls, and
Highway design standards depend upon
arterials with expressways. Connection of
whether the road purpose is for movement of
locals with arterials and collectors with
traffic. access to adjacent land, or a combina-
expressways should be minimized. Locals
tion of the two. In addition, the predominant
should not be connected with expressways ex-
characteristic of the adjacent land use deter-
cept in very special situations.
mines whether it is a rural or urban facility.
Therefore, to account for these variables, the D. Description of Design Classes
following eight design classes of highways have
been established. Traffic characteristics have 1. General
been identified for each class. The principal characteristics of each of the
eight design classes are described in this
Rural local Urban local subsection. This information is also summa-
Rural collector Urban collector rized in Tables 2.02.1 and 2.02.2.
Rural arterial Urban arterial
Rural expressway Urban expressway 2. Description of Design Classes
2. Function a. Rural Locals
Local roads provide access to adjacent land. The main function of rural locals is to
Arterials and expressways provide for move- provide land access. Of minor importance
ment of through traffic. Collectors provide a is movement of traffic to allow vehicles to
combination of land access and movement of reach other collector or arterial highways.

a through traffic. Arterials may have at-grade

intersections or grade-separated interchanges.
Expressways shall have only grade-separated
crossings and interchanges.
Traffic volumes are generally low, depend-
ing upon the density of the development
along the sides of the highway. The A D T
(20) will range up to 300.
3. Traffic Volume Traffic flow on rural local highways is in-
terrupted by stop conditions at all inter-
Expressways and arterials generally carry high
secting highways and is affected by traffic
volumes of traffic. Local roads and collectors
moving to and from adjacent properties.
may carry light to medium volumes of traffic.
The A D T (20) rapge for each class is wide and Depending upon the condition of the
may overlap the ADT (20) in other classes. highway surface, the running speed varies
from 45 to 80 km/h.
4. Traffic Flow Characteristics In agricultural areas, trucking is done by
Expressways shall have uninterrupted traffic light and medium vehicles with an occa-
flow. Arterials may have grade intersections sional heavy truck. In mining and oil de-
and traffic flow may be interrupted. Collectors velopment areas, heavy vehicles may pre-
and locals will have interrupted traffic flow dominate. The number of trucks depends
caused by traffic either entering, leaving, or upon adjacent land use and ranges up to
crossing the road and by vehicles parked along 50 percent of the total vehicular volume.

a
the roadway. Local highways connect with collectors
5. Running Speed and sometimes with arterials.
The average running speed of traffic operating
b Rural Collector\ ramps. Only emergency parking is per-
Collector highways collect traffic from lo- mitted along expressways.
cal and distribute it to arterials or collect Average running speed is hetween 80 to
traffic from arterials and distrihute it to 120 km/h.
locals. Rural collectors provide for both Exprcssways carry all types of traffic with
movement of traffic and access to adjacent hzavy truck volume ranging from 20 to 40
land. percent.
I'he A D T (20) varies from 200 l o 4,000. Exprcssways connect to other rural
Traffic Row is interrupted at intersections expressways, rural arterials, rural
with arterials or other collector highways collectors. urban expressways, or urban
by stop signs o r traffic signals. Flow may arterials.
be interrupted by vehicles lcaving and en- e. Urban Local Streets
tering from adjacent land.
Average running speed varies between 50 Local streets provide land access, carry
and 90 km/h. low volume, and are not intended to carry
through traffic. Local strccts may be lo-
Vehicle types consist mainly of light to
cated in residential. commercial, or in-
medium size trucks. Truck trafic will
dustrial areas. Local streets may be
range up to 30 percent of total tmRic. Few
multilane facilities but are seldom di-
hcavy trucks use collector highways un- vided.
less they are located near mining o r other
truck oriented industry. A D T (20) ranges from 100 to 1,000.
Collectors generally connect to locals, Traffic flow is interrupted by stop, yield,
other collectors. or arterial highways. and signalized control. Also flow is re-
stricted by vehicles entering and exiting
c. Rural Arterials abutting land, and vehicles parked along
Arterial highways are intended to move the street.
large volunies of traffic at high speeds. Running speed is between 30 and 40
The difference between arterials and l<m/h.
expressways is that arterials may have full Residential streets carry passenger cars,
or partial control of access and light pick-up trucks, and an occasional
expressways have full coritrol of access. heavy truck. Commercial and industrial
The A D T ( 2 0 ) varies from 2.000 to areas will have a high percentage of heavy
15,000. trucks.
Arterial highways generally have Local streets connect to other locals and
uninterrupted Row of traffic except for to collectors. In industrial and commer-
grade intersections. Intersections are con- cia1 areas, local streets may connect di-
trolled by traffic signals or stop signs on rectly to urban arterials.
side highways. At connections with other f. Urban Collector Streets
arterials or expressways, grade-separated
interchanges shall be used. Collector streets carry traffic from locals
' The average running speed of rural to arterials and provide access to abutting
arterials is betwcen 60 and l I0 km/h. land. Collectors may have more than two
lanes and may be divided.
Arterials carry all types of vehicles, and
up to 40 percent of traffic consists of ' A D T (20) ranges between 1.000 and
hcavy trucks. 12,000.
Trailic flow may be interrupted by stop,
' Rural arterials g e ~ ~ c r a l l yconnect to
collectors. other arrerials. or expressways. yield, and signalized controls, and by traf-
fic entering and exiting from abutting
d. Expressway land.
Expressways are multilane, divided high- Average running speeds are between 30
ways and are designed to move large and 50 km/h with the higher value pre-
volumes of traffic at high speeds under dominating in outlying areas.
free-flow conditions. Exprcssways have ' In residential areas, collectors carry
full control of access with grade-separated passenger cars, light pick-ups, and an oc-
interchanges. casional heavy truck. Commercial and in-
A D T (20) generally exceeds 15.000. dustrial areas will have a higher percent-
Traffic flow on expressways shall he age of heavy trucks.
uninterrupted. Grade separations shall be Collector streets connect locals to
used at railroad crossings and other high- arterials. Collectors should not connect to
ways. Access is at interchanges or slip- expressways.
g. Urban Arterial Streets o r Highways All types of vehicles will use arterials.
Heavy truck volume could range up to 20
Arterial streets carry large volumes of
percent of the total traffic.
traffic at medium speed. .4ccess to abut-
ting land shall be minimized. .4rterials h. Urban Expressways
may have more than two lanes and may Expressways carry large volumes of traf-
be divided, depending upon traffic fic at high speeds under free-How opera-
volumes. Access to abutting property aud tion. Expressways connect to other
connection to intersecting streets is usu- expressways and arterials. All
ally provided through the use of parallel expressways have full control of access.
frontage roads. Traffic movements be- Only emergency parking is permitted. All
tween frontage roads and arterials is by expressways are multilane. divided high-
slip-ramps or at intersections. Arterials ways with grade-separated railroad and
may h a w grade-separated interchanges at highway crossings and interchanges.
connections with other streets having high
A D T (20) exceeds 20,000.
traffic volumes.
Average running speeds are between 80
A D T (20) will vary from 5.000 to 30,000.
and I I 0 km/h.
Traffic flow is uninterrupted except at sig-
All types of vehicles may use the
nalized intersections. Only emergency
expressways and heavy truck volume
parking is permitted along arterials.
could amount to 20 percent of the total
Average running speeds are between 50 traffic.
and 80 km/h.

Table 2.02.1
Summary of Rural Design Classes
 Table 2.02.2
Summary of Urban Design Classes
Section 2.03 Corridor Studies and
Environmental Assessment
A. Background Data local jurisdictions or other Ministries
1. General A thorough initial investigatiori is essential to
A Corridor Study and Environmental As- intelligently make corridor determinations. If
sessment serve as the basis for "selecting" new the most feasible, serviceable, and economical
route corridors or for deciding between high- corridor is not determined at this stage no
way relocatiorl and continued use of an exist- amount of engineering effort can overcome the
irig highway. Studies and decisions on highway inherent deficiencies that will exist. When pre-
alternatives reflect the goals and objectives of senting corridor comparisons, it is imperative
the M O C to fulfill the need for fast. safe. and that the same basic data and methods of in-
efficient transportatioti facilities while consid- vestigation and evaluation bc used for each
ering the costs of eliminating o r minimizing corridor studied.
adverse SEE (social, economic, and environ- 2. Interministry and Public Involvement
mental) effects.
In addition to the consideration of alternatives
Included in corridor studies are activities lead- and the identilication and consideration of
irig to highway route location. All reasonable SEE effects, a third basic element in the MOC
alternatives are identilied and a comparison project planning and development process is
made of their relative costs, benefits, and the the involvement of other agencies. public
environmental impacts. Alternatives iriclude officials, and citizen3.
different locations or upgrading the existing
MOC requires timely involvement of parties
roadway.
with special expertise or concern in project
Decisions on the type of highway impro\,ement planning and development. Notification of pro-
are not made on the basis of transportation ject activities is sent to olficials in provinces,
considerations alone. A higher or lower stan- districts, cities, towns, villages, and to other
dard, for instance, may provide needed traffic Ministries and agencies having jurisdiction or
service and significantly change the SEE effect. special expertise concerning lands and features
As an example, a controlled access highway impacted. M O C also requires coordination
may not be necessary to serve transportation with urban transportation plans arid cornpre-
needs, but may achieve beneficial results. Con- hensive area plans. The following "Kntifica-
trolling access may channel potential develop- tion of Intent" form, o r a similar one, is uti-
ment into less sensitive areas o r into areas lized.
more compatible with planning objectives of
 Notification of Intent to Begin
Project Planning and Development Activities

To: Appropriate agency -~ ~-

~~ ~ --

~- ~. ~

Project
Description: - -- .~- --

- ~~ ~~~

-~ ~~

1-oration (with attached map): .. ~~~ ~ ~~

-~ -

Any information that your agency can provide concerning this project and its social, economic,
and environmental effects will be appreciated.

Ser~dinformation to:
Ministry of Communications, Riyadh
At tention:

Following the above notification and involve- opportunity for effective participation by inter-
ment, a public hearing is held in each com- ested officials and citizens. A representative of
munity impacted by the transportation facility. the MOC explains the results of engineering
This hearing or meeting may be chaired by a and SEE studies and makes note of other
local official or a representative of the MOC. viewpoints and specific project-related infor-
n~ation.
A public hearing or meeting is a public forum
held before MOC is committed to a specific Table 2.03.1 depicts most activities requiring
alternative. Such a forum is held to ensure the coordination and the Ministries having juris-
diction or special expertise for such activities.
 Table 2.03.1
Interministry Coordination List

Activities
3 , Preliminary Data b. Termini
a. Traffic Route termini have usually been selected
prior to the authorization of the recon-
The ADT (20) needed for evaluation of the
naissance study. If definite termini have not
potential traffic-carrying capacity of existing
been selected, traffic survey data should be
highways, or for evaluation of route
used to establish the termini.
proposals arid design features during later
stages of the study will bc provided by the c. Maps and Photographs
MOC or obtained by applying a 20-year The type and scale of mapping required for
traffic projection factor to the current ADT. the study are dictated by the terrain and
The traffic projection factor is a ratio of land use intensity of the route corridor area.
future traffic ADT (20) to current traffic. The maps must be complete, current and
The traffic increases that this factor reflects, give full details of topography and physical
combine normal traffic growth, generated features.
traffic, and development traffic. Mosaic reproductions or photographic
Normal Traffic Growth: Normal traffic prints may be used to show corridors or por-
growth is the increase in traffic volume tions of corridors.
due to general increase in number and
Existing aerial photographs. planimetric
usage of motor vehicles.
maps, topographic maps, geological maps
Generated Traffic: Generated traffic con- and geophysical maps may be available and
sists of motor vehicle trips (other than by in some instances will provide adequate in-
public transit) that would not have been formation for the initial investigation. Possi-
made if the new facility had not been pro- ble sources for thesc and other maps and
vided. photographs are as follows:
Development Traffic: Development traffic
is that due to improvements on adjacent Ministry of Communications.
larid over and above the development that Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Re-
would have taken place had not the new sources.
or improved highway been constructed. Consulting Engineers.
The traffic projection factor is obtained by ARAMCO.
adding the percentages of increase for each U.S. Geological Survey.
itcm of traffic growth in relation to current Ministry of Municipalities and Rural
traffic. dividing the sum by 100, and adding Atfairs.
1 to the result. The value of the traffic pro-
jection factor lies in its use for estimating
B. Information to be Obtained During Study
breakdowns of current traffic, such as for For each corridor studied, the following infor-
separate turning movements, for which the mation shall be developed
future volumes are not estimated readily by 1. Proposed Geometrics
adding each item of traffic growth to current
traffic. Future volumes in such cases can be Design Class, Alignment (vertical and hori-
obtained by multiplying current traffic by zontal), and Typical Cross Section. See HDM-
the factor. 2-1.05, Geometric and Structure Standards.

Specific values cannot be cited for traffic 2. Land Use Activities

projection factors for use in design where no Locate and describe the general ownership and
analysis is made of the separate factors of the principal activities occurring on the land in
traffic growth. Obviously such factors will the study area. Describe all Government-
vary widely between different facilities. Pro- owned Land and facilities.
jection factors that would apply to a major-
ity of rural highway improvements today for
3. Geology
a 20-year period are probably in the range of Give the geology of the study area. Use a geo-
1.5 to 2.5. Where the rural highway is to be logic map if available. Interpret and show the
an expressway, the traffic projection facror is relationship of the geology to the proposed
likely to be higher, in the range of 1.8 to 3.0, route. Include sand dune and landslide areas;
because attracted (or diverted) traffic, gener- properties of rolid rock; properties of uncon-
ated traffic, and development traffic are solidated material; availability of road con-
likely to be higher than for rural highways struction materials (type of deposits, quantity,
without access control. and quality). See 1-2.06, Geotechnical Investi-
gations.
Advancements in transportation and land
use planning will enable traffic needs to be 4. Topography
projected more accurately in the future. Describe the topography for the study area.
 5. Hydrology-Climate Education and President of the Higher Coun-
cil of Antiquities during the corridor evalua-

-
Collect hydrologic data in accordance with
1-2.07, Hydrology. tion phase to determine if there are any known
archaeological areas or historical buildings
6. Economic A c t i \ ~ t y within each corridor being considered.
Describe the economy of the study area includ A field survey will be made in each corridor
ing the major itrdustries. under consideration by persons with knowl-
7. Biological Data edge of archaeological or historic features and
sites.
Give the general vegetative distribution. De-
scribe any wildlife that may inhabit the area. 5. Other
8. Sociological Data Field investigations may be necessary to accu-
rately assess the following features of the study
Describe the population distribution, recrea-
area.
tional opportunities, public services, and other
social related activities. Topography
Geology
C. Field Investigation
Hydrology
1. Traffic Surveys Land Use Activities
If the information is not available, traffic sur- Biological Data
veys may be necessary to assess existing traffic Sociological Data
and for projecting future traffic.
D. Corridor Evaluation
2. Field Surveys
Ground and/or photogrammetric surveys may 1. Social and Environmental Impacts
be necessary to determine the physical charac- Each comparison of representative alternate
teristics of the existing roads and to obtain corridors should include consideration of so-
information for use in the evaluation of alter- cial and environmental determinants listed
nate corridors. below. To ensure that each determinant is ade-
quately evaluated, the following questionnaire
3. Cemeteries and Mosques
shall be completed and included in the Recon-
A field survey will be made in each corridor naissance Report. Explanations of all yes and
under consideration to determine the presence maybe answers to the questions are required
of graves, cemeteries, or mosques. This survey following each determinant.
and its findings shall be documented in the
Reconnaissance Report The consideration given to each determinant
will vary with the nature and size of the pro-
4. Antiquities and Historic Sites posed project and with the characteristics of
Project personnel will contact the Minister of the study area.
 Yes
~- Maybe
Determinant:
a. Water. Will the proposal result in
Changes in currents, or the course of direction of water
movements, in either marine or fresh waters?
Changes in absorption rates, drainage patterns, or the
rate and amount of surface water runoff!
Alterations to the course or flow of flood waters?
Change in the amount of surface water in any water
body?
Discharge into surface waters, or in any alteration of
surface water quality, including but not limited to tem-
perature, dissolved oxygen or turbidity?
Alteration of the direction or rate of flow of ground wa-
ters?
Change in the quantity of ground waters, either through
direct additions or withdrawals, or through interception
of an aquifer by cuts or excavations?
Deterioration in ground water quality, either through
direct injection, or through the seepage of leachate,
phosphates, detergents, waterborne virus or bacteria, or

- other substances into the ground waters?

Reduction in the amount of water otherwise available for
public water supplies?
Explanation:

The location, quantity, and quality of usable could affect water and water use in settlements
waters has greatly influenced the culture and of agricultural areas should be discussed and
development of the Kingdom. Availability of coordinated with the Ministry of Agriculture
water also strongly influences the numbers and and Water, the Ministry of Defense and Avia-
type of plant/animal associations in any locale. tion, the Provincial Governor, and the Minis-
Oases, wadis, ground water, natural springs, try of Municipalities and Rural Affairs. Their
and developed wells all represent important recommendations shall be incorporated in pro-
accesses to scarce water supplies and warrant a ject location and design. All efforts made to
high degree of protection. Although the water obtain information from the Ministries should
quality of these sources may vary, all water is be documented in the Reconnaissance R e ~ o r t .
precious in this arid land. Gcen; and develop-
Some examples of precautions to minimize en-
ing technology in water purification and
croachment and impact if avoidance is imprac-
treatment holds the promise of making all wa-
tical are
ters more usable and reusable regardless of
current water quality. Avoid interfering with natural surface and
subsurface drainage of the above areas.
Encroachment of highways on any areas of Increase the span across wadis.
usable water supply and developments related
to these water sources should be avoided if Reduce the road cross section and clearing
~ossible.If encroachment is demonstrated to widths across vegetated wadis and Oases.
be unavoidable, the Engineer should take every Cross vegetated wadis and oases in areas of
precaution in highway location and design to least natural values such as where vegeta-
minimize encroachment and impact on these tion is less dense, drainage channels are
areas. The Engineer shall state why encroach- straight and easily crossed, etc.
ment was unavoidable and what precautions Revegetate road disturbance with plants
were taken to minimize encroachment and im- similar to those naturally occurring in the
pact. Encroachment on the above sites shall be area.
discussed with local water users or those Insure road construction and operation de-
whose water rights may be affected. An agree- bris or spills do not enter permanent or sea-
ment for the use of or purchase of such rights sonal surface and subsurface water flows.
may be required. Highway encroachment that Use measures to limit off-road access to pro-
ductive oases or wadis.
 Yes
-
hlayhe
b. Earth. Will the proposal result in
Unstable earth conditions or changes in geologic
substructures?
Disruptions, displacement, compaction or overcovering
of the soil?
Change in topography or ground surface relief features'?
The destruction, covering or modification of any unique
geologic or physical features?
Any increase in wind or water, erosion of soils, either on
or off the site'?
Changes in deposition or erosion of beach sands, or
changes in siltation, deposition or erosion that may mod-
ify the bed of the ocean, bay, or inlet?
Changes in deposition or erosion or changes in siltation,
deposition or erosion that may modify the channel of a
wadi or stream, or the bed of a lake?
Placing fill below the ordinary high water mark of wadis
and streams'?
Cut or fill placement through swamps, marshes, bogs,
and other similar areas that are frequently inundated or
saturated by ground water?
Explanation:

Encroachment of highways on areas of highly cautions were taken to minimize encroach-

unstable material should he avoided if ~ossible.
~ ~
ment and imoact on these areas.
If encroachment is demonstrated to be una-
In sand dune areas, consideration shall be
voidable, the Engineer should take every pre-
given to constructing high embankments in or.
caution in highway location and design to min-
der to reduce the depth of cutting at the crest
imize encroachment and impact to these areas.
of sand ridges. Constructing flat slopes, sand
The Reconnaissance Report shall state why
fences, and bitumen spraying shall be consid-
encroachment was unavoidable and what pre- ered in an to migrating
Yes hlayhc
- No
-
c. Vegetation. Will the proposal result in
Change in the diversity of species, or numbers of any
species of Hora (including trees, shrubs, grass, crops,
microflora, and aquatic plants)? - - -~
Reduction of the numbers of any unique, rare, or endan-
gered species of Hora? - -- -~
Introduction of new species of flora into an area, or a
barrier to the normal replenishment of existing species? -

Explanation: - -.

Vegetated coastal plains, salt marshes, moun- case of vegetated mountains and highlands)
tains, highlands, and government sponsored recharge fresh ground water supplies. Many of
dune stabilization projects comprise the few these vegetated areas stabilize the margins of
relatively densely vegetated lands in the King- deserts; disturbance of the vegetation and
dom. As such, these areas provide valuable ground surface along this margin can cause
wildlife food and cover, protect and improve gradual desert encroachment into adjacent
water quality, stabilize delicate soils, provide nondesert areas. On these desert margins, de-
food and fuel to nearby settlements, and (in the velopments such as road projects should be
located on the desert side to preserve the integ- Unavoidable encroachment on these areas
rity of the existing desert margin. Because of should be discussed and coordinated with the
these natural values, these areas warrant some Ministry of Agriculture and Water (document
protection similar to that given water sources with a clearance letter), the Provincial Gover-
-
and aericultural lands. nor. Ministry of Defense and Aviation, and the
Ministry of-~unicipalitiesand ~ u r a Affairs.
l
Highway encroachment on these areas should
Their recommendations should be incorpo-
be avoided if possible. If cncroachment is una-
rated into project location and design.
voidable, then all practical precaulions shall be
taken to minimize encroachment arid impact
(sec previous sections on water for cxamples of
such measures).

d. Wildlife. Will the proposal result in

Changes in the diversity of species, or numbers of any
species of fauna (birds, land animals including reptiles,
fish and shellfish, benthic organisms, i ~ ~ s e c t s or
,
microfauna)? - -~- ~~

Reduction of the numbers of any unique, rare, or endan-

gered species of fauna? - ~-- -

Introduction of new species of fauna into an area, or

result in a barrier to the migration or mo\,ement of
fauna? - -

Deterioration of existing fish or wildlife habitat? - -~ - -

Explanation:

There are several endangered species in the genetic diversity and ecological stability of thc
Kingdom, marly of which are finely-adapted, country. Where possible, efforts should bc
desert-grazing animals. Most of these species made to isolate these species (and those that
were abundant in the past but declined drasti- may become endangered in the future) from
cally due to increased human access. Endan- human disturbance and restore them to a sta-
gered species are good early delineators of the ble population level. Road projects that could
overall health and stability of natural impact these species or their habitat should be
ecosystems in the country. It can he reasoned discussed and coordinated with the Ministry of
that, due to their greatly reduced number and Agriculture and Water, the Ministry of De-
threat of extinction, these animals arid plants fense and Aviation, and the Ministry of Mu-
are generally very sensitive to their environ- nicipalities and Rural Affairs (or other respon-
ment including the influcnce of man's actions sible agency if so designated by the Ministry of
on the environment. Such species and their Communications).
habitat should be protected to maintain the
Yes
-
Maybe
-
No
--

e . Agriculture Lands. Will the project result in

Reduction in the quality or quantity of usable farm land? - -

Reduction in the quality or quantity of usable grazing

land? - - .-

Explanation:

Agricultural and grazing lands are also scarce a strong program to protect and increase farm
resources in Saudi Arabia and warrant a high and grazing lands whenever possible. The
degree of protection. Scarce water supplies arc coastal plain and terraced mountain slopes of
closely allied lo productive agricultural and Western Saudi Arabia have historically been
grazing lands because of the need to irrigate important agricultural areas; the eastern
crops and water animals. The government has coastal plain and plateau areas have similar if
 not as great potential. Some of the eastern local laud owners u-hose land is affected. Im-
coastal plain and interior lands may be very pacts on agricultural and productive grazing
productive farm lands if sufficient irrigation lands should also be discussed and coordinated
water supply is available. Most part5 of the with the .Ministry of Agriculture and Water
country are considered suitable for g r a z i n ~ (document with a clearance letter), the Min-
sonle areas are much Inore productive for istry of Defense and Aviation, and the Ministry
graring than others. All grazing poter~tialis of Murlicipalities and Rural Affairs: their rec-
limited by arid coriditions and productive ommendations should be incorporated into
grazing lands warrant protection. These agri- project location and design.
cultural and g r a ~ i n glands also have significant
Some examples of precautions to niinimire en-
value to the natural wildlife of the country croachment and impact, if avoidance is dem.
and, as such, play a major role in sustaining
onstrated to he impractical. are
the welfare and diversity of the delicate arid
ecosystem. Keduce the road cross section width and
clearing width across agricultural and pro-
Highway encroachment on all farm lands and
on productive grazing land should be avoided
if possible. If encroachment is demonstrated to
. ductive grazing lands.
Allow
right-of-way,
farming or "f the

be unavoidable, every feasible precaution

should be taken in project location and design Cross the area in the area of least productive
to minimize encroachment and impact to these potential.
areas. ~h~ ~~~~~~~i~~~~~~~~~~~t shall state Use measures to limit off-road access to con-
why encroachment was unavoi&able and what trol management of farmland and grazing
precautions were taken to minimize encroach- land.
ment and impact on these areas. Encroach- Avoid interferring with natural surface and
ment on farmland or productive grazing lands subsurface drainage and water supply to
should be discussed and coordinated with the these areas.
Yes
-
Maybe No
-

f. Natural Resources. Will the proposal result in

Increase in the rate of use of any natural resources? - - -- - -

Depletion of any nonrenewable natural resource'? - - -

Explanation: - ____ --- --- --- --- -

Oil fields arc the mainstay of the Kingdom's Highways should be located and designed to
wealth and prosperity. Extensive capital in- avoid encroaching on oil field and mineral re-
vestments have been made by the Goverriment source facilities. In some cases, it will be im-

@ and private industry to find and develop these

oil fields. Much additional capital has been in-
vested it1 supporting facilities for the wells arid
practical to avoid such facilities but these cases
should he few and the reasons for encroaching
on the area or facility should be documented in
for workers who operate the wells and facili- the Reconnaissance Report. Projects that serve
lirc or could imnact oil or mineral resource areas
should be discussed and coordinated with the
Recently, the Government has given more em- Ministry of and Mineral Resources,
phasis to exploration and development of other should be incorpo-
Their
mineral resources. These mineral resources
rated into project location and design if possi-
and capital investments are important to the
ble.
Kingdom's economy.
Yes
-
hlay be
-
Y-
o

g. Economics. Will the proposal affect local employment,

taxes. property values, etc. - - - -

Explanation:
 Military installations, public, and industrial fa- Industrial/Electrica1 Facilities-Ministry of
cilities represent significant public and private Industry and Electricity
capital investments as well as much effort in public Housing/Other public Works-
planning and investment to provide supporting Ministry of Public Works and Housing
infrastructure for these facilities. Encroach- ~ i l l ~ ~ ~ ~ / ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~i ~~ /i .p ~
mznt on such facilities should be avoided if palities and ~~~~l oficesof
possible because of the potential delays to pro- and [he provincial G~~~~~~~
ject development and the potential for loss or
Government Buildings-Ministry of Munici-
replacement of previous investment in these
palities and Rural Afairs, of the
facilities. Highway projects that encroach on,
Amir and the Provincial Governor
impact, or service the above facilities or sup-
port facilities should be discussed and Airports and Military Installations-Ministry
nated with the following Ministries. of Defense and Aviation
Pilgrimage-related Facilities-Ministry of Pil-
Ports-Ministry of Communication/Saudi grimage and WAQFS
Ports Authority
Railroads-Ministry of Communication/Saudi
Ports Authority
Yes
-
Maybe
--
h. Public Services. Will the proposal have an etTect upon, or
result in a need for new or altered services in any of the
following areas
Mosques?
Cemeteries?
Fire protection?
Police protection?
Schools?
Parks or other recreational facilities?
Maintenance of public facilities, including roads?
Health services'?
Other services'?
Explanation:

The Islamic culture and the Saudi Arabian found within the project area should be dis-
Government place great emphasis on the sanc- cussed and coordir~atedwith the Ministry of
tity of individual graves, cemeteries, and Municipalities and Rural Affairs and with ap-
mosques. No project encroachment or other propriate local authorities who have knowl-
significant impact on such sites is allowed ex- edge of or control over such sites. This coordi-
cept under extreme circumstances and then nation shall also be summarized in the project
only with the approval of the MOC. Any sites location/design report.
Yes
- Maybe
-
No
-

i. Antiquities/Historical. Will the proposal result in an al-

teration of a significant archaeological or historical site,
structure, object, or building? - -
Explanation: - ..-

The Kingdom highly values all historic sites existing in archeological sites throughout the
and structures that relate to its cultural devel-
opment. In addition, the Kingdom recognizes
-
Kingdom.
Full consideration will be given to antique
the importance to the world of the information
areas and historical buildings during the corri-
dor selection phase
102
Coordination with the Minister of Education tion, design. and construction phases to assure
and President of the Higher Council of Antiq- that no potentially valuable antique or historic
uities will be maintained throughout the loca- area is inadvertently destroyed or disturbed.
Yes
~-
Mayhr
--
Vo
-

j. Air. Will the proposal result in

Air emissions or deterioration of ambient air quality? - - -- --
The creation of objectiol~ableodors? - - - ~. ~- ~

Alteration of air movement, moisture or temperature, or

any change in climate, either locally or regionally? -- -~ . -~
Explanation: -__ - __ -- --_ -------- -

The Engineer should contact the Environmen-

tal Protection Agency within the Ministry of
Defense arid Aviation (MODA), regarding any
air pollution standards that may be applicable
to the project area.
Yes
-
Maybe
-- K
-
O
k. Koise. Will the proposal increase existing noise le\~els? - -- -

Explanation: - --

The Engineer should contact the Environmen-

tal Protection Agency within the Ministry of
Defense and Aviation (MODA), regarding
Noise Pollution Standards that may cxist and
are applicable to the project area.
Yes
- Maybe
- No
.-
I. Light and Glare. Will the proposal produce new light or
glare? -- --

Explanation: - ~ ~~p .

Yes
-
Maybe
- No
-

m. Land Use. Will the proposal result in the alteration of

the present or planned land use of an area? -- - -
-

Explanation: - .~ ~-
~..
 Yes
-
Maybe
-
No
-

n. Risk of Upset, Does the proposal involve a risk of an

explosion or the release of hazardous substances (includ-
ing, hut not limited to, oil, pesticides, chemicals or radia-
tion) in the event of an accident or upset conditions? -- ~- - - --

Explanation:

Yes
-
Maybe
-
No
-

o. Population. Will the proposal

Alter the location. distribution, density, or growth of an
area'? -~
-~ - -

Affect racial or ethnic groups including minority, elderly,

o r low income? - - -

Yes
--
Rlaybe
-- No
Split neighborhoods, or separate residences from com-
mercial facilities? - -

Explanation:

Yep
-. \laybe
-- No
-
p. Housing. Wlll the proposal
Affect existing housing (including, but rlot limited to,
rural or urban residences and business or commercial
buildings)? - - - - -~ .-
* Create a demand for additional housing? - - - - --

Explanation: - -
- -

Ycs Maybe
--
q. Transportation/Circulation. Will the p r o p o ~ a lresult in
Generation of additional vehicular movement?
Gcr~eration of additional movemerit of bicyclists or
pedestrians?
Effects on existing parking facilities, or demand for new
parking? - ~-
~- .
* Impact upon existing transportation systems? ~~ ~-
-- -

Alterations to present patterns of circulation or migra-

tion of people and domestic animals?
Altcralions to ivaterborne. rail, or air traffic? - ~-

Increase in traffic hazards to motor vehicles. bicyclists, or

pedestrians? - - -

Explanation:
 r. Energy. Will the proposal result in
Use of substantial amounts of fuel or energy?
Require the development of new sources of energy?
Explanation: - - - _ - -- -

-- -- - - -

Yes
-
RIP,
- be h
-
o
s. Utilities. Will the proposal result in a need for new sys-
tems, or alterations to the following utilities
Power or natural gas?
Communications systems'?
Water'?
Sewer or septic tanks?
Storm water drainage?
Solid waste and disposal:'
Explanation:

--- -~ - - -~
---
Yes
-
hlaybe V"
-

t. Human Health. Will the proposal result in the creatiotl of

any health hazard or potential health hazard'? -- - - ~- -

Explanation:

- -~ p ~ - --- -- ----
~ p --

Yes
--
Maybe
- - \~"
-

u. Aesthetics. Will the proposal result in the obstruction of

any scenic vista or view open to the public. or will the
proposal result in the creation of an aesthetically offen-
sive sire open to public view? -- - -

Explanation: -- - __ - p~ p~ -

Yes
-
hlagbe
-- -No
-

v. Recreation. Will the proposal result in an impact upon

the quality or quantity of existing recreational opportuni-
ties? -- - --

2. Terrain and Aesthetics ment is easily developed in river valleys and

~h~ following can be used as a guide in evalu- large mountain canyons. However, numer-
ating corridors on the hasis of terrain and o u s s t r e a m crossings and the expensive
aesthetics. drainage and protective structures that may
be needed to avert floods and washouts
a. Satisfactory vertical and horizontal align-
 could be a disadvantage as well as the en- Earthwork.
croachment on rivers and streams. Minor Drainage.
b. Locations on ridges and divides require
steeper grades and more horizontal curves
than valley routes, but require fewer drain-
.. Rase Courses, Subbases. and Surfacing.
Utility Adjustments.
Maior Structures.
age and protective structures. Long spur
Right-of-way.
ridges may offer feasible routes to mountain
passes or tablelands. Miscellaneous-Guardrail, Guide Posts.
Fences, Traffic Control.
c. Corridors across natural drainage courses
All other items of work anticipated to cost
or a succession of ridges require steep grades
10 pcrccnt or more of the total estimated
and excessive curvature. Design standards
construction cost.
are difficult or impossible to meet and drain-
age structures and excavation are usually E. Reconnaissance Report
costly. Such corridors should be considered
only after all other alternatives have been The purpose of the Reconnaissance Report is
exhausted. to provide to MOC the information assembled
d u r ~ n gthe Corridor Studies and Environmen-
d. Mountainside or hillside locations oKer tal Assessment phase of project development.
several advantages if stable material is en- A report containing the following information
countered. The gradient may be chosen to fit shall be prepared.
the topography. On upper sidehills, the earth
slide hazard will be low and few bridges, 1. Analysis
drainage, and protective structures will be The following sections will be included under
needed. On lower hillsides, landslides may Analysis:
be a major problem if unstable material is
a. Introduction
cncountered.
State the authority to do the work. Briefly
e. Locations in level to moderately rolling
describe the scope of the project and the
terrain usually permit the highest standard
purpose and need for the proposed action.
of location and design. Land use, rather
than topography may influence corridor se- b. Comparison of Alternatives
lection. In sand dune areas. however, blow- Scope and Nature of the Work
ing sand presents maintenance problems.
Describe general location, length, class of
f. In highly developed regiot~s.all but the highway, proposed geometries, general de-
major topographical obstacles will usually sign elements, and estimated cost for each
have to be disregarded: land use will be the corridor Provide any other facts that will
major consideration in corridor selection. give an understanding of the scope and na-
g. Aesthetic qualities of the corridors shall ture of the work.
be considered equally with traffic safety.
Project Environment
highway efficiency, and structural adequacy.
Gentle curves, easy grades, and wide lanes Describe the physical setting of each corri-
contribute both to pleasant and safe driving. dor-land use activities, geology, topogra-
The corridor alignment shall take advantage phy, etc. See B-2 through B-8 of this section.
of natural terrain and scenic beauty. Social and Environmental Impacts
h. Pleasing appearance can usually be This part of the Reconnaissance Report will
achieved at little extra cost if the road is include the information developed in D-l of
located with these aesthetic elements in this section.
mind from the start. Roadside development.
erosion control. flattening and rounding 2. Recommendations
slopes, seeding, and landscaping reduces The following should be included under Rec-
maintenance costs as well as contributing ommendations:
significantly to roadway beauty and safety.
a. Recommended Corridor
3. Costs Describe the corridor recommended for se-
Construction and maintenance costs shall be lection and provide reasons supporting the
estimated for each corridor. Maintenance cost
information may be obtained from the iMOC.
.
~ r o u o s e daction.
b. Recommendations for Further Study
The Construction cost estimates shall be bro-
ken down to include, but are not limited to the List any items observed during the recon-
following items: naissance studies that require further study.
 Section 2.04 Surveys and Mapping
A. Surveys leveling is identified as Third, Fourth or
Fifth order. Tables 2.04.1 through 2.04.4
I. General show the various classification and corre-
This subsection describes the accuracy, and sponding specifications.
data to be obtained during traverse and
centerline surveys for highways. It assumes The order of survey shall be complied with
to insure that surveys and related data are of
that competent personnel will be performing
correct accuracy for the types of maps, engi-
surLTeys. Detailed step-by-step survey proce-
dures are not included but are explained in the neering design. and the intended use of the
highway.
Surveying and Mapping Manual.
2. Vertical Datum Plane and Coordinate Sys- b. Geodetic First arid Second Order Trav-
erses
tem
These orders of surveys shall be used to
All highway surveys shall be tied to a second
order or better sea level datum benchmark and extend the Kingdom's National grid system
to geodetic control monunients on the Kirig- where geodetic monuments do not exist
dom's plane coordinate system. Surveys may along expressways and arterial corridors
be tied to benchmarks on adjacent highway that exceed 50 km in length.
projects provided their accuracy call be veri- c. Geodetic Third Order Traverses
fied. The coordinate system shall be adjusted Third order. Class I shall be used for basic
to the average project elevation. control surveys in urban areas where prop-
All angular measurements shall be described in erty values are high. Third order. Class 2
grads. The azimuth of each traverse line shall shall be used for the basic control surveys
be expressed in grads measured clockwise from whenever the survey can be tied to a
geodetic north. monumented point with known geodetic co-
ordinates. Surveys for expressways and
Assumed vertical datum or assumed horizon- arterials. both rural and urban will normally
tal coordinates shall not be used unless survey require order of accuracy.
costs would be prohibitive, the project will not
have a future adjacent prqject, or second order d. Plane Third Order Traverses
benchmarks and geodetic control monuments This order of survey shall be used for all
are 20 km and 50 km respectively from the design classes whenever monumented points
nearest point on the survey. If an assumed da- of known accuracy are not available and the
tum or coordinate system is used, proper nora- project is based on assumed coordinates.
tion to that effect shall be entered in field sur- This order of accuracy shall be used for both
vey books and on any maps or plans compiled traverses and centerline surveys.
from the dara. Assumed vertical elevations
shall be at least 100 m different from true ele- e. Plane Fourth Order Traverses

a vation beginning with even hundreds. As-

sumed coordinates shall be at least 100,000 m
different from true coordir~atepositions begin-
ning with even hundred thousands. Azimuths
This order of survey may be used on rural
collector and local roads where accuracy is
not of great importance, property values are
low and the project is not of great length
shall be determined from astronomical obser- (less than 20km).
vations to third order accuracy.
f. Plane Fifth Order Traverses
3. Accuracy of Surveys This order of survey shall only be used for
a. General traverse and centerline surveys for low type
The degree of accuracy for surveys varies temporary access roads. private driveways
according to the purpose of the survey and and ground supplemental control surveys.
how accurate the survey dara needs to be. g. Geodetic First and Second Order Lev-
The MOC separates geodetic traverses into eling
five classes and plane traverses into three
classes. Geodetic traverses are classified as: These orders of leveling are compatible to
First order: Second order, Class 1 and Class and shall be used with traverses as described
2: and Third order, Class 1 and Class 2. in (b) above.
Plane traverses are identified as Third order, h. Geodetic Third Order Leveling
Fourth order, and Fifth order. Geodetic This order of leveling shall be used with
leveling is divided into First, Second and Third order, Class 1 traverses as described in
Third orders with First and Second each
(c) above.
having Class 1 and Class 2 divisions. Plane
2.04 A

i. Plalie Third Order Leveling k . Plane Fifth Order Leveling

This order of vertical control shall corre- This order of leveling will be used with
\pond to traverses established in (d) above. plane Fifth order traverses described in (f)
ahove. The use of this order of survey should
j. Plane Fourth Order Leveling
be limited to short loops or lines (less than 4
This order of leveling shall be used in coop- km).
eration with plane Fourth Order traverses as
described in (e) above. Field cross sections shall be taken to Fifth
order except that in urban areas, the vertical
6.
closure shall be 6 0 f i i n s t e a d of 120
 a
Table 2.04.1
Geodetic Traverses
Classification, S t a n d a r d s of Accuracy, a n d General Specifications

Second Order Third Order

Class I Class I1 Class I Class I1
First
Classification Order Densifi- Densifi- Densifi-
cationu' cation"' cationo'
Minimum Length of Courses 0' 10 km 4 km 0.3 k m 2 km':q' 0.2 km , km'"' 0.1 km 0.1 km
In~trumcnt'~' Rejection
Limit ' 6 1
Number of Positions
for Horizontal First Order 0.0012" 16 8 6") 6 4'7'
Directions or angle^'^' Second Order 0.00 1 5': - 12 8 8 4 4 2

Length Measurement Standard E ~ r o r ' ~ ' 1:600,000 1 :300,000 1:120,000 1:60,000 1:30,0(X)
Reciprocal Number of Observatioris 3 D/R 3 D/R 2 D/R 2 D/R 2 D/R
Vertical Angles"' Allowable Spread 0.0030" 0.0030" 0.0030" 0.0030'' 0.0060"
Stations Between Known Elevations 4-6 6-8 8-10 10-15 15-20
Azimuth C o n t r ~ l " ~ ' Courses Bctwccn Azimuths Checks 5-6 10-12 15-20 20-25 30-40
111 4 D/R
Observatior~sper Night 16D/R IhD/R 111
12 D/K 0 ,
8 D/R
Number of Nights 2 2 1 1 1
Standard Error "' "" 0.00015" 0.00015" 0.0005" 0.0010" 0.0025"
Azimuth Closure at Per Station 0.0003" 0.0005G 0.0006" 0.0006" 0.0012'; 0.0010" 0.0020' 0.0025"
Azimuth Check Point Not
to Exceedu2' Total 0.000h"\/N 0.0010"/N 0.0010"/N 0.0020"dN 0.0025"/i*j o . o o ~ o ~ \ /0N. 0 0 5 0 " / ~ 0.0100"dN
Position Closure After 0.04 m v'c 0.08 m \/K 0.2 m \/K 0.4 m \/K 0.8 n1 \/K
Azimuth Adju3tmentUz',"31 Or or or or or
1:100,000 1:50,000 1:20,000 1:10,000 1:5.000

I ) \. 15 [he number of ungivpurnl, jur carrying azrrnulh

2) K is the drrtonce rn krlornerers
+
2
 Table 2.04.2
Plane Traverses 03'
Classification, Standards of Accuracy, and General Specifications
Classification Third Order Fourth Order Fifth Order
Instrument '5' Rejection Limit
Number of Positions
for Horizontal
Directions or Second Order 0.0030~ 2 1 1
Other 4 2 1
Length Measurement Standard Error ''I 1 : 10,000 1:5,000 1 :2,000
Reciprocal Number of Observations 2 D/R 2 D/R 1 D/R
Vertical angle^^^' Allowable Spread 0.0060" O.OIG
Stations Between Known Elevations 15-20 20-30 30-50
Azimuth Controlflo'.( l 5 ' Courses Between Azimuth Checks '14' 40 40
Observations 4 2
Standard Errorts', "I' 0.0025" 0.0050G
Azimuth Closure at Azimuth Per Station 0.0030G 0.01" 0.05"
Check Point Not to E ~ c e e d " ~ ' Total O.O1OOG/N
Postion Closure After 0.8 mv'K '12'
Azimuth Adjustment'12', u3' or
1:5,000 1:2,000 1:1,000
li N is the number of ungiepointr for currying nzimurh
2i K k the di.xtunce in kilometers.
 Comments on Tables 2.04.1 and 2.04.2 9) Elevatiuns computed using these angles are intended to sufficefor cotnputations
and adjustments hut not for vertical control elevations.
I) Densification traverse surveys are traverses with relatively \hart course lengths
and no more than ten angle points between cuntrol points. In such surreys, anglc If the traverse station markrrs arc included in a difiereritial leveling circuit, the
mrasuremcnts and azimuth clusurc requirements may be relaxed as shown. resulting vertical data may be used to reduce slops distances to horizontal, and
vcrtical angle measurernrnl is not nrcessar);
2) This is the minimum length of n~ainllnrcourscs, station to statiorl. Occasionally
topography or land use may dictatc a shorter course, especially whcn connecting to 10) "Courscs bctneen azimuth checks" is the rlumbsr uf courscs pcrmitted along
previously established points. the most direct nlutc hctwcen azimuth control points.
3) For Second Ordcr Class I1 basic control traverses for rural projects establishing Azimuth cotitrol may consist of an astronomical observation or a line in a prrvi-
points not more than 2 km apart, minimum course length may be reduced to 1.800 uusly established survey of equal or higher classifiviition that has been adjusted to
. Third Order Class 1 basic contrt,l traverses for urban projects establishing
~ n For the Kingdom's horizontal cor>trolnetwork.
points not more than 1 km apart, minimum course length may bc reduced to YOO m .
Astronomical observations for First Order Trabrrses arc Laplacc azimuths. Use of
4) A position is one measure, with the telescope both direct and reversed (DR), of Laplace azimuths on lower classification surveys may help solvr azimuth discrcp-
the horizontal direction from the back statior, to the ahcad station. ancles in areas where the prirnr vertical component of the local plumbline detlzc-
tiori i s likcly to bc largc.
5) First Order instruments are thc Kern D K M ~ 3the, Wild T-3, or others of equal
or higher quality. Sccor~dOrder instruments are thc Askania A-2, the Kern 11) The standard error (or astronomic azimuths is computed with all ohser\'arions
DKM-2, the Watts Miuruptic 4 2 , the Wild I - 2 , the Zriss Th-2, or others of equal considered equal in weight (with 75 percent of the total number of observations
of higher quality. "Other" instruments includc all standard quality throdulitcs or required on a singlr night) aftcr application of a 0.0015 G rejection limit rrrum the
Engineer', transits. mean for First Order and Second Order obsrrvat~ons.
6) Rejection and reobservation is required of any observation that deviatcs from 12) The expressions for closing errors in traverses are givrr~in two rurms. The
the mearl orall vbscrvations of the same angle by more than the specified rejection expression containing the square rout is designed for longer lines where higher
limit. When an observation is rejected, both the direct and the revcrsc rcadings proportional accuracy is required. l h e formula that gives the smallest pcrmissible
shall br rejected and reobserved from approximately the same inilial srttingc as closure should he used.
used for the rejected observation.
13) Unlcss the survey is in thc forrn of a loop clo,ing on itself, thc positlon closures
7) Thc rejection limit may he increased to 0 0015 G. uoulrl dspcnd largcly on the constraints on established cnnlrol in the adjustment.
The extent of constraints and the actilal relationship uf thc surveys can be obtained
8) The standard crror is to be estin~atedby: through either a review of the con~putations,o r a minimally r3nstrained adjult-
Sm = d S v 2 / ( n ( n - I ) ) men1 of all work involved. The proportional accuracy or closure (for example,
1:100,000) can be obtained by computing the difference between the computcd
where Sm is the standard error of the mean, v is a residual (that is, the differertcr
value and the fixed value, and dividing this quantity by the length of the loop
between a measured length or angle and thc mean of all mrasurrmcntr), and n is cunnccting the two points.
the number of measurements. The term "standard crror" used here is computcd
undrr the assumption that all rrrurs are strictly random in nature. The true or 14) Plans traberscs -,here hieher order control is available are co~~siderrd lo be in
actual error is a quantity that cannot be obtained cxactly. It is the diffcrrncc the same category as der,sifrcation traverse surveys (scc Cumnicnt I). The tie to
between the truc value and thc measured value. By ci)rrcctine - each lneasuremerlt ci~ntrolmints at least every eleventh anele . . o i n nrovidrs
~ t both azimuth and coor-
for every knuwn source of systematic error, however, one niay appruach thc true dlnate control. i ~ o u c v e r ,planc travcrscs may also be used where no control is
error It is mandatory for any practltloner using these specifications to reduce to a arailablc.
minimum the effect of all systrrnatic and constant errors so that rral accuracy may
be obtained 15) Thic applies to planc travcrscs in remote areas using arbitrary coordinates. An
astro azimuth shall be obsrrvcd nrar rach cnd of thc surrjey, with more if required
h) this piuvisivn.
 Table 2.04.3
Geodetic Leveling
Classification, Standards of Accuracy, and General Specifications
First Order Second Order Third Order

Classification Class I Class I1 Class I Class 11

Instrumentation"'
A AorB B(21
Level
Rod F G H
Field Procedures
Double (forward and backward) or Double Double Single Double Single
Single Run
1 to 2 1 to2 1 to 3 - 1 to 3
Average Section Length, km
Maximum Length of Sight, m 50 60 60 70 90
Maximum DifferenceLength of
Forward and Backward Sights
Per Setup, m'3' 2 5 5 10 10
Per Section (cumulative), m 4 10 10 10 10
Maximum Length of Line Between
Connections, km 300 100 50f4' 50 25 2S4' 10
Closures, Maximum
Section; Forward and backward, mm 3dK 4dK 6dK 8d K - 12dK -
3.0 4.0 - - -
Less than 250 m mm 1.5 2.0
Single Setup mm 0.5 0.5 1.0 1 .0
Loop or Line mm 4\/K 5d K 6\/K SdK 12dK

K is di.~lancei n kilometers.
 Comments on Table 2.04.3 those instruments requiring calibration tables. When employing instruments that
do not use calibration tahles, and morr than two obscrvations arc s~ecifiedas a
I) Microwave and infrared instruments shall not be used for First Order traverses. complete measurement, the number of required observations may he reduced hy
2) Same specifications apply to Third Order Geodetic and all plane traverses. one.
3) A check mcasurcmcnt from a position offset i 0.2 m along the line shall be 7) For short lines (I km or less) on densification surveys, the spread shall no(
made when decimal rradings are near zero or in the high nines. exceed 20 mm.

4) For microwave instruments, the difference between complete measureulents 8) For microwave instruments, the dilfrrrncr between observations madc at both
shall not exceed the tabulatcd value after correcting for meteorological conditions. ends of a line shall nut exceed the tabulated value after correcting for meteorolo-
gical conditions.
5) For infrared instruments with direct readout, the tabulated number of readings
constitutes unc observation. 9) For plane traverses, the nii~iimumdistance to be measured with any electror,ic
distance mrasuring instrument is the minimum distance stated by the manufac-
6) Specifications on complete measurements for electro-optical instruments arc lor
 Table 2.04.4
Plane Leveling
Classification, Standards of Accuracy, and General Specifications
Third Ipourth Fifth
Classification Order Order Order
Field Procedures
Maximum Length of Sight m 90 90 100
Maximum Difference, Length
of Forward and Back Sights
Per Setup m 10 15 20
Per Section m 10 10 10
Maximum Length of Line
Between Connections km 6 5 4
Closure, Maximum, Loop or Line mm t2-\/K 20dK 1202/K

' i length of loop or 11nein k m .

1) h
2) lnrtrumenrofion-Any goad quality, tripod mounted enginri.r.s level; wood or nlloy rods.
3 ) Field Procedures-Single run 1oop.s closing on ~hernselvesor jingle run linc,.~hhrtwern bench m u r k estohli,shed by
equal or higher clarsi/ication surveys.
4) Only ihc middle wire need br read i f i a d i a di,ytunce~ore not uer! to determine l e n ~ l h sof level lines, lengths uf
sighrr, or difrerencer between lenylhs offirward and bochwarri i g h t r

4. Types of Surveys scription. See survey monument and brass

a. General cap Standard Drawing in H D M Volume 4
for details. If adjacent survey points are
Traverse and centerline surveys are the two more than 5 km apart or highly inaccessible,
types of surveys used by the MOC. Traverse an azimuth mark shall be installed at least
surveys shall be performed during early pre- 0.5 km from the survey point using the
limiriary engineering stages and centerline above type monument. All monuments shall
surveys shall be performed after the prelimi- be referenced to three durable objects (ex-
nary design has been approved, see 1-1.06. pected to last at least 25 years) and distinc-
b. Traverse Surveys tive enough to be easily recognized. If dura-
ble reference objects do not exist, concrete
Traverse surveys are used to establish tie
reference monuments shall be installed. A
points for lower order traverse and
thorough description and drawing shall be
centerline surveys; to establish a baseline to
made for each survey point on a standard
reference cross section and planimetric data
reference form, see Figure 2.04.1. The sur-
for manual preparation of maps and small
vey, azimuth, and reference monuments
site plans; and to establish the location of
shall also be used as benchmarks for second
right-of-way and property lines.
order surveys. Maximum spacing of second
All traverses shall be closed on points of a order benchmarks shall be 5 km.
higher accuracy or on themselves. This ap-
Third and fourth order traverse or baseline
plies to both horizontal and vertical meas-
surveys shall have metal rods placed at each
urements. The amount of staking in the field
PI and at the beginning and ending of sur-
will vary depending upon the purpose of the
veys. Permanent metal caps marked with the
traverse survey. For establishing primary
point description shall be installed on top of
control points (PCP) and control for aerial
the metal rods. The metal rods shall be
photography, hubs shall be placed at each
referenced to three durable and easily identi-
PI. On baselines, hubs shall be placed at
fiable objects. If no objects exist, three metal
each P I and stakes placed at 10 m to 50 m
rods shall be installed as reference points.
intervals.
Fifth order traverse and baseline surveys
If the traverse is a second order survey, all
shall have a permanent type marker placed
hubs shall be concrete monuments having a
at each PI. These PI markers shall be
brass cap adequately stamped with point de-
referenced.
 Project

Date

Station Name Statior~Name

~ -

Datum Coordinates Elevation

, - ~ ~-

~ ~- ~ - ~ p
p~ -

Description of point Description of point

Sketch of point, references. Sketch of point, references,

planimetrics planimetrics
North Korth

Figure 2.04.1
Record of Control Survey Station

c. Centerline Surveys those topographic and cultural features that

The purpose of the centerline survey is to cannot he identified in aerial photography.
physicaliy locate the highway and to provide b. Manual Mapping and Final Dcsign Data
a reference for profile levels, cross sections,
Survey data for manual preparation of maps
right-of-way and property line ties, and con-
and for final design shall include all distance
struction staking.
.
and aneular measurements.. ~ r o f i l elevels.
The accuracy of this survey is dependent and cross sections to accurately describe the
upon the design class and is discussed under topographic, planimetric, and cultural fea-
1-2.04A3. Centerline surveys shall be tied to tures.
established traverse survey monuments.
6. Documentation
Brass caos set in concrete (see Standard
Drawings in H D M Volume 4) shall be used Documentation of all surveys shall become
to mark the begirlning and ending of trans,- part of the permanent records and shall in-
tion and circular curves and other interme- clude the following:
diate points. The maximum spacing between All field books.
these markers shall be 500 m. A minimum
Final traverse and centerline layout sheets.
of YO percent of all markers shall be
referenced to at least two reference Adjusted traverse coordinates.
monuments located outside of the construc- All computation sheets for centerlines, level
tion zone. Intermediate markers, wood loop and traverse adjustments, and datum ad-
stakes, or metal pins. shall be placed at 20 m justment factors.
stations. Description of geodetic control points used.
Profile levels and cross section data shall be Upon completion, the above documentatiot~
obtained at each 20 m station. In addition, shall be transmitted to the Director of the De-
the same information shall be obtained at all sign Department, MOC.
intermediate points where the terrain slope
changes or "breaks." B. Mapping
5. Survey Data 1. Introduction
a. Photogrammetric Mapping Data The following covers the purpose, preparation,
review, approval and disposition of topo-
Survey data for preparing maps by photo- graphic maps developed for location and de.
grammetry shall include all distances, levels,
-
and angular measurements to all control
points. In addition, the survey data should
tailed design studies.
Topographic maps are necessary aids for mod-
include measurement and description of ern highway development. Small scale maps
with limited data and covering a large area can Table 2.04.5
be used for preliminary reconnaissance studies. Mapping Scale vs. Cross-Section Method
Large scale maps with greater detail are nec-
essary for preliminary and detail design. In Flat and Rolling Terrain
this Manual large scale maps are defined as ! Acceptable
Centerline Cross-Section
those having a scale of 1:2,500 or less and Method
: Staking
small scale as 1:2,50G or more. The scale and Map k a l e Req'd Field Photogrammetric
contour interval of the maps depend on the
1:1000 Yes Optional Yes
type of terrain and usage (see table 2.04.6).
1:2000 Yes
- Yes Yes
Small scalc maps covering large areas will gen- Mountainous Terrain
erally be available from sources other than the Acceptable
MOC. The primary source for the small scale Centerline Cross-Section
maps is the Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Staking Method
Resources (Air Survey Department). Map
.- Scale Req'd I Field 1 Photogrammetric
1500 Yes Optional 1 Yes
2. Purpose of Maps
1:1000 Yes Yes Yes
a. Route Reconnaissance Studies 1:2W Yes Yes ; No
Maps for reconnaissance studies are small
scale covering a large area and are used to d. Urban Design
study and select the best corridor between Mapping in urban areas will generally cover
termini. Small scale maps available in the a much smaller area, and will require more
Kingdom will normally be satisfactory for detailed information than is required in ru-
studying alternate routes. ral areas. The smallest map scale for urban
If small scale topographic maps do not exist design shall be 1:500. These maps will nor-
or are unavailable the Engineer may elect to mally be developed from aerial photogra-
develop the maps. When this occurs, a map- phy, however, if the project is relatively
ping scale of 1:20,000 is desired. short it may be feasible to use data obtained
from a ground survey.
b. Location Studies
There may be transition areas between rural
Location involves studying alternate and urban areas where it is difficult to deter-
alignments within a previously established mine if a large scale, 1:500 map, is required
corridor. If 1:5,000 scale maps were pre- or if a smaller scale map would be adequate
pared during the corridor selection process, for project development. When this occurs
they will normally be adequate for establish- the Engineer will request a decision from the
ing the final alignment within the selected Director of the Design Department, MOC.
corridor. If 1:5,000 scale maps were not de-
veloped during the corridor study, it will be e. Selected Site Design
necessary to prepare new maps for the loca- Site maps that are to be used for laying out
tion study. structures, i.e., bridges, retaining walls, and
c. Rural Design large culverts shall be developed within a
scale range of 1 : 100 to 1:250. The sire of the
The selection of maps scales for design in site and need for detail will determine the
rural areas will depend on the type of ter- scale. Data for compiling these site maps
rain, cross-sectioning procedures, and will normally be obtained by ground sur-
whether the centerline is staked prior to fi- veys. If the site is part of a larger project
nal design. The relationship between map- that was developed using aerial photogra-
ping scales and acceptable cross-sectioning phy, it may be feasible to compile the maps
method is shown in Table 2.04.5.
 from large scale photography obtained at ing the field survey will be shown on the
the same time as the other photography. maps in their proper locations and with the
appropriate symbol, identification number,
3. Data For Map Preparation and elevation. A tabulation of the primary
a. General control points shall also be shown on the
Surveying methods used to collect data for original manuscripts. The tabulation will
mapping must be determined early in thc show the identification number, coordinates
and elevation of the point.
project development phase. All surveys shall
be made in accordance with 1-2.04A and the All supplemental control points established
Surveying and :Mupping Manual. for controlling the aerial photography will
be shown on the maps. This will include
Mappirig data can be obtained from either wing points, analytically bridged points, and
ground surveys or by aerial photography. In aerial photo centers.
some cases, a combination of the two meth- All planimetric features within the mapping
ods may be appropriate. Ground surveys area shall be plotted on the maps. A detailed
will normally be used for short segments of listing of the planimetric features to be
highway. 2 to 3 krn in length. and minor shown on the maps is shown in the Survey-
bridge sites. Ground surveys can also be ing and Mapping Manual.
used when aerial photography is not feasible
because of conditions that would make it Spot elevations as described in the Surveying
impossible to photograph the ground. Aerial a n d Mapping Manual shall be plotted on the
photography should he used wherever prac- maps.
tical as it provides ground information over All topographic features shall be plotted on
a broad area with sufficient detail and accu- the maps. Contours shall represent true ele-
racy to better study and design the facility. vation above mean sea level unless authority
is granted for an assumed datum.
Maps developed from aerial photography
Available city, town, and political subdivi-
shall conform to the specifications as set
sion lines shall be shown on the maps.
forth in the Surveying and Mapping Manual.
Known property boundaries and corners
b. Mapping Datum and Coordinate System shall be located on the maps. All manmade
The mapping datum and coordinate system improvements, such as buildings, fences,
used in the preparation of maps will be de- walls, water wells and access roads shall be
termined during the surveying phase. See shown.
1-2.04A. Figure 2.04.2 shows conventional symbols
that will be used on maps prepared for the
4. Mapping Scales arid Contour Intervals MOC.
The mapping scales and contour intervals to be A north arrow shall be placed on each map
used in compiling maps are shown in Table sheet to enable the map user to readily ori-
2.04.6. ent the man. A s a m ~ l enorth arrow is shown
5. Content of Maps in Figure 2.04.2. The map sheets shall be
oriented so that the top or to the right is
The grid lines of the mapping coordinate sys- north.
tem shall be on the finished map. Spacing of
Match liries shall be provided so that each
these lines shall be 100 mm regardless of map
sheet may be joined accurately to adjacent
scale.
sheets.
As discussed in 1-2.04A, Surveys, the coordi- A sheet index diagram shall be prepared for
nates system used for mapping should conform each mapping project. This diagram shall
to the Saudi Arabia National Grid System. show the position and relationship to each
When used, the datum adjustment factor for other of all map sheets. On short projects
the grid shall be shown by a note on each map having less than five map sheets, the dia-
sheet. Each coordinate grid line shall be nu- gram may be placed on each sheet.
merically labeled at the margin of the sheet. A title block shall be placed on each map
All primary control points established dur- sheet. The standard title blocks shown in
Figure 2.04.3 shall be used as applicable.
 blanmade Planimetric Features
Paved, Divided Multilane .---- ---------- --
Paved, 2 Lane

r Roads

Railroads
3x=l=tz-
Bridge

Culverts r---l
\-----/ >---I

-- -
-
Canal/Irrigation Ditch -C--c-t-

Dam, Dike or Levee --I-+-+

Pipelines
$; I %
;
Structures
Guardrail m 1 r n . a -

Fenceline

Gates

Animal Guards
-,.
w

<----.>
,,
,6 ,.
v ,,
n

/-
!lnlmIn
" ,.
w

Buildings

Signs 9 Os~gn S~gn

n
Powerline, Major

Powerline, Multipole , Transmission

Lines
Power or Telephone, Single Pole -C-
Street Light
0
%
Field or Cultivation Line -- --
Manhole, Drop Inlet 0 M.H. D.I > Miscellaneous
Mine, Quarry or Gravel Pit G.P. )
/---_

'---,
(

Well, Windmill •
Figure 2.04.2
Standard Mapping Symbols
 Natural Planimetric Features
- . . . - -. ..-
Perennial River or Stream -__.-
Intermittent Stream __...- 4
Wadi

Lake or Pond
-.-
:.- /- /. ..
I
Mud Flat, Dry Pond c ... ,
Dry
J
Marsh or Swamp

Sandbar

Single Tree

Tree Group

Scattered Trees Vegetation

Brush

Orchard

Topographic Features

Index

Intermediate

Interpolated or Unreliable

Depression
-
----
-
/ -
-_01
-=
/

i Contours

Top
Spot
Saddle Elevations
Depression

Rock Outcrop Miscellaneous

Sand Dune
 Boundaries and Monuments
International Boundry -- -I
Property/Ownership Boundary I m m m \, Boundary
I m f Line
Label
General Boundry

Traverse Point (Horizontal and Vertical)

Traverse Point (Horizontal)

Label

+ 1
Field
Traverse Wing Point (Vertical) Control

Property Corner

Photo Center

Analytical Point Photogrammetric

Control

North Arrow
For Maps Developed Photogrammetrically

THE KINGDOM OF SAUDI ARABIA

MINISTRY OF COMMUNICATIONS

NAME OF PROJECT, NUMBER, SECTION, ETC.

FLIGHT NO. EXP. NO. THRU NO.

P.C.P. TO P.C.P.
STATION TO STATION
PHOTO I.D. NO. PHOTO DATE I i
SURVEYED BY DATE 1 i
MAPPED BY DATE I I
SCALE CONTOUR INTERVAL
SHEET OF

For Maps Developed From Ground Surveys

THE KINGDOM OF SAUDI ARABIA

MINISTRY OF COMMUNICATIONS

NAME OF PROJECT, NUMBER, SECTION, ETC.

STATION TO STATION
SURVEYED BY DATE I I
MAPPED BY DATE I I
SCALE CONTOUR INTERVAL
SHEET OF

Figure 2.04.3
Standard Title Blocks
6. Finished Map e. Draftsmanship
a. General Professional standards of draftsmanship
The Surveying and Mappirtg ,llanual covers shall be used in preparing maps. All lines,
the overall requirements for topographic letters, symbols, and other features should
maps used in highway engineering. The re- be clear and sharp. Standards for drafting
quirements for these maps are cor~siderably maps are given in the Surveying and Map-
different than those developed for public ping Manual.
use. These maps have. for the most part, a 7 . Review, Approval, and Acceptance of Maps
short term usage and the standard methods
a. Final Review and Acceptance
of final map development are, therefore, not
applicable. For instance, the final map sheets All maps shall be checked for completeness
need not be exactly the same size, nor do and accuracy prior to final acceptance. Pro-
they need to be inked. cedures for checking photogrammetrically
prepared maps are set forth in the Surveying
b. Size and Mapping Manual.
For reconnaisance studies it is convenient to
b. Disposition
have long map sheets. Map sheets 1.5 to 2.5
rn in length are acceptable. All survey books, and finished maps shall
become the property of the MOC and shall
c. Material be delivered to the Ministry. The aerial film
The finished maps shall be drawn on a di- shall be delivered to the MOC for trans-
mensionally stable polyester drafting mate- mittal to the Ministry of Petroleum and
rial, at least 0.15 mm thick. Mineral Resources.
d. Accuracj All material will be kept by the MOC and
The accuracy of the planimetric features, stored in an appropriate place that will al-
coordinate grid lines, horizontal control low for easy retrieval during the life of the
points, contours, and spot elevations shall be project. A disposal schedule will be deter-
as specified in the Surveying and Mapping mined by the MOC.
Manual.

Table 2.04.6
Map Scales and Contour Intervals for Highway Development

'See I-2.04B2e.
**:Mups can be developed from ground survey darn or b j photographicoily enlarging smaller rcale maps
Section
-.. 2.05 Centerline Location
and Preliminary Design
A. Introduction On the other hand, cemeteries and archaeolog-
ical sites shall be avoided.
Location is the art of selecting the orie best
highway centerline within a previously estab- 2. Map Studies
lished corridor. The location process can be The maps used during the corridor studies
divided into four steps as follows: may be adequate for the route selection stud-
Route selection to narrow the choice of ies. If they are not adequate, the locator will
possible routes to the one or two best routes. determine during the field review the addi-
Preparation of large scale maps to include tional mapping needed for an adequate study.
the selected routes. 3. Alignment Considerations
The projection of centerlines on the large Alignment between control points should be of
scale maps. as high a standard as is commensurate with the
The location survey transferring the location topography, existing traffic, and projected
from the map to the ground. future traffic. Horizontal alignment should
B. Route Selection flow with the natural contours of the land.
Sudden changes between curves of widely dif-
1. Office and Field Review ferent radii or between long tangents and sharp
The correspondence, reports, engineering data. curves should be avoided by use of curves of
environmental data, maps, and aerial photos gradually increasing or decreasing radii. On
developed during the corridor studies shall be multilane highways in level topography. long
reviewed in detail by the location engineer. The curves of large radii are preferred to long
purpose of this review is to identify the major tangents connected by sharp curves. On two-
human objectives of the highway and the engi- lane highways passing sight distance may be
neering requirements, such as: provided either by very flat curves or tangents.
Where crest vertical and horizontal curves co-
Terminal control points of proposed high- incide, the stopping sight distancc should be
way. above the minimum. and the relation between
Design class of the highway. horizontal and vertical sight distance should
Estimated traffic in design year. be checked to assure that the horizontal curve
Geometric standards of the proposed high- is visible to approaching drivers.
way. Occasionally, the appearance of the highway
A field review of the corridor shall then be may require better geometric design than
made by the locator. Others who have major would be required by traffic. For example, a
concerns or responsibilities for the final high- very small angle between tangents, say 6'' or
way location, such as local officials and repre- less should be turned by a curve at least 300 m
sentatives of the MOC or other Ministries af- in length.
fected by the location. shall be given an On multilane highways independent alignment
opportunity to participate in this review. A and grade should be considered as an alternate
major purpose of the field review is to identify to uniform median design. In many cases inde-
major and minor control points that may affect pendent alignments will be more economical
the location. These can be of two general types: and have less impact on the environment.
natural controls and manmade controls.
4. Alternate Routes Through the Corridor
Natural controls include favorable passes in
mountains, good bridge sites, and favorable ge- Concurrent study of topographic maps and
ologic soil conditions. Conversely, marshes, aerial photographs will reveal likely routes to
landslide areas, areas of bad soil, sabkhas, and be followed and harriers to be avoided. In
sand dunes are negative controls and should be mountainous terrain, ridges and valleys are
avoided. excellent routes if they lead in the right direc-
tion. The most difficult locations are those that
Works of man controls include cities and cross the natural drainage, or that lie in irreg-
towns, dams, canals, roads. railroads, airports, ular terrain where the valleys have no well-
utilities, farms and habitations, industries. defined direction.
parks and recreational facilities, public
buildings and monuments, mosques and ceme- All possible locations should be examined.
teries, and historic or archaeological sites. Some may be discarded immediately as im-
These controls may be positive or negative. practical. Those selected for consideration
For example, a new road may pass through or should be sketched on the corridor maps using
near a village to provide transportation service. different colors or line symbols.

123
The alternatives identified during the office The geometric standards for the proposed
study as being feasible will be evaluated in the highway are determined by the design class,
field. Most alternatives can be readily idcnti- the traffic for the design year, the topography,
lied on the ground from the maps and exami- and construction costs. The geometric stan-
nation of the aerial photos. If not, it may be dards set forth in HD41 2-1.05 will he used for
necessary to do enough surveying to establish projecting centerline.
the proposed centerline with reasonable accu-
It makes 110 difference whether the map on
racy. It may be necessary, for example, to run
which the projection is made was produced by
Abney level lines between controls to insure
ground surveying or by photogrammetric
that the maximum gradient is not exceeded.
methods; the projection process is identical for
The method of performing the detailed field both. Highway projection is to a great extent a
evaluation of alternate routes will vary with process of successive approximations, with
the terrain and means of access to it. Where each trial giving a more refined and economi-
existing highways or trails provide vehicular cal plan, so that, within limits, the more time
access, it may be possible to review most alter- spent projecting, the better the final result.
natives with little walking. Where long dis-
2. Nongrade-Controlled Locations
tances are involved with limited or no vehicu-
lar access, it may be desirable to view the The projector first marks the control points
routes from a helicopter. A detailed review of prominently on the large scale map. He then
several alternatives can be made in this manner sketches one or more trial lines on the map.
in a reasonably short time. All critical areas The trial lines are critically examined, and the
should be reviewed at close range on foot to best line is redrawn with curve templates, and
ensure that each proposed location is accept- 50 m stations marked thereon. A ground pro-
able. file is then plotted, from the map contours.
The field evaluation will enable the locator to The projector then plots a grade line on the
select the one or two or possibly three best profile. This grade line shall
routes through the corridor, and narrow the Provide required vertical clearance for high-
study area for the highway location to a strip way overpasses and railroad structures.
that is only 1 or 2 km wide. The next step in Provide edge of shoulder elevation at least
the location is to map this strip to a large scale. .05 m above expected high water level.
C. Large Scale Mapping Provide sufficient vertical clearance above
There are two methods of obtaining the large rivers and streams to pass the design dis-
scale strip map, conventional ground surveys charge.
and photogrammetically. When conventional Use minimum of 0.5 percent grade in cuts
surveys are used, the coverage shall be not less and 0.25 percent absolute minimum (0.50
than 150 m wide. Maps produced by photo- percent desirable) grade on curbed sections.
grammetric methods shall cover a strip at least The profile and grade line arc then compared
500 m wide. These large scale maps are devel- critically with the plotted alignment. This ex-
oped in accordance with 1-2.04 Surveys and amination may suggest changes that then be-
Mapping and the Surveying and Mapping come the basis for a second trial projection. As
Munuul. many trial projections are made as the projec-
Photogrammetric mapping has many advan- tor deems necessary to fit the terrain.
tages. The maps are more accurate than those At this stage of the location, the projector
produced by ground survey methods and show should pay attention to the geometric interre-
more details. The accompanyi~igaerial photos lation of grade and alignment, avoiding hori-
are a good source of information for assessing zontal and vertical "broken back" curves, or
environmental impact and right-of-way re- two curves in the same direction joined by a
quirements. short tangent. and sharp reverses. An align-
D. Centerline Projection ment of alternating right-hand and left-hand
curves is the most pleasing to the eye and the
1. General most natural to drive.
Projection is the process of drawing the pro-
3. Grade-Controlled Locations
posed road centerline (or centerlines where
more than one alternate is considered) on a Even in rough country, long, sustained maxi-
large scale topographic map, and plotting a mum grades are rare. The usual location is a
profile and grade line therefrom. The objective series of maximum grades, each usually not
of projection is to obtain the most satisfactory more than 2 to 4 km long, with flatter or
combination of alignment and gradient for the "slack" grades between. Those sectiorls that
terrain conditions and the established design have slack grade are projected as described
standards. previously.
 2.05 E

For scciiorrs on maximum grade. the grade data. Sufficient terrain data shall be obtained
so that preliminary earthwork quantities can

a
should be about 1 or 2 perccnt less than the
maximum to allow for grade compensation on be estimated for each alternate. Interchange
sharp curves and the shortening that occurs types and locations, if applicable, shall be iden-
when curves are applied to an angle line. tified. The location and size of major drainage
structures shall also he identified.
In mountainous country, short radius 'urvcs
are "grade compensated", that is, the maxi- 2. Comparison of Alternate Routes
mum grade is reduced by 1 to 3 percent to It is mandatory that the same methods and
compensate Tor incrcascd road resistance and factors be used in evaluating alternates. For
loss of momentum. The standards for compen- instance, if cross sections are used to estimate
sation are empirical and are shown below: earthwork on one alternate, they must be used
Curve Radius (ml Maximum grade (pcrccntl on the others.
Tangent 7.0 In order that a true comparison of alternate
1,000 6.0 construction costs can be made, certain major
200 6.0 items need to be included. These are as fol-
165 5.9 lows:
125 5.7
100 5.5 Earthwork quantities; excavation, borrow
70 5.0 and embankment (accuracy: i 15 percent of
50 4.3 final quantity).

e A common difficulty in steep country is failure

to catch fill slopes. 011ly rarely is it possible to
build stable fills with slopes steeper than l l h to
1. If the natural mountain slope is I1h to 1 or
Bridges (accuracy: r 5 m of final length).
Pavement structure; subbase, base, and sur-
facing (accuracy: i 10 percent of final quan-
tities).
steeper a 1% to 1 fill slope will not catch until Drainage Culverts (accuracy: ? 10 percent
it reaches flatter ground. which in places may of final quantities).
be far below the road grade. Such long "sliver Interchanges and grade separation struc-
fills" are unreliable and expensive to build. The tures: structures (accuracy: 2 5 m of final
alternatives are length) and ramps (accuracy: earthwork 15
percent of final quantity; pavement 10 per-
Intercept the slope with a retaining wall. cent of final quantity).
Make the slope steeper by using handlaid Tunnels (accuracy: i 5 m of final length).
rock embankment.
Right-of-way (total cost).
Shift the centerline into the hillside so that
the road is entirely in cut. The relative accuracy of the estimates is im-
portant since they are major factors in selec-
Every mountain location should be checked to tion of the final centerline.
determine whether the fills will block the
natural drainage, which is a common occur- 3. Preliminary Design Report

a rence when the location follows a mountain

stream or wadi. A slope that extends into a
wadi will have to be heavily riprapped or pro-
tected by a retaining wall to prevent undermin-
ing.
This report summarizes the engineering activi-
ties occurring after MOC approval of the Re-
connaissance Report and presents the Engi-
neer's recommendation on the best alignment.
To expedite review by the Ministry the follow-
E. Centerline Evaluation and Preliminary De- ing format shall be followed:
sign Report Format a. Cover
The Preliminary Design Report is a summa- The cover shall include the following infor-
tion of the predesign studies and requires the mation:
approval of the MOC before final design of a Name of Ministry and Kingdom.
project can be started. This report shall include
a detailed evaluation of all the potential loca- Project name.
tions within the approved corridor and the En- Highway number.
gineer's recommendation of the best one. Project termini.
Engineer's name.
1 . Alternate Centerline
Name of report: i.e., Preliminary Design
The number of feasible alternates within a cor- Report (scope of work-not exceeding
ridor will depend on many factors; however, as sever1 words).

a
a general rule the final number should not ex-
ceed five and preferrably only three. Whether b. Table of Contents
or not these alternates are staked will depend c, Introduction
on the Engineer's method of obtaining terrain
A brief description of the project including sign class, the geology of the area and the
termini, design class, development schedule. need for thorough studies of critical areas.
arid type of kcility. Copies of important cor- Section 1-2.06 provides guidance for
respondence, such as that authorizing the geotechnical investigations. The Engineer
study. Ally of those 13 items listed for ap- shall include in this report those
proval in 1-1.06R that are applicable shall be geotechnical activities directly related to
included in the appendix. studies of the alternate centerline. These
studies most include a discussion and maps,
d. Summary of Kecommendations
charts and test data if available for the fol-
A concise review of the alternates and a rec- lowing:
ommendation of the best centerline location.
Soils in general.
e Description of Alrcrriates Specific foundation and hackslope prob-
A detailed description of each alternate. lems.
Topographic maps. photomosaics, architec- Sand accumulation and erosion problems.
tural sketches, and photographs may he Borrow and aggregate sources.
used to show the following data: Pawment design, method used, and pro-
Length. posed structural section.
Vertical and horizontal alignment. Sources and quality of water.
Interchange locations. i. Hydrologic and Hydraulic Studies
Bridge types and locations.
This part of the report shall include an ex-
l'roposed rest areas, scenic overlooks planation of the method used [or determin-
Emergency parking areas. ing the drainage area and watershed, geome-
Potential environmental coriflicts try, and the methods used to determine the
Right-of-way conflicts. flood-frequency curve, and drainage struc-
ture size. Section 1-2.07 and HDM-2-1.10
f. De5ign Data and Geometric\ provide the liecessary guidelines.
A listing of the design data and gehmetrics
j. Environmental Factors
used in developing the alternates. Approved
deviations from the manual shall be identi- The critical environmental factors within
fied. 'The following information shall be in- the selected corridor were identilied during
cluded: the reconnaissance. Duririg predesign stud-
ies. the locator will try to reduce adverse
Design class.
highway impacts in his selection of alternate
ADT (present). routes. The list of environmental concerns in
ADT (20), iricluding percent of trucks. 1-2.03 may serve as a checklist in the final
DHV (20), including percent of trucks analysis of alternates. The assistance of qual-
Desigrl speed. ified specialists. such as laridscape architects,
Minimum radius of horizorital curvature. may be required for this analysis.
Maximum gradient. k. Cost Comparisons
Drawing shou-ing typical section, includ- The total estimated construction costs for
ing dimensions of all elements in the road- each alternate shall be shown in tabular
way section. form. The corresponding preliminary con-
Degree of access control. Special justifica- struction estimate f o r m ( ~ )shall be in-
tion must he presented when partial or cluded in the appendix. Construction en-
full access control is proposed on a two- gineering, Right-of-way and utility
lane, two-way highway. relocation costs need not be shown unless
they are significantly different for the al-
g. Surveys and Mapping
ternates. Estimated prices for project
A description of the method of surveying items shall be based on historical tendered
used and accuracies obtained. The datum data. If such data are not available, the
base and coordinate system to which the report shall document the source of the
survey is tied shall also be identified. estimated prices.
Type, method of compilation, scale, and The average annual maintenance cost for
contour intervals of the topographic maps each alternate shall be estimated and
shall be stated. shown in tabular form. Maintenance costs
for similar highways within the Kingdom
h. Geotechnical and Pavement Design are available from the MOC.
The amount of geotechnlcal work performed
at the predesign stage will vary wlth the de-
 1. Engineers' Recommendation 4. Transmittal of Design Report
Unless otherwise directed by the MOC the The Engineer shall transmit five copies of the
report shall include a recommendation for bound report for approval as specified in
one of the alternates. This shall be based on 1-1.06E. The Director of the Follow-Up Stud-
the following items plus any others that are ies for Technical Project Department may re-
unique to the project. quest a field review of one or all of the alter-
Construction costs. nates. In such case, thc Engineer shall mark
the centerline on the ground by flags or other-
Annual maintenance costs.
wise so that it can be readily followed. He shall
Environmental impact. also have available for this inspection those
Horizontal and vertical alignment. Engineers and technicians Familiar with the
Safety. predesign activities.
Right-of-way requirements. 5. Centerline Staking
The above factors may not be of equal impor- After approval of the Preliminary Design Kc-
tance for all alternates. For example, in a par- port the plotted line shall be resolved into its
ticular area, environmental considerations may geometric elements and ties calculated between
be more important than maintenance costs. In it and the control traverse points.
such cases, a matrix using weighted factors
may be used to compare alternates. An expla- Centerline staking shall be done in accordance
nation of the weighting system shall accom- with 1-2.04, Surveys and Mapping and the
pany the matrix. Only items of significance Surveying and l a p p i n g Munuul.
need be included.
Section 2.06 Geotechnical Engineering
Page
.
A General ......................................................................................................
1. Introduction ........................... ............................
2 . Objective ................... .................................................................................
.
..-

3 . Reports ... ..................................................................

.
B Geotechnical Input for Reconnaisance Phase ...
1 . Objective ........................................................................................................
2 . Tasks .............................................................................................................
a) Data Collection ............................................................................................
b) Sitc Inspection .............................................................................................
3. Report ........................................................................................................
.
C Geotechnical lnput for Preliminary Design Phase .....................................................
. .
1. Objectlvc ........................ ..............................................................................
2. Tasks ................................................... ................
a) Determine Needs of Designers ........................................................................
. .
-
b) Carry Out Ground lnvestlgation .....................................................................
..
c) Ident~tybroundwater Regime ......................... . ............................................
d) Evaluate Data and Prepare Preliminary Designs ..................................................
e) Identify Features for Further Study ...................... .................
............................
3. Report ........................................................................................
.
D Geotechnical Input for Final Design Phase ..............................................................
. .
1 . Object~ve.................... ...................................................................................
2. Tasks .............................................................................................................
a) Determine Needs of Designers ............................. . ......................................
b) Carry Out 1 Complete Ground Investigation .......................................................
c) Carry Out / Complete Laboratory Testing ................. ..... ...........................
d) Identify Groundwater Regime ........................................................................
e) Evaluate Data and Prepare Final Designs .................. ..... .................................
3 . Report .................... . ..................................................................................
E . Geotechnical Input During and After Construction ...................................................
1. Construction ................... .
...............................................................................
2. Maintenance ....................................................................................................

Appendix I .Ground Invest~gat~ons

. .
...........................................................................
.
A General .................... ..... ........... .........................................................
. .
1. Earthworks Invest~gat~ons
. . .................................................................................
2. Materials Invest~gat~ons.....................................................................................
3. Foundations and Slope Stability Investigations ........................ .... ........................
B. Field Work .............................................................................................
1. Geophysical Explorations ........................... . . ................................................
2. Borings. Test Pits. Trenches, and Adits ............................. ........... ........................
3. Sampling ............................ .. .................................................................
4 . I..ogging .......... ........................ . . . . ...........................................................
.
5 Field Tests .......................................................................................................
 Page
C. Laboratory Work 19
I . Laboratory Tests 19
Appendix I1 -Soil & Ruck Description & (:lassifiration 23
A. General 23
B. Soil ........ .... ........ ...... ... .................... . ..... . . . . . ........... ........ ........... . .......... . .... 23
1. Soil Description 23
2. Unified Soil Cla. ~ 21
3. AASHTO Soil Classification Systcm ...... . ...... ..... . . ...... .... . . .......... . . . . , . . . . 27
C. Rock .. . .. . :.. .... ... . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .... ... . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . , . . , , . . . . . . , . , . . . . .. 29

Appendix 111-Hazards . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . ... . . .... . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . ... . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . .... . . ...
A. General ........................................................................... ......................
B. Typical Hazards

5. Groundwater ......................... ...........

6. Seismicity ................. .........................................
7. Wind Blown Sands . . ..... . . . . . . . ...... . .... .. . ... . . . ... . . . . . . . . ...... . ... . . . .... . . . ... .. . ... . . . .... .. . ... . . .
8. Deleterious Minerals ... .. .. . . .. ... . .. .... . ..... .. .. ....... ....... ... .. .... .. ... .. .. .. . ... ... ....... .. .
Appendix IV - Data Assessment .. ........ ... ........ ... .. .. .. . . . . . .. ... .... .... . ... ..... . . .. .. .. ... ......
A. General ... J .... .... ....... .. .. .. .. ... .........
... . ... ..... . . .. . . .. .. .... . ... .... ........ . . . .. . . ..................
..
1. Soil Slope Stabll~ty . . . . .... . ...... . ... . .. ..... . . . ... . .... . . . .... ...... . . .... . . . . .... . . .... . . . .. . . . ..... , . . . . . . .
2. Rock Slope Stablllty .. .. . ...... ....... .......... ...... .. .. ... ........... .. .. .. .. ..... .... .... ... . ... .....
3. Embankment Settlement ..... .... ... .. .. . . .... ... ....... .. .. .. ....... .... ....... .... ... .. .
4. Foundations . . . ...........................................................................
5. Drainage ........................ . . . ...........................................................................
6. Pavement Support ........................................................................... ,..............
7. Soil Stabilization . ... ... .... ............... . . . . ....... .... ....... ... .. .. .... ...... ... .... .... ... ..... .. .. . .
8. Water Erosion & Scour ..... ......... .. .. .. .. . . .... .... ... . ..... ...... , .... ... .... ............. .. ... .
. .
Appendix V - Blbllography . . .. . . .. .... ... ... .... .... . .. .. . .. .... .... ....... ..... .. .. .. ..... .... .... ... ... ..... . .

Note: (March, 1987)

This section has been developed by Messrs. M.S. Azam. A. Hasan, T. Hunt and Dr. H . A . Sultan.
Section 2.06 Geotechnical Engineering - Reconnaisance Report
- Preliminary Design Report
A. General - Final Design Report
1. Introduction The remainder of this section describes the
This section of the Highway Design Manual geotechnical input required for each. Also
describes the Geotechnical Engineering input included is a subsection on the role of geotech-
required for a highway project. Geotechnical nical engineering during the course of construc-
Engineering in this context is intended to tion and later maintenance with, finally, a
include all tasks concerning the exploration and number of appendices dealing with ground
utilization of soil and rock. The section de- investigations, soil and rock description and
scribes activities which form part of both the classification, hazards. and data assessment.
design phase and the construction phase, but For certain projects, one or more of the reports
which, for convenience, have been grouped may not be required by the Ministry. In these
together here. cases, the geotechnical input for the remaining
The importance of comprehensive and accurate report(s) may need to he expanded.
geotechnical information cannot be over-
emphasized. The objective of highway geotech- B. Geotechnical Inout for Reconnaissance
nical work should be to seek, interpret, and Phase
evaluate subsurface and surface data in order to
predict the behavior of the soils and materials 1. Objective
along, and adjacent to, the alignment. The The Reconnaissance Report will normally ex-
resulting information should be presented in a amine the feasibility of constructing a particular
logical and intelligible manner so that it can be highway in a particular area and, as a result, will
used correctly and efficiently by the non- encompass social, economic, and environmen-
specialist, bearing in mind that geotechnics tal factors.
should not be isolated from the planning, design
and construction activities, but should form an The resulting information will form part of the
integral part of each. recommendations for the adoption (or other-
wise) of a particular corridor or corridors within
2. Objective which the future highway should be located,
The objective of this section is to provide an (see 1-2.03). The purpose of the geotechnical
overall framework for geotechnical work, to input to the reconnaissance phase is to provide a
describe procedures for investigation, to de- summary of the geotechnical factors which
scribe the format for reporting geotechnical could influence the evaluation for the corri-
information, and, as appropriate, to define the d o r ( ~ ) , to define the potential geological
relationship between geotechnical work and hazards, and to provide a basis for future more
other planning, design and construction activi- detailed geotechnical investigations.
ties.
It is, however, intended to give a set of 2. Tasks
guidelines and not to take the role of a design The geotechnical tasks can be summarized as:
handbook. It has been written for practicing
designers, and emphasis is placed on what is - Data Collection
required to be submitted to the Ministry, rather - Site Inspection
than how the work should be done. Those - Geotechnical Evaluation
seeking further information can consult the a) Data Collection
many textbooks on the subject of geotechnics
and materials or refer to the references given in Topographical Maps
the bibliography. In addition, by the very Topographical maps are currently published
nature of naturally-occuring materials, this sec- by Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Re-
tion cannot provide guidance for all geotechnic- sources. Scales range from 1:50,000 to
a1 situations. It is assumed that the geotechnical 1:2,000,000.
work will be undertaken by someone with
specialist knowledge, who will be able to arrive Geological Reports
at economic and safe solutions based on theory
and experience. Geological maps are currently published by
the U.S. Geologjcal Survey, Jeddah and the
by Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Re-
3. Reports sources. These can give a good indication of
During the course of highway design, the the general lithology, stratigraphy and stmc-
Ministry will normally require the production of ture within a particular corridor, and range in
the following reports: scale from 1:100,000 to 1:10,000,000.
 Remote Sensing The overall topography and regional and
Remote sensing includes both satellite imag- structural geology within the proposed corri-
ery and air photography. The absence of dor(~).
vegetation for much of the Kingdom means Geological features and hazards and their
that remote sensing can play an important relationship to design, construction, and
role in providing useful information on maintenance. This should include a descrip-
potential geological hazards and materials tion of the physical properties of the various
resources. Sources of imagery and photogra- strata. Features with a high cost or time
phy include the Ministries of Communica- impact should be examined in more detail.
tions. Agriculture & Water, Petroleum and The overall groundwater conditions.
Mineral Resources, Municipalities & Rural
Corridor soils and materials resources.
Affairs.
A terrain evaluation map is required. For the
Agricultural Soils Reports purpose of the Reconnaissance Report this
Limited areas of the Kingdom have been need not be very detailed, but should at least
mapped to assess their agricultural potential. include the geology, the locations of the various
These maps can provide useful information geological features and hazards, and the loca-
on the extent and disposition of surface soils tions of potential materials sources.
and may be available for inspection from the
Ministry of Agriculture & Water. C. Geotechnical Input for Preliminary Design
Phase
Other Studies
1 . Objective
Other pertinent information related to other
studies may be available and contained in The approval of the Reconnaissance Repart will
reports to the appropriate Ministries, in normally result in the Ministry's agreement to
professional publications, or in conference the adoption of a single corridor for the highway
proceedings. alignment. Input for the Preliminary Design
b) Site inspection Phase includes the examination of various
alignments within the adopted corridor and the
Geomorphology selection and staking of a final route (see
The inspection should first be directed at 1-2.05).
comparing the geological and remote sensing In this phase, the geotechnical engineer ex-
features with the physical features on the pands upon the information and recommenda-
ground. Thb geomorphological processes tions presented in the Reconnaissance Report.
which formed these physical features should The scope of the geotechnical work narrows
be studied and understood. The present day down from the broad general approach to more
effects of wind, water, seismicity, and specific topics. The objective is to provide
temperature need to be assessed. information that can be used confidently by the
Potential Hazards design team to produce preliminary design and
cost estimates.
Local enquiries should be made to identify
potential hazards. These might include seis- 2. Tasks
micity. sabkha deposits, collapsing soils,
The amount of geotechnical work required will
swelling soils, cavities, slope instability, soft
vary according to the length and geometrical
or loose ground, sand dunes, and aggressive
standards of thehighway, the geology, and the
groundwater (see Appendix 111). The occurr-
nature of the problems identified in the Recon-
ence and potential effect of all such hazards
naissance Phase (see 1-2.05.E.3h). The list of
should be evaluated.
tasks which follow are given for general gui-
Materials Availability dance only:
Thc sufficiency of sources of suitable natural- - Determine Needs of Designers
ly-occuring materials need to be assessed
- Carry Out Ground Investigation
(see Appendix I). Alternative forms of con-
struction may need to be considered, such as - Evaluate Data
sand-bitumen or soil-cement stabilization. - Identify Groundwater Regime
- Identify Features for Further Study
3. Report
a) Determine Needs of Designers
The Reconnaissance Report should include a
section on the geotechnical work carried out, Horizontal Alignment
giving a hrief outline of the procedures followed The horizontal alignment will evolve from a
and the sources consuired. The following ropics number of considerations, some of them
should be reviewed: conflicting. Road geometry, wadi locations,
 topography, centers of population, geotech- Geophysical Investigations
nical hazards such as sabkha and wind-blown Two geophysical methods. seismic refraction
sands, are some of the many factors. In and resistivity, have proved useful as rapid
assessing a tentative center-line location or means of obtaining sub-surface information
locations, a close liaisori between the remain- and as cost-effective supplements to borings.
der of the design team and the geotechnical Such geophysical explorations need to be
engineer will be of prime importance. supervised and interpreted by a specialist in
geophysics.
* Vertical Alignment
A tentative vertical alignment will be re- Geological Mapping
quired at an early stage so that the geotech-
nical engineer can examine in more detail the Geological mapping may be required in
areas where deep cuts, tunnels, or high fills rocky areas to determine structure, dip and
are proposed. strike of the various strata, rippability, and
potential cut slope instability (see also
Structures Appendix IV).
The location of major structures will require
careful planning for optimal choice of found- c) Identify Ground Water Regime
ation type. In many cases, a simple site Some, or much of this work may be evaluated
inspection may highlight locations where directly or indirectly during the course of
foundation problems can be minimized. hydrological studies. In the context of geotech-
nical work, the prime purpose of identifying the
b) Carry Out Ground Investigations groundwater regime is to assess the availability
of groundwater as a construction resource and
Site specific ground investigations may be re-
to assess its effect on the design and construc-
quired during the Preliminary Design Phase in
tion of foundations. In the former case, the
order to prepare accurate estimates of the
absence of easily exploitable groundwater could
proposed or alternative alignments. However, a
have considerable construction cost implica-
major program of investigation of the alignment
tions and the necessity for, say, dry compaction
soils is unlikely to be required at this stage,
of earthworks and a stabilized roadbase. In the
although some selected sampling may be
latter case, the difficulty in dewatering excava-
appropriate. Detailed descriptions of the types
tions for shallow foundations in granular mate-
of investigations which may need to be carried
rials may make an alternative foundation type
out are given in Appendix 1 and could include:
more desirable. Potential changes in groundwa-
ter table should be considered due to its effect
Borings
on swelling and collapsing soils and soft cal-
Soil and/or rock borings may be necessary in careous rock.
areas where embankments are to be con-
structed over suspected soft ground, where d) Evaluate Data and Prepare Preliminary
deep cuts are proposed, or to examine major Designs
bridge foundations. Standard Penetration
Tests, Field Vane Shear Tesls, and undis- Standard Penetration, vane shear, and static
turbed sampling should be carried out, as cone sounding tests in soils can be used to
appropriate. estimate bearing capacity and pile shaft
friction, and stability for embankments on,
Soundings and cuts in, soft ground. Examination of rock
A supplement to borings would be to carry outcrops, rock cores. or rock exposures in
out soundings by hand-portable or truck- the base of pits and shafts, may be sufficient
mounted equipment. This method is not to assess a presumptive bearing pressure for
suitable in dense gravels, boulders, or bed- structural foundations without the need for
rock. further testing at this stage (see also Appen-
dix IV).
Test Pits
Laboratory Tests
Excavation of test pits can be carried out by
hand or machine. This can be a very cost- Laboratory tests may need to be carried out
effective way to determine the structure of on selected disturbed and undisturbed sarn-
the sub-soil and to retrieve disturbed and ples (see Highway Materials Manual,
undisturbed samples within a few meters of Volume 1). Tests on disturbed samples are
the ground surface. In certain types of soils, likely to include classification, moisture con-
such as collapsing soils, test pits are an tent, moistureldensity relationship and Cali-
essential aid to identification and sampling of fornia Bearing Ratio tests. Tests on undis-
subsoils. turbed samples may include direct shear,
 unconfined compression, unconsolidated-un- tentative design parameters covering:
drained or consolidated-undrained triaxial - cut slopes
and consolidation tests. All these tests should
- embankment slopes and foundations
aim to provide the geotechnical engincer
with sufficient information so that he may - foundation excavations; depth. type, bear-
estimate the geotechnical properties and ing capacity and lateral support
parameters for design with confidence. - pavement support (see 2-1.09 for informa-

tion on the structural design of flexible

e) Identify Features for Further Study pavements)
The timing of the design phases, or a choice of a details of planned investigations for the final
proposed alignments, may make it impractical phase of the study.
or uneconomical to carry out all but a brief
invcstigation df the various geotechnical fac- D. Geotechnical Input for Final Design Phase
tors. Features tequiring further study should be
identificd at this stage, so that once the Pre- I. Objective
liminary Design Report has heen submitted and The objective of the geotechnical work carried
approled, these further studies can proceed out during the Final Design Phase is to provide
without delay. sufficient information to the design team so that
the design can be completed and an accurate
3. Report cost estimate made. and to assess all geotechnic-
The Preliminary Design Rcporr \hould include a1 factors which could have an impact on
an appcndix on the geotechnical work carried construction and maintenance.
out comprising: 2. Tasks
a description of the topography and regional 'The geotechnical tasks can be summarized as:
and structur;il geology a l o r ~the~ proposed
alignment(s). including a gculogical map. - Determine Needs of Designers
e a description of the geotechnical investiga- - Carry OutiCornplete Ground Investigat~on
tions conducted lor this phase, A hrief - Carry Out/Complete Laboratory Testing
summary o i the rcsults of the investigatior~ - Evaluate Data and Prepare Final Designs
shoulcl be included. as well as any significant
findings or conclusions. a) Determine Needs of Designers
a map showing the predominant soil and rock * Horizontal and Vertical Alignment
types along t h e proposed alignment(s) and The horizontal and vertical alignment will
the locations of potential borrow areas for usually have been fixed during the Prclimin-
embankmerit and subgrade materials. ;lry Design Phase although modifications
photogr~iphs of predominant and unusual [nay still be necessary. 'These modifications
featurcs to highlight topography. h;!cards. could have significant geotechnical implica-
thc selection of borrow areas. etc. tions particulary where deep cuts or high fills
logs oi all borings, test pils, trenchcs. shafts arc proposed.
and adits.
cross-sections showing subsurface soil. rock, The precice geometry of thc structures needs
and groundwater profiles, where to bc established at an early stage in this
appropriate. phase so that final horings and test pits can he
a description of the type and extent of accurately located. Thc results of the ground
gcotechnical analyses performed. invcstigation rnay highlight the need for a
a description of any specific hazards (see re-appraisal of the geometry.
Appendix 111) together with recommcnda-
b) Carry Our/Complete Ground Investigation
tions for measures to minimize their impact.
the location, estimated quantity, type, and Ground investigations carried out for the Final
suitability of locally naturally-occuring con- Design Phasc wil! be required in three main
struction materials. This should include sand. areas; investigations along the length of the
gravel, and rock. for granular road bases. proposed alignment to dctcrmine the pavement
asphalt mixes and concrete, and water for support potential offered by the subgrade soils;
earthworks and concrete. investigations to delcrmine the sources and
quantity of naturally-occuring construction
an assessment of excavation problems likely
materials; and investigations to examine specific
to be caused by the vertical alignment of the
sites such as deep cuts. retaining walls, bridge
highway or by foundations of the structures.
foundations. etc. (The scope of the ground
recommendat~onsfor measures to minimize invesrigarion for rhe Firlrrl Design Phase must be
embankment scour and erosion. agreed by the desjgn department o f the Ministry
prior to the commencement of fieldwork.) De- determine the moistureldensity relationship
tailed descriptions of the various types of and California Bearing Ratio (CBR). Addi-
investigations which may need to bc carried out tional earthworks tests will be required on
are given in Appendix I and are likely to selected borrow areas or on soil modification
include, but not limited to. most of the fol- if there is insufficient material adjacent to the
lowing: alignment to satisfy the requirements for
embankments or subgrade.
Borings
Soil andior rock borings will be required for Tests for Materials Resources
all bridge foundations. deep cuts, and sus- Material Resources tests on sands, gravels
pected areas of soft ground. Standard and rock include gradation, particle shape,
Pcncrration Tests, field vane shear tests, Los Angeles abrasion, sodium sulphate
disturbed and undisturbed sampling should soundness. soluble salt content, index tests,
he carried out as appropriate. etc. In the event of an insufficiency of
materials, tests on their suitability for stabi-
Soundings lization with lime, cement, or bitumen may
A supplement to borings would be to carry bc necessary. The quality of water for con-
out soundings by hand-portable or truck- crete should be checked for total solids and
mounted equipment. This method is not sulphate and chloride ions.
silitahle in dense gravels, boulders, or bed-
rock. Tests for Foundation Design and Slope
Stability Analyses
Test Pits Laboratory tests associated with foundations
Excavation of test pits can he carried out by and slope stability encompass a wide variety
hand or machine. This can be a very cost- of methods and procedures. Amongst the
effective way to determine the structure of more common are unconsolidated-undrained
the subsoil and to retrieve disturbed and and consolidated-undrained triaxial tests,
undisturbed samples within a few meters of one dimensional consolidation tests, and
the ground surface. Hand-dug test pits are direct shear tests. Additional tests may be
often carried out to enable the subgrade soils required on samples of the subsoil and
to be sampled along the alignment, particu- groundwater to check for the presence of
larly in areas where machine access is diffi- deleterious minerals, (see Appendix 111).
cult. Test pits are of paramount value where
potentially hazardous soils such as collapsing d) Identify Groundwater Regime
or swclling soils arc identified or suspected. Much of this work will have been done during
Geophysical Investigations the Preliminary Dchign Phase (see 1-
Geophysical investigatioi~sa x Tore likely to 2.06.C.2d). The primary requirements are to
have been carried out during :ti,: F'icliininary assess the availability of groundwater as a
Design Phase than during thc Final Des~gn construction resource, and to assess its effect on
Phase. Such investigations have provcd use- the design and construction of foundations.
ful as a rapid means of obtaining sub-surface e) Evaluate Data and Prepare Final Designs
information and as cost-cffcctive supple-
ments to borings, but rlccd to be supervised The first task under this sub-heading is to
and interpreted by a specialist in geophysics. evaluate the data arising from thc site inspec-
tions, site investigations, laboratory testing, and
Groundwater Monitoring any other historical or relevant source. Having
Groundwater monitoring may he advisable in carried out this evaluation, cross sections
certain circumstances, particularly where should be prepared and the evaluated engineer-
fluctuations in the groundwatcr table could ing properties assigned to the various soil and
affect construction. Measurement is usually rock types. Analyses of the various geotechnical
carried out by means of piezometers installed components of the project should then be
in borings. prepared (see Appendix 1V) and these could
include:
C) Carry Out/Complete Laboratory Testing
- Excavations
Laboratory tests will be required on selected
disturbed and undisturbed samples. These will - Embankments
normally comprise: - Drainage (including dewatering)
Tests for Earthworks - Cut Slopes (Soils and rock)
Earthworks tests include field moisture con- - Tunnels (including support systems) - (see
tent. classification and gradation tests on 2-1.17)
disturbed samples of the alignment soils. - 1.ateral support (including retaining walls,
Selected bulk samples will be required to reinforced earth, gahions, etc.)
- Foundations Earthworks
- Soil Modification or Stabilization - Pavement Support
- Pavement support Soil Support values for pavement design.
Location details of alignment lenghts where
3) Report imported embankment and subgrade material
will be necessary, areas from where suitable
The Final Design Report should include a borrow can be obtained, details of soil
section or a volume on the geotechnical work modified subgrades, etc., as appropriate
carried out, comprising:
- Slope Stability
an Introduction giving a brief description of Cut and fill slope gradients in soil and rock.
the project a d location. An area map and a Proposed support measure for rock cuts.

6
project map showing the route, major wadi
crossings an intersecting highways should
also be incljded.
- Drainage
Specific types and locations of any surface1
subsurface drainage systems.
a Background section describing the general
geology, topography, hydrology, climate and - Erosion and Scour Potential
any other overall factors that could affect the Details of mcasures to mitigate erosion and
geotechnical aspects of the project. A gener- scour.
al geologidtopographic map of the project - Hazards
area should be included.
Details of measures to minimize the effects of
an Invesrigation Procedures section describ- large scale hazards such as sabhha. sand
ing the s w p e and type of geotechnical dunes, soft or organic soils, etc.
investigation performed for the project. This Materials
should include the number and type of
borings, test pits. geophysical surveys, field - Sources
tests, etc.; the dates when the fieldwork was Locations of sand, gravel, rock, and water
performed; details about who performed the sources, with quality and estimated quanti-
fieldwork, the equipment used, the field ties.
procedures camed out, any unusual field or
equipment conditions which could affect the - Stabilized Soil
results, the amount and type of soil and rock Details of lime, cement or bitumen, stabilized
laboratory tejsting, and the laboratory proce- pavement layers, as appropriate.
dures camed out. Pavement Design
- section descrihine- the findings and
a Findinps - ,.- Thickness
Laver
p~~
- .
-- ...
....
.
significant results of the geotechnical jnves- Pavement cross sections showing required
tigation. This should include geological cross thickness of the various layers
sections for specific sites, as appropriate. (see 2-1.09 for information on structural
Descriptions should be given of predominant design of flexible pavements),
soil types and depths, rock types and bedding -Atructures
orientation, faults. weathered zones, ground-
water conditions and any other major condi- - Foundations
tions that could affect the design or construc-
tion of the project. Except for those projects Foundation types, allowable bearing capacl-
that are especially complex or lengthy, the ties. pile lengths, estimated settlements, dc-
F~ndingssection may be brief and concise. tails of mcasures to mitigate aggressive sotlj
andlor groundwater conditions, requirement\
0 an Analyses and Recommendations section for pile load testing during construction.
describing the procedures used by the - Earth Pressure
geotechnical engineer to develop the design
Earth pressure coefficients andlor distribu-
recommendations based upon the findings,
tion for abutments and retaining walls.
and a list of actions, procedures, or methods
Equivalent fluid pressures may also be glven.
to be used by the highway designer in the
preparation of the contract documents. Con- - Excavations
cise recommendations are necessary to en- Details of any special construction techniques
sure that there is no misunderstanding of the likely to be necessary, including dewatering
geotechnical engineer's intent, and to sim- and lateral support.
plify their implementation. Information on
each of the following typical items shall be - Site Specific Hazards
provided, as appropriate: Methods recommended for the mitigation of
 site specific hazards such as cavities, collaps- that the ground conditions are similar to
ing or swelling soils. etc. those anticipated in the design. If there is any
indication of differing ground conditions
Construction & Maintenance then, additional field and laboratory testing
- Foreseeable problems may be appropriate, and a re-design of the
- Details of potential problcms which could foundation may be warranted. Pile load tests
occur during and after construction; recom- for piled foundations may be necessary, and
mendations for surveillance and mitigation. details of the test requirements can be found
in Section 5-6 of the Highway Construction
A set of Appendices containing the following Manual.
information, (among others) as appropriate:
Field Instrumentation
- Alignment soils and materials sources loca- The Final Design Report may advise the use
tion plans of field instrumentation during the course of
- Boring snd test pit logs construction. This could include piezo-
- Geophysical test results meters, settlement plates, movement monu-
ments and inclinometers. In each case, in-
- Laboratory soil test results
stallation will need to be carefully super-
- Pavement design calculations vised, and comprehensive monitoring re-
- Stability analyses. location plans, cross sec- cords maintaincd.
tions. engineering parameters used, and re-
Cut Slopes
sults.
Cut slopes: particularly in rock, will fre-
- Settlement analyses. location plans, cross
qucntly require additional support or protec-
sections, engineering parameters used, and
tion measures, the locations of which 'vill
results. have to be determined during construction
- Foundation analyses, location plans, cross (see Appendix IV, section 2 for further
sections, engineering parameters used, and details).
results.
2. Maintenance
E. Geotechnical Input During and After Con- During the Maintenance Phase. the geotech-
struction nically-related problen~smost likely to occur
I. Construction are those due to erosion and scour. instability of
cuts and embankments, settlement of founda-
During the Construction Phase, the geotechnic- tions and the effects of wind-blown sand.
al engineer will be involved with quality control
testing. confirmation of foundation design for Erosion and Scour
structures, surveillance of field instrumentation. Repairs to drainage facilities caused by ero-
site grading and drainage, and assessment and sion and scour are given in Section 5-5 of thc
design of measures to support rock and earth Highway Maintenance Manual.
cuts, as appropriate.
Instability
Quality Control Testing Methods of analyzing the stability of cuts and
Comprehensive details of quality control embankments are given in Appendix IV.
testing of naturally-occuring materials are Recommended procedures to clear rock falls
given in Parts 2 to 5 of the Highway and landslides are given in Section 5-7 of the
Construction Manual and in the section on Highway Maintenance Manual.
"Sampling and Testing Frequency" in
Volume 1 of the Highway Materials Manual. Settlement
Details of typical problems associated with
Foundations settlement are given in Section 7-4 of the
No matter how comprehensive the ground Highway Construction Manual.
investigation is, unforeseen ground condi-
tions are always possible. In all foundation Wind-Blown Sand
excavations. the geotechnical engineer Methods of controlling the effects of wind-
should visually inspect the base and sides of blown sand are given in Section 5-13 of the
the excavation prior to concreting to ensure Highway Maintenance Manual.
l H -l S PAGE
- --- -
IS B1,Ahh
 APPENDIX I

GROUND INVESTIGATIONS

A. General - "Foundations" investigations including slope

stability to examine specific sites such as deep
Ground investigations. whether carried out cuts, retaining walls, bridge etc,
during the Preliminary Design Phase or Final This type of is more difficult to
Design Phase. will ultimately be required in generalize since each site will require an
three main areas. These are: independent approach.
- "Earthworks" investigations alone the length
of the alignment to determine the pavement
-
1. Earthworks Investieations
Tables 2.06.1 and 2.06.2 provide guidelines for
support offered by thesubgradc soils. These
investigations [night also need to cxnlnine the quantity of roadway pits or borings and
testing required for the Final Ilcsign Report. It
ways of improving subgrade support by mod-
should be noted, however. that the tables
ification with lime, hitumcn. or c c ~ n e r ~or
t , by
represent the average investigation require-
the use of selectcJ borrow material. Thc
ments for ~ o r m a lhighway work and that the
location of suitat,lc borrow areas for emhlink-
mentor subgradc mdtcrial will ;1150 be neces- actual scope will depcnd upon the complexity of
sary if there is a predicted sho~ll';~lladjacent the problem, currently available information,
construction cxpericnccs. and other factors (see
to the alignn~ent.
also Appendix IV, section 3). In many cases, an
- "Materials" investigations in the vicinity of investigation performed in compliance with the
the alignmer~tto determine the quantity and guidelines will yield adequate information for
quality of sourccs of naturally-occuring mate- design purpo\cz, hut there may he situations
rials. These rn;iterials may include soils for whfn the scope of the investigation will need to
stabilized suh-haxs or bases: sand for asphalt be incrrnscd. For instance, the requirements
and concrete mix's: aggregate for sub-bases, would need to he stepped up considcrahly for
bases, asphalt and concrete mixes; rock for an urban expressway. Roadway pits or borings
rip-rap; and water for earthworks and con- will he typically located along the center-line
crete. Aggregates nlay themselves be quar- hut may be offset to the point of maxirnum
ried from rock outcrops, or obtained from height of fill or depth of cut in side-hill
wadi deposits or surface boulders. locations.

Table 2.06.1
Guidelines for Pit 1 Boring Requireme~~ts
- Roadway
Additional investigations may be necessary for since each case will need to be assessed inde-
embankment and subgrade soils. In many cases, pendently. Where materials such as wadi de-
suitable borrow will be found immediately posits are being assessed, sufficient area and
adjacent to the alignment, .but in some cases, depth should be prospected in order to ascertain
suitable borrow may have to be transported the availability of the required amount of
from locations further away. Prospecting of suitable material and to delineate the limits. In
borrow areas should be carried out to sufficient the case of potential quarry sites, test borings
area and depth to confirm the availability of the are likely to be necessary to confirm the
required amount of suitable material and to quantity and quality of material available. Bulk
delineate the limits. samples for quality testing may be obtained
from adjoining bedrock outcrops provided that
Table 2.06.2 provides guidelines for the testing the samples obtained from such sources are
frequency for the alignment soils and borrow truly representative. Test results from any
areas requiredfor the Final Design Report, and nearby operational quarries should also be
sufficient sampling shall be carried out to meet included.
the testing requirements. Where material is to
be used in both the embankment and the Considerable quantities of water are likely to be
subgrade, then only the testing guidelines for required for the proper compaction of ear-
subgrade need apply. No guidelines are given thworks, and water points will be necessary at
for the testing frequency for soil modification frequent intervals along the alignment. An
since this will depend on a variety of factors assessment should be made of the likely sources
including the uniformity of the soil and the of water from any existing wells and from the
results of initial laboratory testing program. geological formations underlying the route.
Further information on this, is given in Appen- Samples for tests to assess the suitability of
dix IV, Section 7. water for concrete will be necessary.

Table 2.06.2
Guidelines for Testing Requirements
- Roadway

1 per boring I p ~ t
MRDTM 204

I per bonng / pit

1 per boring 1 pit

MRDTM 210

1 per borrow area

CBR 1 per barrow area

- X 2 per 5 krn
MRDTM 213

Note: MRDTM Materials & Research Department Test Method. See Highway Materials Manual far details.

2. Materials Investigations
- Table 2.06.3 provides guidelines for the testing
requirements for aggregates and water. In-
Every effort should be made to locate sufficient formation on test requirementsfor soil stabiliza.
quantities of naturally-occuring construction tion, is dvenin ~ ~ I", section
~ 7. ~ ~ d
materials at regular intervals along the align-
ment and as close to the alignment as possible. Apart from samples of crushed aggregate from
No guidelines are given for the boring and existing quarries and natural sands and gravels,
sampling frequency for sources of materials rock sanlples will need to be crushed prior to
testing in the laboratory. Crushing may be crushing plant under working conditions. The
carried out by hand or by machine, but the final test results will therefore only give an indication
gradation and particle shape are unlikely to be of the qxality of potential aggregate sources,
representative of that produced by a full scale and should be reported as such.

Table 2.06.3
Guidelines for Testing Requirements
- Materials Sources

DESIGNATION

MRDTM 208 1 209

MRDTM 311

MRDTM 309

MRDTM 319

Particles
AASHTO M RO
 MRDTM 413
I I I I I I I I
1. Passing 4.75mm sieve (No. 4), including sand sizes.
2. Combined fine and coarse aggregate.

3. Foundations and Slope Stability Investiga- b. Bridges

tions
Table 2.06.4 provides guidelines for the spacing Struchlre Spacing
of borings for retaining walls and bridges
required for the Final Design Report. The
comments given in Section A. 1. regarding use Single
I per abutment
of Table 2.06.1 apply also to Table 2.06.4. At Span
least one boring per culvert in wadi crossings, -
especially major structures, is recommended. 1 per pier and
Multi-
Borings for minor culverts will not normally be
Span ahutment
required unless soft ground conditions are
expected. No guidelines are given for boring or
sampling frequency for slope stability investiga-
tions or for sahpling frequency for bridges and B. Field Work
retaining walls, since each case will need to be Field work associated with subsurface investiga-
judged on its own merits. Borings for bridges tions can be categorized into the following five
and retaining walls need to extend below areas:
maximum scour level to a depth where the
stresses induced by the foundation pressures Geophysical explorations.
will have negligible effects. The exploration Borings, test pits, trenches and adits.
should be taken through compressible cohesive
soils likely to contribute significantly to settle-
* Sampling
ment, and if rock is found, a penetration of at * Logging
least 3m (or more) may he required to establish Field Testing
whether bedrock or only a boulder has been Geophysical Explorations
encountered.
Two geophysical methods, seismic and electric-
Table 2.06.4 a1 resistivity, have proven useful as rapid means
Guidelines for Boring Requirements of obtaining subsurface information and as
- Retaining Walls and Bridges economical supplements to borings in explora-
a. Retaining Walls tory programs.. Such geophysical explorations
can supply information for bedrock profiling,
define the limits of granular borrow areas and
large organic deposits, and yield a general
definition of subsurface conditions including the
depth to groundwater. However, engineering
applications of geophysics have sometimes been
disappointing and it is important to make sure
that the type of information supplied by the
investigation will suit the purpose for which it
was intended. T o ensure the optimum use of
such exploration techniques, individuals experi-
 enced in geophysical theories and applications encountered. Augers are not well-suited to
should be consulted to determine the applicabil- granular soils with high groundwater tables,

a ity of geophysical procedures to the area under

investigation; to plan, design, and supervise the
geophysical exploration program; and to inter-
pret the data. The geophysical work should be
checked by borings andlor other direct methods
but when such soils are cohesive, auger
drilling can be very satisfactory.
Percussion Boring
This method employs a variety of tools to
of exploration, and should therefore be com- advance a boring by percussive action. Cas-
pleted prior to completion of the borings ing can be used in soft or loose soils, and
program. The geophysical data obtained can pushed or driven samplers can also be used.
then be reviewed to determine the final loca- This method is often used in firm to stiff
tion, number and depth of borings. After the moderately cohesive and bouldery soils.
borings are complete, it may still be desirable to Wash Boring
perform additional geophysical work to ex-
amine specific areas in more detail. This drilling method employs the washing
and chopping action of a bit to advance a
2. Borings, Test Pits, Trenches, and Adits drillhole between sampling. Casing is used to
support the sides of the boring, as necessary,
There are several factors which will determine and driven or other types of samples are
the selection of the method of advancing a recovered at specified intervals and are used
boring for a particular site. Generally, these as a basis for logging. Wash boring is not
factors include site accessibility, availability of recommended when sampling potential col-

a equipment, soil and groundwater conditions,

and the probable occurrence of rock. More
specifically, the choice will depend on:
The efficiency of the advancement procedure
lapsing or swelling soils.
Continuous Sampling
In this method, the hole is advanced by
continuously taking samples. A thin-wall
in the prospective materials. sampler is usually pushed or drilled not more
The ability to determine strata changes and than 1.0m intervals and then withdrawn from
material type. the hole, however, other more sophisticated
The effects of disturbance on the materials to continuous sampling systems are available.
be sampled. Continuous sampling is a very accurate but
expensive method of obtaining subsurface
The following are general remarks on advance- information. Generally, the push method
ment methods and equipment: cannot be used successfully in soils other than
soft clays and silts.
Rotary Drilling
Most firm t o hard foundation materials can Test pits, trenches, shafts and adits are fre-
be successfully sampled and explored for soil quently used to determine the structure of the
and rock classification using rotary drilling. subsoil and to retrieve disturbed and undis-
The method works well at almost any site, turbed samples. Excavation of test pits can be
and most types of sampling can be performed carried out by hand or machine, usually to a
in a rotary drilling program. Diamond core maximum depth of about 5m. Hand dug test
drilling (MRDTM 226) will be necessary pits are often carried out to sample alignment
when refusal is encountered with ordinary soils, particularly where machine access is diffi-
advancement techniques. The main dis- cult. Deep shafts and adits are likely to require
advantages of the rotary drilling method are support and, due to their comparative high cost,
that water and heavy equipment are usually need to be planned with care. They are unlikely
required. However, small skid rigs are avail- to be economical below the water table.
able for use in less accessible areas where the
use of large, heavier equipment would be 3. Sampling
difficult or impossible, and an alternative Samples are necessary for the identification and
flushing medium such as air can be used in classification of soil and rock (see Appendix 11)
certain type of materials. and for laboratory testing.
Auger Drilling (MRDTM 223) Disturbed samples are those in which the soil
Solid-stem augers can be used for any pur- structure has not been maintained. They are
pose where disturbed samples are satisfac- used for general observation, inspection, soil
tory for soil classification and sampling. classification, and in those laboratory tests in
Hollow-stem augers permit the use of the which structure is not important. Undisturbed
thin-wall and split-barrel sampling during the samples are required for those tests in which
course of drilling. Augering is a fast method structure is important, such as triaxial shear or
for advancing a hole, although the depth of unconfined compression tests, vane shear and
drilling is limited by the type of material consolidation tests. Sampling of rock, gravel
and sand for use in highway construction can be generally in a disturbed condition due to the
considered separately, and recommended sam- drill pressure applied when cutting and pack-
pling procedures are given in MRDTM 301. ing it into the barrel for recovery. In most
cases, double or triple wall sampling is
The sampling operation is likely to include: superior and yields better results than single
Disturbed Sampling wall. Single wall samplers will produce good
Disturbed Samples may be taken from the core recovery only in certain types of soil or
boring or drilling tools during the course of rock.
advancement, or from test pits. Care should Block Sampling
be taken to ensure that the sample is truly Block Samples are cut by hand from material
representative, particularly for saturated
exposed in excavations and are normally
fine-grained cohesionless soils. taken in cohesive soils. The cutting of a block
Split-Barrel Sampling (MRDTM 224) sample can take an appreciable length of
A disturbed sample is obtained in the split- time during which there may be a tendency
spoon sampler used for the Standard for the moisture content to change unless
Penetration Test. very careful precautions are taken.
Piston or Open Tube Thin-Walled Tube 4. Logging
Sampling (MRDTM 225)
Examples of completed test pit, soil boring and
Piston or Open Tube Thin-Walled Tube rock coring field logs are presented in Figures
Sampling is used to obtain undisturbed soil 2.06.1, 2.06.2, and 2.06.3, respectively. They
samples of about 50mm to 150mm diameter, must contain all information necessary to define
but limited to materials into which the complete!y the subsurface profile and ground-
sampler can be forced and which have water conditions, and should be a complete
sufficient cohesion to remain in the tube chronological record of the drilling and sam-
while the sampler is withdrawn from the pling operations within the test pits and borings
hole. including delays. The following information
Double or Triple Wall Sampling should be recorded, as appropriate:
Double or Triple Wall Sampling is used in a Reference information comprising the pro-
wide range of formations where core samples ject number, title, and location; the explora-
are required for laboratory tests and for tion number or letter designation; the ex-
visual identification. These samplers recover ploration location by coordinates, station and
cores havin diameters of about 20mm to offset, or referred to permanent nearby
f
50mm in ro k and 50mm to 150mm in soil.
Common sampler barrel lengths are 0.75m to
structures; the inclination of the boring and,
if inclined, the bearing or azimuth of the dip
1.50m for use in soils and 1.5m to 3.0m for of the hole; the e!evation of the top of the
use in rock. These samplers have an inner pithoring.
and outer barrel, and are used with conven- Personnel information including the names
tional rotary drilling equipment. of the drilling contractor, the driller, and the
Single Wall Sampling inspecting engineer or geologist.
Single Wall Sampling is used to obtain Equipment information including the manu-
samples for visual soil and rock classification facturer's name and model designation for
and for logging purposes. The core sample is the drill rig and type of sampler(s) used.
 Figure 2.06.1
Test Pit Record
TEST PIT RECORD TEST PIT NO. 1

PROJECT: EXAMPLE FILE NO. IMO

LOCATION: See Plan
CLIENT:

CONTRACTOR: CHARLES D. JONES INC. ELEVATION: ~02.i

EXPLORATION DATE: 10 Nov '75
EQUIPMENT USED: CASE 580, 318 CUBIC YARD BACKHOE INSPE~OR: smith

SCALE
ME!ERS
STRATA
CMLVGE
SAMPLE
YUMBEU SDy,","
RANGE
DESCRIITION OF MATERIALS REMARKS

Loose dark brown loamy TOPSOIL

0.3
0.3 Yellow-brown fine SAND, (A-3) Walls of pit caving in
from 0.3 - 0.6m

Jar
No.
1
-1-

1.2
1.2
Dark brown-black fine sandy ORGANIC SILT Very strong organic odor
(A-3)

- 2-

2.7
2.7 Slightly cemented gray-brown slightly silty sandy Water entering pit at
coarse to fine GRAVEL (A-1-b) 2.7m
-3-
Bag
No.
1

3.7
3.7
-4- Slightly cemented gray sandy SILT

Refusal a n large boulder at 4.0m

GROUNDWATER PIT DIMENSIONS (ro) SUMMALY

DATE TIME DEPTH M.
4.0 2.0 4.0
~uilns - - - OEPI'H 4,Om
-- lQlLlI75
0.0

2.0 hr
(L) (w) (0) JAR SAMPLES 1

BAC SAMPLES 1
I COBBLES & BOULDEllS
GROUNDWATER 1.4m
6 r m to20cm. No- V o l . Cum
NOTENCOUWIERED Over 20 cm No -Vul Cum. TEST PIT NO. 1
 Figure 2.06.2
Soil Boring Record

EXAMPLE lob No.: 6345

Sheet N o . : I of I
CONTRACTOR: Imcation: Sta 5 + 4W

Elevation: 237.0

Date Start: 5 - 3 - 1406

Date Finish: 8 - 3 - 1406

Attempted 75mm piston sample - no recovery

cobbles, cored 30cm limestone boulder

Overburden Depth Y.5m +

P Piston
Samples Taken 7S, IT, IP, IC
S Split Spoon Lungyear G.15 rotary drill used. Water added to
T Thin Wall facilitate boring from I.Wm, to 5.Mhn.
W Water
J Jar HOLE NO. B5
 Figure 2.06.3
Rock Coring Record

Jah No.: 8718

Sheet No.: 2 of 2

Location: Sta 3 + 650

Elevation: 109.4

Date Start: 16 - 8 - 1406

Date Finish: 17 - 8 - 1406

BIOTITE GNEISS, trace garnet. joints close to very

close, irregular at random angles. several juints parallel to
foliation at 75" weathering decreases with pcnetratian.

Ptlmped 25 ? litlmin into ruck for 30 minutcs (ar

attached teat results)

joints widely spread. semi-planar to irregular at 55" to 75"

with few at 10" to 20". Foliation poorly developed at 55" to

Pumped 0.5 to 2 litlmin. into rock fur 15 minutes. Test

tcrrninated (See attachad teat results)

Bottom of hole

L = Schmidt Hardness Number

Core barrcl 55mm i.d. x 1.5m long

Knife cm.1 wrrtrh

V lilin: Y r1i,x
Ul1lli"lt tn Xrrfch
Thln ('10.c
Mod Hard - tary to untch
Medium i Mild <'lo.c XI I*lm
Dlff grnors ur gouge

Easy proovc or pu,,ge

Y Thick 8 V Wldr
 For all sampling and coring operations: the sampler 0.3m is called the Standard Penetra-
sample and number; the inside diameter, tion Test Blow Count and is usually desig-
outside diameter, and length of the sample nated by the letter N. Blow counts have been
tube; the depth at the start and at the correlatcd to soil properties, and footing and
completion of the sampling drive or push or pile bearing capacity charts have been de-
coring "run"; core recovery (the length of veloped. The results of the test may also be
sample or core recovered to the length of used to describe granular soil density and
sampling drive or push or coring run); and a clayey soil consistency as shown in Tables
complete visual description of each sample or 2.06.6 and 2.06.7 of Appendix 11. However,
core including color. type of material, density it should be noted that the use of N-values to
or consistency of soil, hardness of rocks, describe clayey soil consistency is less reliable
stratification, rock structure, moisture condi- than for granular soil density.
tions, etc. (See Appendix 11). The descrip-
tion should be made immediately following When the test is carried out in granular soils
the retrieval of the sample or core so that it below groundwater level, the soil may be-
represents the "as retrieved" classification. come loosened by the action of the boring
This is particularly important when sampled tools and pressure differences between the
materials tend to break down on exposure. groundwater and water in the boring. It is
The depth at which each stratum begins. essential that the loosening effect be mini-
For drive samples: the weight and height of mized by careful operation of the boring
drop of the hammer, and the number of tools and by keeping the boring topped up
blows required for each 0.15 meters of with water.
penetration of the sampler.
For pressed or pushed samplers: the hyd- Static Cone Penetration Test (MRDTM 240)
raulic pressure required to push the sampler The penetrometer is pushed into the soil
into the -ground and the rate of oenetration. mechanically or by means of a hydraulic
For rock conng: the percentage core recov- feed. Both the cone and sleeve friction
ery and Rock Quality Designation (RQD). resistance can be measured and the results
For more information, see Appendix 11. used to estimate the types of materials
encountered. The vertical distance between
Casing information including the size of the soundings is usually 0.2m, but a continuous
casing; the depth at which casing was added; log can be recorded when an electrically-
the length of casing added; the final depth of operaied cone is used. The SCPT can be used
the bottom of the casing. in most tvoes of soils other than verv dense
~ r o u n d w a t k r information including the sands and gravels and stiff to hard cla>s. It is
depth to water in the hole, recorded daily, at most useful in the coarser, more permeable
the start and close of work. These readings soils such as sand, and provides accurate data
should be continued after completion of the for identifying locations for subsequent soil
hole until the water level in the hole has sampling. SCPT data has been correlated
stabilized. with N values and directly with soil prop-
The date and time of all operations and erties. However, it is always important to
delays. sample critical soils to interpret properly the
SCPT results.
Miscellaneous information which mav aid in
the interpretation of subsurface conditions.
Field Vane Shear Test (MRDTM 227)
This could include the depth at which drilled
water is lost or regained, the amount and This test obtains the in-situ shear strength of
color of the return water, and the depth at weak, fine-grained soils where sampling and
which a change in drilling action occurs. handling techniques would otherwise cause
undue disturbance. The test consists of
5. Field Tests measuring the torque required to fail the
Field Testing can include a wide variety of cylindricai surface area of soil being sheared
methods depe'hding on the type of material to by the vanes, and converting the data to the
be tested and t h e use for which the test results shearing resistance of the soil. This test is
are required. Full descriptions of many of the used when saturated soft to very soft fine-
test methods c a n be found in the Highway grained clayey soils are encountered. Howev-
Materials Manual. er, these materials must be free of silt or sand
laminations, gravel, large shell particles and
Standard Penetratidn Test (MRDTM 224) roots, in order to avoid inaccurate results and
This test is the most widely used of the damage to the vanes. Small hand-operated
dynamic field tests. The test uses a drop vane test inst~.umentsare available for use in
hammer !o drive (: split-barrel scmplcr. The excavations or in the laboratory on undis-
number of blows required to drive the turbed samples.
Pressuremeter Test Variable Head Permeability Test
The pressuremeter consists of two main This test is used to obtain individual per-
portions: a probe and a pressure-volumeter meability determinations and is usually con-
connected by plastic tubes through which ducted in piezometers. The standpipe water
water and gas are applied. Changes in the level is raised or lowered from its equilibrium
applied pressures and volumes are measured, position and readings are taken of water
giving a type of field stress-strain test. Press- levels at periodic intervals as it returns to
uremeter data and more conventional shear equilibrium. Observations of differential
test results for various types of soil can be head and elapsed times are analyzed.
correlated.
Packer Test
StandpipelPiezometric Monitoring This test is used to determine permeability of
(MRDTM 235) individual strata penetrated by borings, and
When it is known or suspected that signifi- may be performed in a cased, open-end
cant seasonal fluctuations in the water table borehold with a single packer or an uncased
could occur, perforated standpipes or piezo- section of borehole with double packers. The
meters should be installed in the borings so rate at which water flows out of the borehole
that the water level can be monitored. under a constant head is measured.
C. Laboratory Work
Pump Test
This test is used for the evaluation of large 1. Laboratory Tests
scale drawdown or dewatering in materials. Some of the more common laboratory tests are
The rate at which water is pumped from a mentioned below. Full descriptions of the test
central test well is measured while the draw- methods may be found in the Highway Mate-
down is observed in a series of piezometers rials Manual.
or observation holes at distances extending
from the test well in radial lines. Gradation, and Atterberg Limits (MRDTM
204, 205, 206, 208, 209)
Static Load Test (MRDTM 234) In addition to the need to classify the
The bearing capacity of soil may be estimated alignment soils, ground investigations for
by means of a static load test. The test will structural foundations should also contain
provide information on the property of the information on the size, shape and gradation
soil only to a depth equal to about two of particles encountered in the borings (see
diameters of the bearing plate and the effect also Appendix 11).
of time is only partly taken into account. The Classification (MRDTM 210)
effect of saturating the soil can be measured
directly. The tests noted above are used to describe
and classify soils for highway construction
Surface Density Test (MRDTM 215) (see also Appendix 11).
This test follows the sand cone density test Moisture Content (MRDTM 203)
procedure. For very rocky or clean gravelly
soils, the field density procedure does not The in-situ moisture content of fine-grained
give completely reliable results. The various soils can be compared with their Atterberg
water balloon test procedures are less accu- Limits in order to assess the condition of
rate than sand density methods and should these soils in place.
not be used unless comparisons for specific Moisture-Density (MRDTM 212)
materials indicate satisfactory results.
Compaction of the earthworks is desired for
Nuclear Density Test (MRDTM 218) three reasons: to decrease future settlement,
This test permits surface or depth measure- to increase shear strength, and to decrease
ment of density or moisture by neutron and permeability. This test determines the opti-
gamma ray emission. The procedure is rapid. mum soil moisture and density for proper soil
convenient, and particularly useful for deter- compaction.
minations in clean, coarse-grained material. For some cohensionless free-draining soils
Results of individual tests may vary signifi- MRDTM 212 will not produce a well defined
cantly from those obtained by conventional moisture-density relationship curve. In these
methods, but the average of a large number cases, the maximum density should be
of tests made by either method should agree. obtained by the relative density test,
Subsurface Density Determinations MRDTM 214.
Satisfactory density determinations can be Certain lypes of soil, particularly dune sand,
determined from undisturbed samples of will exhibit a maximum dry density close to
fine-grained cohesive soils from test boring. or at zero moisture content. "Dry" compac-
tion (see 1-1.16.D.3) may then be appropri- the sample sheared under undrained con-
ate and should be thoroughly investigated. ditions. The applied stress induces pore
water pressures (which are measured), and
California Bearing Ratio (MRDTM 213) the effective stress is then determined as
This test procedure evaluates the relative the total applied stress less the pore water
quality of subgrade soils under varying condi- pressure. The test is repeated under a total
tions of compaction at optimum moisture of, normally, three different cell pressures,
content by pushing a piston into prepared soil thus allowing the shear strength para-
at a standard rate and measuring the resisting meters to be determined either in terms of
force. The Cday soaked CBR value can then effective stresses or total stresses.
be interpolated for the level of compaction to
be specified. - Consolidated Drained
The sample is allowed to consolidate under
b s Angeles Abrasion (MRDTM 309)
a predetermined cell pressure until the
This test evaluates the relative resistance to excess pore pressure reaches zero. The
abrasion of coarse aggregate. Samples of sample is then sheared, usually, by ap-
crushed gravel or rock conforming to speci- plying a vertical stress at such a low rate of
fied gradations are required. strain that any pore pressures induced in
the sample are completely dissipated. The
Soundness of Aggregate (MRDTM 311) effective stresses are consequently equal to
The potential for aggregates to break down the applied stresses.
due to weathering action is assessed in this
test. Samples of crushed gravel or rock are Direct Shear (MRDTM 233)
immersed in a solution of sodium sulphate or This test is sometimes performed instead of
magnesium sulphate and subjected to a other shear tests, particularly for recom-
number of wetting and drying cycles. pacted, non-cohesive soi!s. It is important to
remember that direct shear test results may
Specific Gravity and Absorption (MRDTM be less reliable than those obtained from the
304 and 305) triaxial shear tests, since the failure plane in
The bulk and apparent specific gravities of the direct shear test is predetermined.
coarse and fine aggregates and absorption
are determined in these tests. Unconfined Compression (MRDTM 229)
Sulfate C o ~ t e n t(MRDTM 318) The unconfined compression test of a soil is a
uniaxial compression test in which the test
Test methdd MRDTM 318 determines the specimen is provided with no lateral support
amount of water-soluble sulfates in coarse while undergoing vertical compression. The
and fine aggregates. Test methods described test measures the unconfined compressive
in British Standard BSS 1377 may be used to strength of a cylinder of cohesive or semi-
determine the sulfate content of soil and cohesive soil and is usually performed on an
groundwater. undisturbed sample of soil at its natural
moisture content. It may also be performed
Chloride Content (MRDTM 319) on a remolded sample, to evaluate the
This test determines the amount of water- consequences of disturbance and remolding.
soluble calcium, magnesium and sodium
chlorides in coarse and fine aggregates. Consolidation (MRDTM 230)
This test is used to determine the rate and
Triaxial Shear (MRDTM 232)
amount of consolidation of a material over
The triaxial test is the most versatile of all the which a foundation or embankment is to be
common shearing tests since the pore water placed. The consolidation parameters are in
pressure within the soil sample can be con- turn used to compute predicted settlements.
trolled and measured. The test determines Results of consolidation tests are significant
the shear strength parameters c (cohesion) only for fine-grained soils (silts and clays).
and 0 (angle of internal friction) from which Since the amount of tolerable settlement is
the shear strength of the soil can be com- known for most structures, the results of
puted. Test procedures commonly used are: these tests may be used in the choice of a safe
foundation design, as well as to evaluate the
- Consolidated Undrained effect of adjacent fill loads. High quality,
The sample is allowed to consolidate under undisturbed samples are needed for con-
a pre-determined cell pressure until the solidation tests. Special tests using the same
excess pore water pressure reaches zero. apparatus may be used to assess collapsing or
The drainage connection is then closed and swelling phenomena (MRDTM 228).
Permeability (MRDTM 239) cohesive soils can be determined from a
Laboratory determination of the pcrmeabil- falling head permeability test. or from the
ity of granular soils can be measured by results of the consolidation test
means of the constant head test (MRDTM (MRDTM 230).
239), whilst the permeability of fine-grained
THIS PAGE IS BLANK
 APPENDIX I1

SOIL & ROCK

DESCRIPTION & CLASSIFICATION

A. General Material Characteristics

Because soil and rock deposits around the world - Color
are infinitely varied, it is not possible to create a - Particle shape, composition, and grading
universal system of description and classifica-
- Soil name (in capitals, e.g. SAND)
tion for dividing soils and rocks into various
groups and subgroups on the basis of all their - Soil group symbol
visual and physical properties. However, useful Examples:
systems based on a small number of properties
have been devised. Some of these systems are in - Firm fissured ycllowish-brown CLAY (CH)
common use and those that are recommended - Dense yellow fine SAND (SM) with thin
are detailed here, although it should bc kept in lenses of soft grey silty clay (CL)
mind that there is no available system that can
describe adequately soil or rock for all engineer- Any additional information that would be of
ing applications. value in assessing the nature and properties of
the soil should also be included at a suitable

a B. Soil
1. Soil Description
Soil descriptions are necessary for all test pit
point in the description.
a) Mass Characteristics
These are the characteristics that depend on the
and boring logs (see Table 2.06.5). The descrip- structure and can therefore only be observed or
tions should be standardized so that the main measured in the field or from undisturbed
characteristics are given in the same order, i.e.: samples.

Mass Characteristics Field Strength

- Field strength or compactness and an indica- The scale for strength estimated in the field is
tion of moisture content, if appropriate. given in Table 2.06.5. A scale for silts and
- Bedding clays in terms of unconfined compressive
strength is given in Tablc ?.Oh.(>. A very
- Discontinuities approximate correlation with Standard
- State of Weathering Penetration Tcbt N-Value is also given.

Table 2.06.6
Unconfined Compressive Strength of Silts & Clays

Term Unconfined Compressive Strength SET N-Value

kPa psf

Very Soft < 25 < 500 0-2

Soft 25 - 50 500 - 1000 2-4
Firm 50 - 100 1000 - 2000 4-8
Stiff 100 - 200 2000 - 4000 8-15
Very Stiff 200 - 400 4000 - 8000 15 - 30
Hard > 400 > 8000 > 30
 The relative density of sands and gravels may Form equidimensional
be estimated by the Standard Penetration flat
Test. A scale in terms of N-Value is given in elongated
Table 2.06.7 below: flat and elongated
irregular
Table 2.06.7 Surface Texture rough
Relative Density of Sands smooth
Term SPT N-Value The composition of the particles visible to the
naked eye may be given, e.g. sandstone,
Very Loose 0-4 limestone. Particles may be coated with
Loose .1 - I0 mineral matter, e.g. calcite, and salt crystals
Medium Dense 10 - 30 may be present, e.g. gypsum.
Dense 30 - 50
Soil Name
Very Dense > 50
Table 2.06.5 sets out the basis for the
identification of soils. It will be seen that,
Bedding excluding cobbles and boulders, where a soil
The scale of bedding spacing is given in Table contains more than 35% of fine materials, it
2.06.5. If beds of alternating soil types are is described as a clay or silt. With less than
too thin to be described individually, the soil 35% of fine matcrial, it is described as a sand
may be described as interbedded e.g. or gravel. For composite coarse soil types,
"SAND interbedded with SILT", the first the terms are as follows:
soil type being dominant. Where two or more Composition of
soil types are present in a deposit, arranged Term Coarse Fraction
in an irregular manner, the soils may be
described as intermixed, e.g. "SAND inter- slightly sandy GRAVEL up to 5% sand
mixed with SILT". sandy GRAVEL 5 - 20% sand
very sandy GRAVEL over 20% sand
0 Discontinuities
GRAVEL 1 SAND roughly equal sand and
Discontinuity types include bedding planes, gravel portions
joints, fissures, faults and shear planes. The
very gravelly SAND over 20% gravel
spacing scale is given in Table 2.06.5. Their
openness and surface texture should be gravelly SAND 5 - 20% gravel
described (e.g. rough, smooth, polished, slightly gravelly SAND up to 5% gravel
slickensided) and, where possible, their The gravel and sand particle size ranges can
orientation. be subdivided into coarse, medium and fine,
State of Weathering and well-graded or poorly graded (see Table
Weathering states include decomposed (i.e. 2.06.5).
the original material fabric is still intact but Term Composition of
some or all of the mineral grains are decom- Very Coarse Fraction
posed) and disintegrated (i.e. as for decom- BOULDERS 50% greater than 2Wmm
0 % of material
posed but the mineral grains are not decom- greater than COBBI.ES 50% between 60mm and
posed). These may be qualified by using such 60mm 200 mm
terms as "slightly", "completely", etc., as
appropriate. BOULDERS may be qualified as "cobbly".
and COBBLES as "bouldery".
b) Material Characteristics
Soil Group Symbol
These are the characteristics that can be de- As a general guide, it is recommended that
scribed from either visual or manual examina- the Unified Soil Classification System
tion of either disturbed or undisturbed samples. (USCS) symbols (see Table 2.06.8) be used
Color in connection with soil descriptions for
foundations, and that the AASHTO symbols
Suggested color names are given in Table (see Tables 2.06.9 and 2.06.10) be used in
2.06.5. connection with soil descriptions for ear-
Particle Shape and Composition thworks.
Some recommended terms are as follows:
2. Unified Soil Classification System
Angularity angular
subangular The essence of this system and its nomenclature
subrounded is given in Table 2.06.8. The system divides soils
rounded into coarse-grained (having more than 50%
THIS PAGE 1s RI.ANK
retained on the No. 200 (.075mm) sieve and based on the laboratory determination of parti-
fine-grained (more than 50% passing this cle size distribution and Atterberg limits is fully
sieve). The coarse-grained materials are given described in MRDTM 210, (see also Tables
the symbol G if more than 50% of the coarse 2.06.9 and 2.06.10). The system divides soils
fraction is retained on the No. 4 (4.75mm) and soil-aggregate mixtures into granular mate-
sieve, and the symbol S if more than 50% of this rials (having 65% or more retained on the
fraction lies between the No. 4 and No. 200 No. 200 sieve and silt-clay materials (having
sieves. Soils that have more than 50% of the more than 35% passing this sieve). The classi-
fine fraction are subdivided into silts and clays fication is useful in determining the relative
depending on their Atterberg limits. quality of soil-aggregate material for use in
earthworks, particularly subgrades and
3. AASHTO Soil Classification System embankments.
The AASHTO procedure for classifying soils
and soil-aggregate mixtures into seven groups
Table 2.06.8
Unified Soil Classification System
 Table 2.06.9
AASHTO Classification of Soils and Soil-Aggregate
Mixtures
Granular Materials SilCClay Mate&
General Classification
(35% or less passing 0.WSmm) (More than 35% passing 0.075mm)

Group Classification A-1 A-3. A-2 A-4 A-5 A-6 A-7

Sieve Analysis
Percent Passing:
2.00mm (No. 10) - - - - - - -
0.425mm (No. 40) 50 m a . 51 min. - - - - -
0.075mm (No. 200) 25 m a . 10 m a . 35 max. 36 min. 36 min. 36 min. 36 min.
Characteristics of Fraction
Passing 0.425mm
(No. 40)
Liquid Limit - - b 40 max. 41 min. 40 m a . 41 min.
Plasticity Index 6 max. N.P. b 10 max. 10 max. 11 min. 11 min.

General Rating as
Subgrade Excellent to Good Fair to Poor

'The Placing of A-3 Before A-2 is Necessary in the "Left t o Right Elimination Process" and Does Not Indicate Superiority of A-3
Over A-2.
bSee Table 2.06.10.

Table 2.06.10
AASHTO Classification of Soils and Soil-Aggregate
Mixtures

Characteristics of Fraction
Passing 0.425 mrn
(No. 40)
Liquid Limit - - 40 man. 41 min. 40 mar. 41 min. 40 mar. 41 min. 40 mar. 41 min.
Plasticity Index 6 mar. N.P. 10 max. 10 max. 11 min. 11 min. 10 mar. 10 mar. 11 min. 11 min.

Usual Types of Stone Fragments. Rne

Significant Constituent Gravel and Sand Silty or Clayey Gravel and Sand Silly Soils Clayey Soils
Sand
Materials
General Rating as
Subgrade Excellent to G w d Fair to Poor
C. Rock Grained tectable with naked eye; to
2.5mrn (0.1 in.)
1. General
Coals- - Mineral grains between
Classification of rock is an essential part of the Grained 2.5mm (0.1 in.) and 6mm
geotechnical information needed for thc dcsign (0.25 in.)
and construction of any part of a highway Very Coarse- - Particles greater than 6mm
project which will be built in rock. In additiun Grained (0.25 in.)
to the definition of each separate geologic unit
in field mapping, each rock typ;. must be traced Lithology - Rocks are classically divided into
in surface outcrop ant1 cstinlated i n occurrcncc three general categories; igneous,
were geologic contact5 are riot directly obscrv- sedimentary and metamorphic. The most
able. The classifications apply to both surfacc conspicuous fcature of most igneous rocks is
excavations in rock and to underground con- texture which forms one of the bases on
struction such as tunnels. Rock classilicatio~lfor which igneous rocks are classified. in addi-
engineering purposes consists of two basic tion to mineralogy arid genetic occurrence.
assessments; that for intact character. such as Sedimentary rocks are classified on the basis
can be obtained from a hand specimen or small of grain size and on the relationship between
fragment; and that for in-situ char;~cter:which grains. The most conspicuous features of
classify the engineering features of rock masses. metan~orphic rocks are gcncrally their
structural features, especially foliation. The
lntact character: classification of the intact complete name of a rock should include
rock, such as hand specimens or core, as to color, texture, alteration if any, accessory
its origin, geologic formational identity, minerals, and lithologic name. In most cases,
mineralogical makeup, character of internal the classification of a rock in the field should
fabric, and degree and nature of chemical be checked in the laboratory with a petrog-
and physical weathering or alteration. raphic analysis.
In-situ character: classification of the rock
mass in-place as to the nature and degree of Field Hardness - Field hardness is deter-
its constituent interlocking blocks, plates, or mined by striking or scratching the rock
wedges formed by bounding discontinuities outcrop or rock core. Field hardness is a
such as foliation planes, joints, shear planes, qualitative assessment of the general integri-
shear zones and faults. ty of intact rock, that is, the hardness of
individual mineral grains and the relative
2. Classification of lntact Rock strength by which the grains are bonded
together.
Classification of intact rock is generally done
visually, although there may be circumstances Field hardness assessments are usually in-
where additional laboratory examination or cluded in outcrop station notes in the geolo-
testing is necessary. gical field book and are also made a part of
boring log descriptions:
Color - When describing color, use only
common colors such as gray, brown, green, Very Hard - Cannot be scratched by
erc., or simple combinations of these such as knife or sharp pick. Break-
yellow-brown. Also, degree of color such as ing of hand specimens re-
light vs. dark should be employed. For quires several hard blows ot
special purposes, the Munsell Soil Color the geologist's pick.
Charts may be specified giving hue. value,
and chroma numbers as the basis of the Hard - Can be scratched with knife
description. Munsell colors are quite useful or pick only with difficulty.
in working with severely weathered rock. Hard hammer blows re-
quired to detach a hand
Texture - Terminology used to identify size, specimen.
shape and arrangement of the constituent Moderately - Can be scratched by knife
elements: e.g.. porphyritic, glassy, amygda- Hard or pick. Gouges or grooves
loidal, etc. Where applicable, the following to 6mm (0.25 in.) deep can
size classification is utilized: be excavated by hand blow
Aphanitic - Constituent mineral grains of point of a geologist's
too small to be seen with pick. Hand specimens can
naked eye. be detached by moderate
blows.
Fine- - Constituent mineral grains Medium - Can be grooved or gouged
Grained barely detectable with
1.5mm(0.05in.)deep by firm
naked eye.
pressure of knife or pick
Medium- - Mineral grains barely de- point. Can be excavated in
 small chips to pieces about rocks ring under hammer
25mm (1 in.) maximum size blows.
by hard blows of the point Moderate - Significant portions of rock
of a geologist's pick. show discoloration and
Soft - Can be gouged or grooved weathering effects. In grani-
readily by knife or pick. toid rocks, most feldspars
Can be excavated in frag- arc dull and discolored,
ments from chips to several some show clay. Rock has
centimeters in size by mod- dull sound under hammer
erate blows of a pick point. blows and shows significant
Small, thin pieces can be loss of strength as compared
broken by finger pressure. with fresh rock.
Very Soft - Can be carved with knife. Moderately - All rock except quartz is
Can be excavated readily Severe discolored or stained. In
with point of pick. Pieces granitoid rocks, all feldspars
25mm or more in thickness are dull and discolored and
can be broken by finger a majority show kaoliniza-
pressure. Can be scratched tion. Rock shows severe
readily by fingernail. loss of strength and can be
excavated with geologist's
The Schmidt Hammer Test is often used in
pick. Rock gives "clunk"
the field as a measure of rock hardness. The
sound when struck.
Schmidt Hardness Test should be considered
a laboratory test procedure and when used in Severe - All rock except quartz is
the field. it should incorporate all of the discolored or stained. Rock
specified laboratory test conditions. fabric is clear and evident
hut reduced in strength to
Weathering - Weathering and chemicai al- strong soil. In granitoid
teration are important aspects of rock classi- rocks, all feldspars are
fication that can affect both intact and in-situ kaolinized to some extent.
rock properties. In the earliest stages, weath- Some fragments of strong
ering is manifested by discoloration of intact rock usually remain.
rock and only slight changes in rock texture.
With time. significant changes in rock hard- Very Severe - All rock except quartz is
ness, strength, compressibility and per- discolored or stained. Rock
meability occur and the rock mass is altered fabric elements are discerni-
until the rock is reduced to soil. Alteration ble but the mass is effective-
may occur as zones and pockets, and can be ly reduced to soil status,
found at depths far below that of normal rock with only fragments of
weathering. Weathering and alteration can strong rock remaining.
be classified as part of the rock core descrip- Saprolite is an example of
tion: rock weathered to a degree
such that only minor ves-
Fresh - Rock fresh, crystals bright. tiges of the original rock
few joints may show slight fabric remain.
staining. Rock rings under
hammer if crystalline. Complete - Rock is reduced to soil.
Very Slight - Rock generally frcsh. joints rock fabric is not discerni-
stained, some joints may ble. or discernible only in
show thin clay coating if small and scattered concen-
open. crystals on a broken trations. Quartz may be
specimen face shine bright- present as dikes or strin-
ly. Rock rings under ham- gers. Saprolite is also an
mer blows if of a crystalline example.
nature. Voids - Open spaces in the subsurface are
Slight - Rock generally fresh, joints generally due to removal of rock materials by
stained and discoloration chemical dissolution or the action of running
extends into rock up to water. Since most of these voids result from
25mm (1 in.). Open joints the action of groundwater, the openings are
may contain clay. In grani- usually elongate in the horizontal plane. As
toid rocks some occasional in weathering classification, voids can be
feldspar crystals are dull related either to intact properties or to in-situ
and discolored. Crystalline rock properties, depending on their size:
 Pit - Voids barely seen with the photography. Correiation of test
naked eye, to 6mm. boring results with nearby rock
vug - Voids 6 to 50mm (0.25 to outcrops can be very useful for
2 in.) in diameter. estimating strike. A quantitative
Cavity expression for dip is given below.
- 50 to 600mm (2 to 24 in.) in
diameter.
Cave - Voids 600mm (24 in.) and -
DIP ANGLE
larger in diameter. Horizontal 0" 5"-

Shallow or low angle 5" - 35"

Miscellaneous Features Include any addi-
-
Moderately dipping 35" - 55"
tional characteristics to further identify and
Steep or high angle 55" - 85"
evaluate the rock from the standpoint of Vertical 85" - 90"
intact properties such as secondary miner-
alization, fossils, and swelling and slaking Spacing - The spacing refers to the perpen-
properties. dicular distance between adjacent
discontinuities and should be de-
3. Classification of In-situ Rock scribed as follows:
Structural elements of the rock mass should be Fracture! Spacing Foliation or Bedding
assessed in an attempt to define the overall
engineering characteristics of the mass. Discon- Very dole Less than 5 cm I2 in.) V. Thin
tinuities are the major elements of in-situ Close 5 - 3 0 cm (2-12 in.) Thin
classification. These fractures should be de- Moderately dose 30 - 103 m (I to 3 h.) Medium
scribed in terms of frequency, spacing, rough- Wide I - 3 0 (3 - 10 8.) Thick
ness, bonding quality and general continuity. Very ulde Mare than 3m (10 h.) V, Thick
Geologic Discontinuities: Geologic discon- Tightness - The degree of closure of the
tinuities are surfaces that represent breaks or opposing faces of the dis-
fractures which separate the rock mass into continuity. The following
discrete units. terminology should be em-
ployed when describing
Joint A simple fracture along
-
tightness: Tight, Open,
which no shear displace- Healed.
ment has occurred. May
occur with parallel joints to Planarity - Relative smoothness of the
form part of a joint set. surface of the discontinuity,
Shear Plane - A fracture along which dif- for example: Smooth,
Wavy, Irregular.
ferential movement has
taken place parallel to the Regularity - The surface of the discon-
surface sufficient to produce tinuity may be plane,
slickenside, striations or curved or irregular on a
polishing. May be accompa- large scale and I or slick,
nied by a zone of fractured smooth or rough on a small
rock up to a few inches scale.
wide. Continuity - Continuity is an expression
Fault - A major fracture along of the lateral extension of
which there has been the discontinuity, as mea-
appreciable displacement sured or projected along
and accompanied by gouge strike and dip.
and I or a severely fractured D~xontinuous 0 - 15m (0 - 5 8.)
adjacent zone of rock. Slightly continuous 1.5 - 3m (5 - I0 h.)
Shear Zone - A band or zone of parallel, Cnnrinuous 3.13~1 (10 - W h.)
closely spaced planar breaks Ilighly conrinuous More than 13 m (40 8.) or more
and associated broken Filling - This refers to the nature of
(brecciated) rock and
the material, if any, in the
gouge.
space between adjacent sur-
faces of the discontinuity.
Attitude - Attituderefers to the orientation The filling material may
of a discontinuity in space in consist of weathered or hyd-
terms of strike and dip. Strike rothermally altered pro-
cannot be obtained from rock ducts, secondarl mineral
core without special techniques precipitates, mylonite or
such as oriented core or borehole gouge. The mineralogy,
 thickness and hardness of the RQD. Fractures due to drilling and
fill material should be de- handling of the rock core must be dis-
scribed. counted.
Rock Quality Designation (RQD): Rock RQD is most frequently calculated for NX-
Quality Designanon (RQD) is an evaluation size core or larger. The core is typically
of the frequency of occurrence of discon- obtained with double-tube core barrels. Use
tinuities in a rock mass. In general, RQD is of smaller diameter cores and single-tube
defined as the total length of core segments core barrels can severely penalize rock core
equal to or greater than 10 cm (4 in.) in quality as a measure of in-situ rock mass
length recovered from a borehole divided by quality and should not be utilized for RQD
the total length of core run. This value is determinations.
expressed as a percent. Rock Quality De- Rock assigned a weathering classification of
signation is determined as described in a moderately severe, severe or very severe
qualitative description of rock quality given should not be included in the determination
below: of RQD, regardless of length.
Rock Mass Description RQD RQD measurements assume that core recov-
Excellent 90 - 100 ery is at, or near 100 percent. As core
Good recovery varies from 100 percent, explana-
75 - 90
tory notes may be required to describe the
Fair 50 - 75
Poor 25 - 50 reason for the variation, and the effect on
Very Poor Less than 25 RQD. In some cases, RQD will have to be
determined on the basis of the total length of
Only natural fractures such as joints or shear rock core recovered, rather than on the
planes should be considered when calculating length of rock cored.
 APPENDIX I11

HAZARDS

A. General 2. Cavities
This appendix gives details of some of the Cavitie~can be a common feature in limestone
common geotechnical hazards faced by road formations. During the Quaternary period, the
designers in the Kingdom. More detailed in- sea level in the Arabian gulf fell in a series of
formation may be obtained from the references steps to about 120m below present-day level
given in the bibliography. The geotechnical and in the late Pleistocene, these low sea levels
engineer must always be wary of other potential were accompanied by h ~ g hrainfall. Apart from
hazards since those listed here may not be the limestone itself, the limestone formations
exhaustive. can include gypsum and anhydrite interlayers
which are also soluble in water, causing slump-
B. Typical Hazards ing of the limestone structure and resulting in
1. Sabkha collapse breccia, fractures, and solution cavi-
ties. These cavities may be hollow or filled with
Salt encrusted flat surfaces, known as "sab- materials, the latter generally in a loose state.
kha", are common in the coastal and some
inland areas of the Kingdom. Sabkhas are Cavities have been reported in many limestone
generally evaporite formations, either from sea formations in Eastern and Central Saudi Ara-
invasion or from seepage of moisture from bia. The size of the cavities can range from a
low-lying inland areas. In both cases, varying few centimeters to many meters and can
quantities of calcium and magnesium carbon- obviously pose serious foundation problems,
ate, calcium sulphate, and calcium, magnesium particularly for structures. The cavities them-
and sodium chlorides are found. The deposits selves may initiate sinkhole development in the
generally comprise cemented and uncemented overlying rock and soil layers.
layers of sand, silt and clay of varying thickness
and properties. The groundwater table is nor- Identification and location of cavities is often a
mally quite shallow, at most one or two meters matter of chance, the most common field
below ground level. In order to avoid capillary observation being a sudden loss in drilling water
rise of the groundwater table into the subgrade, during the course of boring, or a sudden
road pavements are usually constructed on advancement of the drill string. Rock excava-
embankment. The use of a granular subbase or tions in nearby geologically similar formations
a granular capillary-break layer may also be should be examined during the course of site
adviseable. inspections to check for the presence of cavities
and voids. If cavities are suspected, then it may
Road construction problems most commonly be prudent to extend the exploratory boreholes
associated with sabkha are the stability and several meters below the intended foundation
settlement of embankments and the presence of level, or to specify rock drill probing at the base
a chemical regime aggressive to buried concrete of the footings during the course of construc-
(see "Deleterious Minerals"). tion.

Stability and settlement will be a function of the Stabilization by grouting may be necessary to
strength and thickness of the underlying sabkha avoid possible collapse caused by the increase in
and can be particularly problematic if the soil is stress due to imposed foundation loads. Alter-
a soft fine-grained material of appreciable natively, it may be possible to lower the
thickness. The ground investigation should be founding level below the cavitied zone or to
designed to ensure that the variation in thick- span the voids with a continuous or raft founda-
ness is properly established and that field and tion. Where grouting is specified, detailed
laboratory procedures enable accurate strength records of the drilling of the grout holes and of
and consolidation parameters to be evaluated. the grout take must be maintained in order to
assess the effectiveness of the grouting opera-
Methods of overcoming potential embankment tion.
instability might include flattening the side
3. Collapsing Soils
slopes, inclusion of berms, and staged construc-
tion; whilst methods of overcoming potential Soils which are susceptible to a large decrease in
long-term embankment settlement might in- void ratio at constant pressure upon wetting are

8 clude removal or partial removal of the soft

mrteria:, installatic, of i e r t i i d d r h ; ~ ,a~i d ,' 01
preloading.
termed collapsing soils. Collapsing soils may be
luu~rdin marly par is u i the worlci where h e r e is
a long dry season and where the water table is at
great depth. The most common collapsing soil is conditions with the overburden pressure in the
loess, a wind blown deposit composed primarily field.
of silt-sized material.
A field plate loading test, during which satura-
The collapse phenomenon requires an open tion is allowed to occur, may also give useful
partially saturated fabric, a high external stress, data.
and a strong clay binder or ccmenting agent to
stabilize the soil structure. When the soil is Foundations located in areas of collapsing soils
soaked, collapse occurs as a result of the may need to be taken below the potential zone
removal of soil suction, the weakening of clay of collapse, either in deep excavati.~n or on
bridges between grains, or the removal of a piles. Alternat~vecorrective measures include
soluble cementing agent. dynamic compaction, compaction by rollers,
and flooding.
Collapsing soils have been reported in numer-
ous parts of the Kingdom. Whilst there I.- no 4. Expansive Soils
standard procedures to identify collapsing soils, Most clay soils have a potential for swelling
typical features likely to be recorded during the (and shrinking) upon a change in moisture
course of a ground investigation are sandy or content. Factors affecting the potential for swell
clayey silts with a high voids ratio (usually include mineral composition, gradation, field
greatcr than 1.0), a low dry density (less than moisture content, density, state of stress and
about 80 - 855: of the maximum Proctor dry availability of water. The potential volume
density). and a high Standard Penetration Test change is much more pronounced in an arid
blow count in the range of 20 to 60 blows I ft. environment. Typical expansive soils are stiff to
Where collapsing soils are suspected, laboratory hard fine-grained deposits with high liquid
procedures should include a special consolida- limits and high plasticity indices. Expansive
tion test in which water is only added at a soils have been reported in numerous parts of
predctermined stress level in the loading cycle. the Kingdom. There are a number of classifica-
The degree of collapse may he "very qualita- tion systems commonly used to predict the
tively" assessed according to the collapse poten- swelling potential of clay soils (see MRDTM
tial ( ~ p given
) in ~ ~ 2.06.11,
b l ~ c p is 228 and Figure 2.06.4) and these require know-
defined as the volulne change at 200 kpa upon ledge of the Atterberg limits and the percentage
.J"'I""1I'.
.,...L;..~ clav fraction. Simple laboratory tests to deter-
Table 2.06.11
. .
mine these pro~erties should be conducted
where the occurrence of expansive soils is
Qualitative Assessment of suspected. For a more detailed study, the
Collapse Potential mineral composition can be ascertained by
means of Differential Thermal Analysis or
Collapse Potential (CPi Yo Severity of Problem X-ray Diffraction techniques. Swelling press-
ures and deformations can be predicted from
0-1 Nu problem
the results of special consolidation tests (see
1-5 Moderate trouhle MRDTM 228). However, an increase in mois-
5 - 10 'l'rr~ublc
ture content sufficient to induce swelling may
10 - 20 Severe tmuhle
arise from either natural or artificial causes, and
20 + \:dry scvcre trouble
considerable engineering judgement and field
experience is often necessary to judge whether
or not swelling is likely to occur.
A laboratory assessment technique, utilizing
the oedometer test also, has becn advocated to Foundation problems associated with swelling
evaluate the effect of both wctting and loading soils may be overcome by strengthening the
at various stress levels. This is currently called supporting structure to accommodate move-
the "double consolidometer" technique. This ment, or by taking the foundation down below
technique consists of running concurrently two the zone of potential swell either in deep
consolidometer tests on samples of the samc excavation or on piles. However, considerable
soil. Tine first is conducted at natural moisture uplift forces are induced in such piles because of
content with a rubber cover over the consolido- the action of the swelling, and, in addition,
mctcr and with special nonabsorbent porous special measures may be necessary to prevent
discs. The second test is conducted as a conven- direct contact between the substructure and the
tional consolidation test with water in the expansive soils. Roads on expansive soils may
confining dam around the sample. A geometric- need to be constructed on non-expansive
al approach is proposed to superimpose the embankment material to ensure that the varia-
consolidation (c- log p) curves from both tests tion in moisture content of the original near-
to indicate the effect of saturation, by assuming subsurface soils is minimized, or, alternatively,
that no volume change may occur due to the use of membrances and lime treatment
changes in moisture content under equilibrium (MRDTM 228) may need to be considered.
5. Groundwater ground investigation might also include
measurement of the field permeability in order
Groundwater problems will arise from two to evaluate different dewatering techniques.
distinct causes, man-made and natural. High Alternatively, a construction sequence whereby
groundwater tables affecting the construction of deep excavations are carried out in the summer
highway projects will normally be located in months may mitigate any special precautions
wadi or sabkha deposits. In agricultural and being necessary.

Fig. 2.06.4. Classification Chart for Swelling Potential

Percent Clay Sizes (finer than 0.002 mm)

urban areas, however, perched near-surface Where groundwater levels are likely to affect
groundwater tables are not uncommon, caused foundation excavations, the benefits of raising
by irrigation and leakage of water networks and the founding level, changing the foundation
sewzrage systems. type (such as piles), or dewatering in open
excavation or within a coffer dam, should be
Annual groundwater level fluctuations may be assessed.
quite large, particularly in wadi deposits. and in
these cases, it may be advisable to install 6. Seismicity
piezometers in the borings in order to monitor Seismic events have been recorded in the
the fluctuations. Field procedures during the Arabian Peninsula for as long as man has kept
records of the region. In 640 A . D . , Madinah individual grains (usually less than O.lmm
was shaken by an earthquake; 600 years later, diameter) suspended in the airstream giving rise
towns in the Hijaz were almost destroyed, and to dust storms.
in 1983, a severe earthquake occurred in North
Yemen resulting in numerous deaths arid exten- Saltation usually commences at a threshold
sive damage to property. wind velocity of 24 kph and its movement by
which the grains, unable to remain in true
The Arabian Peninsula is located on a single suspension, fall to the ground and rebound, or
tectonic plate, the Arabian Plate. This plate is eject other grains from the surfacc that in turn
moving in a north to north-easterly direction, fall to the ground. Most saltation takcs place
resulting in movement away from the African within 30cm of the ground surface, the prc-
Plate where basalt is intruded forming new dominant grain sizes involved being in the range
crystal matcrial along the axis of the Red Sea, O.lmm to 0.5mm.
and a movement towards the Eurasian and
Iranian Plater resulting in the formation of the Sand grains in the range 0.5m1n to 2.0mm that
Tauros and Zagros chain of mountains. are too large for movement by saltation but can
gain momentum from the impact of saltating
The greatcst number of seismic events has been particles, and. to a lesser extent, directly by the
recorded along the west coast, and the proxim- wind itself. This type of movement is known as
ity of the plate margin and intraplate events in creep. The ratio of sand moving in suspension,
this region contributed to the seismic predomi- saltation and creep is usually in the order of
nance of this area. By contrast, the central and 5:75:20, respectively.
eastern provinces do not display recent intra-
plate activity, and plate margin activity to the Gravitational sliding is a form of creep occur-
north: east. and south, although considerable, ring primarily in dune areas, and is characte-
does not appear to have a significant effect rized by the gradual sloughing of the face of thc
within the Kingdom. dune when the accuniulation at the crest ex-
ceeds the angle of repose.
A seismic map is given in Figure 2.06.5 which
shows predicted peak horizontal ground accel- Where wind-blown sand is anticipated as a
eration contours. However, since recent studies potential hazard, studies should be initiated
suggest the possibility of active faulting within such as a detailed comparison of historical aerial
the plate margin, and since the presence of such photography to assess the magnitude and direc-
faults could result in substantial localized mod- tion of movement and areas likely to be
ifications to the contours, the map is given for affected, assessment of the magnitude of the
general guidance .only. windspeed and predominant wind direction or
Details of seismic design considerations to be directions, and field inspections.
taken into account in the design of bridges is Methods of overco~ningwind-blown sand prob-
given in the AASHTO Guide Specifications for lems include avoidance, strcamlining, stabiliza-
Seismic Design of I-Iighway Bridges, 1983. I n tion, destruction, and diversion (see also Sec.
areas where the predicted peak acceleration 1-1.16 and Highway Maintenance Manual Sec.
coefficient evcccds 0.09g, the liquefaction 5-13),
potential uf saturated cohesionless foundation
soils must be assessed. This assessment is Avoidance of mobile wind-blown sand areas is
~iormaliy based on empirical methods using an obvious solution but may not he practicable.
Kclative Density or Standard Penetration Test Streamlining of the highway profile will keep
blow counts, or on analytical methods based on the sand moving in saltation and an elevated
a lahoratory determination of the liquefaction alignment will cause the wind to accelerate
strength ch;~racteristicso f undisturbed samples. across the road (see Exhibit 1-16.04). Cuttings
Where foundation soils are susceptible to li- should be discouraged, but where these are
quefaction, then measures such as densification essential, the side slopes should be formed at a
by deep compaction or the use of long ductile shallow gradient (see Exhibit 1-16.05).
vertical steel piles should be considered. Stabilization techniques comprise two distinct
7. Wind Blown Sands types; those which reduce the surface wind
Large areas of the K~ngdomare covered by velocity below the threshold for movement and
mobile and wind-blown sands, the major thereby cause sand deposition (porous fences.
occurrences being shown in Figure 1.16.1. Sand vegetation) (see Exhibits 1-16.01 to 1-16.03),
movement occurs in four ways; suspension, and those which stabilize the surface by creating
saltation. creep, and gra\,itational sliding. cohesion between the grains (oils, elastic po-
lymers, chemical bonding agents). The first type
Suspension is probably the most conspicuous require periodic maintenance due to continued
and best known means of sand movement sand deposition; the second type, if properly
whereby the wind velocity is sufficient to keep designed. will require little or no maintenance.
Destruction of sand dunes can be accomplished react with all four cement components.
by removal by mechanical means, or by dif-
ferential oiling. Differential oiling is achieved Calcium chloride is often used as an additive to
by oiling strips parallel to the prevailing wind accelerate the cement setting time. The
and thus destabilizing the dune and causing its mechanism by which acceleration is effected is
destruction. attributed mainly to the increased rate of
hydration of thc calcium silicate. At high
Diversion fences are sometimes used to protect concentrations, the expanded compounds
small projects such as minor buildings. Sand formed by chloride reactions with the cement
accrual usually takes place over a period of time can result in cracked and weakened concrete.
and periodic maintenance is required. Diver-
sion fences are unlikely to be warranted for Calcium and sodium chlorides can givc rise to
highway projects. reinforcement corrosion, the expanded com-
pounds causing concrete spalling. In addition.
8. Deleterious Minerals the migration of chloride to the surface of the
Deleterious minerals may be present in ground- concrete may spoil the finished appearance
water and in soils and rock. The most common (efflorescence).
of these are sulphates and chlorides. Sulphate Concrete attack due to the presence of sul-
and chloride attack on concrete, can arise phates and chlorides in the groundwater will
externally from groundwater, or internally from depend to a large extent on continued move-
the concrete constituents. In addition, some ment of contaminated groundwater at the con-
rocks may be alkali reactive, producing an crete surface. Although a structure situated
expansive reaction with alkalis in cement and permanently above the water table will not
cause cracking. normally be in danger, capillary forces can be
Ordinary Portland Cement consists principally responsible for the migration of sulphates and
of four components - tricalcium silicate, dical- chlorides to a band of soil a few meters above
cium silicate, tricalcium aluminate, and tetra- the water table, particularly in arid environ-
calcium aluminoferrite. Calcium sulphate reacts ments, and as a consequence protection may
with the tricalcium aluminate to give an expan- still be necessary.
sive compound which leads to disruption of the Alkali reactive rocks can be divided into two
cement. The action is slow because of the low main categories, those which are silica reactive
solubility of calcium sulphate and the fact that (e.g. some cherts, siliceous limestone) and
only one component is attacked. Sulphate those which are carbonate reactive (e.g. some
resistant cement overcomes the problem of argillaceous dolomites). In both cases, the rocks
attack by calcium sulphate since it has a low produce an expansive reaction with the cement
tricalcium aluminate content. resulting in the gradual development of cracks.
Sodium and potassium sulphates are readily Deleterious minerals in water and soil may also
soluble and will form calcium sulphate by cause loss of strength to soils stabilized with
reaction with calcium hydroxide formed from cement (see Appendix IV, Section 7).
the hydrated cement. The effects of deleterious minerals may be
determined from standard laboratory tests.
The calcium sulphate will react with the cement
However, mineral identification can only be
as described earlier and more calcium sulphate
done by special tests such as X-ray Diffraction,
will come into solution until the reaction is
Differential Thermal Analysis, and Electron
completed. Although their chemical action is
Microscopy. Methods of overcoming the proh-
effectively the same as that of calcium sulphate,
lem of chemical attack on concrete include
the presence of sodium and potassium sulphate
careful pre-selection of the concrete consti-
is more likely to give rise to sulphate attack
tuents so that chemical contamination is kept
because of their greater solubilities.
below specified limits, the use of sulphate
Magnesium sulphate is especially harmful be- resisting cement. water-proofing, and cathodic
cause it is readily soluble in water and is able to protection.
 APPENDIX IV

DATA ASSESSMENT

A. General should be designed to be cut at the steepest

possible angle in order to minimize the
Information acquired in the investigation phase excavation volume. However, in designing
must be assessed and analysed to develop rock slopes. it is essential that the long-term
design recommendations. This appendix pro- stability of the slope be considered because it
vides an overview of some of the more impor- is desirable that the excavation remains
tant geotechnical aspects of a highway project stable for many years. During this time. the
likely to require attention. Since it is not rock will weather and will be subject to wind
practical to cover all eventualities, the geotcch- end water actions. plant root growth and
nical engineer should exrimine each individual possible change i n loading conditions.
aspect, evaluate field conditions in relation to Adequate safeguards to account for their
the proposed design, and determine the need changes should be incorporated in the de-
for a rigorous assessment and analysis. sign.
1. Soil Slope Stability Planning Stability Investigations
Stability analyses should he carried out to Typically, rock cuts above highways may
determine whether or not a given or proposed only suffer very occasional slope failure
slope meets the requ~redsafety standards. The during their life. For the identification of
analyses must bc made for various critical potential slope failures it should be borne in
conditions, suctl 3s end of construction. rapid mind that certain combinations of geological
drawdown, etc. Not only is knowledge of discontinuities, slope geometry, and ground-
analytical methods required, but expericncc water conditions result in slope in which the
and judgement are necessary to predict prob- risk of failure is high. If these combinations
able changes in conditions. can be recognized during the Preliminary
Design Phase, steps can be taken to deal with
the slope problems which are likely to arise
It is general practice to use equilibrium methods
to assess stability. although other methods such in these areas. Slopes in which these com-
as limit analysis or finite elements are being binations do not occur require no further
used with increasing frequency. In all methods investigation. It must, however, be antici-
of equilibrium analyses, a condition of incipient pated that undetected discontinuities will be
failure is postulated aiong a ccj~tinnousslip exposed as the slopes are excavated and
surface of known or assumed shape. A q1r:tntita- provisions must be made to deal with the
resulting slope problems as they arise.
tive estimate of the factor of safety with respect
to shcar strength. usually defined as the ratio ot This planning approach to slope stability
available shear strength of the soil to that studies is outlined in Figure 2.06.6.
required to maintain equilibrium, is then
obtained by examining the equilibrium of the In Figure 2.06.6, it may be seen that there are
soil mass above this assumed rupture surface. two distinct categories: design of slopes for new
construction, and evaluation of stability of
Details of equilibrium methods to assess the existing slopes including design of stabilization
stability of various types of slopes and ways of program where required.
improving stability are given in many standard
text books on the subject (see also Bib- - New Construction
liography). Stage 1
2. Rock Slope Stability Carry out a preliminary evaluation of the
geological data available from the route ex-
Stability Assessment ploration program, which normally includes
air-photo interpretation, remote-sensing, sur-
General face mapping and study of natural slopes.
This section is concerned with thc stability of
Stage 2
rock slopes, with methods for assessing the
stability, and with techniques for improving Study the stability of large regional movements
the stability of slopes which are potentially as well as the stability of individual rock cuts.
hazardous. For roadways, rock slope stability Thc preliminary assessment of stability can be
involves both overall slope failure and rock carried out using a number of simple techniques
falls from slope faces. Obviously slopes (see Bibliography).
Stage 3. - Existing Slopes
Identify those slopes in which no failure is likely The major difference between stability studies
and which can, therefore, be designed on the for existing slopes and those for new construc-
basis of operational considerations: and those tion is the greater amount of information
slopes in which the risk of failure appears to be available. The exposed face will usually give
high and which require more detailed analysis. excellent information on geological conditions,
-I

Figure 2.06.6

Slope Stability Programme

1
-
A L
v

I
New Construction Existing slopes

t
Examine air photographs, gcology.
f
Make stability ussmsrnem
Remote imagery, oarural slopes

t
I,
Unstable?

,I
YtS YES
Unstable?

NO
1

STOP
1r 1r
I
STOP

Detailed geological mapping (drilling): groundwv~

tee data; strength testing and/or back analysir of
failure5 and nearby sloprr.

I
R,sk uf
Moderatc

Design stabilization system ti,

monitoring system to provtde warning of dc-
achieve required factor of safety
briorating stability condition.

Stage 4. and study of past failure will demonstrate the

The analysis of the second type of slopes type of failure most likely to occur. Back
involves a much more detailed study of the analysis of these failures are the most reliable
geology (possibly requiring drilling), the means of determining the rock strength,
groundwater conditions, and the mechanical although in some cases it may also be necessary
properties of the rock mass. to carry out laboratory testing on fractures not
involved in previous failures. If it is suspected
Stage 5. that groundwater played a part in the failure, it
may be necessary to intall piezometers to
A detailed analysis of stability is then carried measure the pore water pressures. In many
out on the basis of this information to determine cases, drilling programs will not be required
maximum safe slope angle, or support require- because more information on geology will be
ments. available from surface mapping than will be
obtained from drill cores. This information can - Reinforcement and Support
be used to design appropriate stabiliratiori
Reinforcement consists of installing anchors,
measures.
bolts or cables across the failure surface to
increasc its strength; while support consists of
Stabilization Methods installing dowels. walls, gabions or buttress
Slope stabilization methods can be divided walls at the toe of the slope. Usually rcinforce-
into three categories: i.e. methods which ment is uscd for smaller failures where the
reduce or eliminate the driving forces, e.g. forces are not great and the tension that can be
reduction in seepage forces or excavating the applied to the anchors is sufficient to producc a
overburden; methods which increase the significant increase in the factor of safety.
resisting force. e.g. reduction in pore water However, very high capacity, multi-strand
pressures or installation of support: and cables are available to reinforce large rock
methods which protect the highway from masses
rock falls, or warn of hazardous conditions, Support ranges from dowels to hold small
e.g. rock sheds (galleries), anchors, or pro- blocks in place, t o buttresses that provide
tective fences. monolithic support under large unstable blocks
and retaining walls. Shotcrete may also be used;
- Drainage although it provides little structural support of
the slope it does hclp to maintain the strength of
Stability conditions can often be improved by the rock by preventing loss of interlock between
reducing pore water pressures, if they exist, by blocks. It is often used in conjunction with rock
installing drainage systems. If water is flowing bolts which hold the larger blocks in place.
down the slope and into tension cracks, ditches
can be dug along the crest to divert the water
and prevent ponding, and the tension crack can - Protection
be covered with shotcrete, asphalt or other Conditions may exist wherc stabilization of a
materials. If there is no surface water to slope is either so expensive or disruptive to
remove, then it may be necessary to drill holes traffic, that it is more economical t o protect the
to drain the subsurface water. The. simplest highway from rock falls. Protectivc measures
method is to drill holcs inclincd slightly from can also be used where it is difficult to achieve
the horizontal into the face t o intercept the permanent stabilization and continual mainte-
water table behind the potential failure surface. nance will be required in the future.
Spacing will depend on the permeability of the
rock mass. To prevent caving, the holcs should Ditches at thc toe of slopes are an effective
be lined with perforated plastic pipes. means of catching falling rock and they can
often be excavated at relativeiy low cost. The
- Excavation required width and depth of a ditch depends
upon the angle and height of the slope.
The principle of stabilization by excavation is to
remove material from the upper portion of the Fences can be used to intercept rocks rolling
slope thus reducing the driving force. In case of down slopes. Fences can consist of wire mesh or
small failures. all the loose rock should be interlaced wire rope suspended from cables
removed. anchored to pins or posts on the crest of the
slope and dropped down the face. Wirc mesh
- Scaling and Trimming suspended down the face of a slope will inter-
cept falling rock and direct it into a ditch or
Loose, overhanging or protruding rock on the catchment area.
face of the slope should be removed by scaling
or trimming. Scaling involves the use of hand In cases where thc harard from rock falls is high
scaling bars, hydraulic splitters or light cxplo- and stabilization is not feasible, it nlay be
sives to remove isolated pieces of loose rock, necessary to construct a concrete shed (gallery)
while trimming involves the removal of over- over the highway, or to relocate the highway
hanging and potentially unstable rock. into a tunnel.

- Benching In cases where a large landslide is occuring, it

may be more economical to relocate the high-
O n slopes where scaling will only producc way rather than to try and stabilize the slide.
temporary stabilization, the face can be cut
back to form berms to catch the falling rock. 3. Settlement of Embankments
Benches are most effective if the slopes between
them are as steep as possiblc without them- 'The settlement of highway embankments may
selves being unstable, so that rocks fall vertical- be important when they are constructed over
ly and do not bounce outwards and roll over. soft fine-grained wadi or sabkha deposits.
 Cohesive Soils Shallow Foundations
The settlement of cohesive soils may he Before conducting a rigorous analysis the size
estimated using one dimensional consolida- of the footings should be estimated using
tion theory and the results of one-dimension- nominal value of allowable bearing pressure
a1 consolidation tests (MRDTM 230). The from Table 2.06.12 for the type and condition
rate of consolidation may need to be based of the foundation soil and rock. The depth of
on the results of field permeability tests in the footings will be influenced by bearing
order to arrive at a reasonably accurate capacity and settlement considerations, and,
value. Other more sophisticated methods for bridge foundations. by scour. In the
include the use of two or three dimensional majority of bridge foundation designs. scour
consolidation theories and the results of the considerations will dictate the footing level
appropriate triaxial tests (MRDTM 232), or (see Section 1-1.10).
the use of test embankments. Methods of
Safe bearing pressures should be assessed
accelerating the rate of consolidation include using cither conventional bearing capacity
the use of preloading and vertical drains.
formula or empirical design methods based
Preloading is more often used for shallow
on the Standard Penetration Test or the
compressible soil layers up to 5 meters in Static Cone Penetration Test.
devth: for ereater deuths and thicknesses
ve;tical draiis are usu~llyinstalled but often Settlement will frequently govern the safe
with the addition of a preload. An alternative bear~ngpressures. particularly for cohesion-
to consolidation of shallow soil layers is to less soils. Analyses should be carried out to
remove the unsuitable material and replace check that the anticipated amount of total
with a free-draining backfill (see Section 7-4 and differential settlement lies within limits
of the Highway Construction Manual). acceptable to the structural engineer.
Cohesionless Soils In choosing shallow foundations the presence
There are sevcral empirical methods for of collapsing soils, expansive soils, and cavi-
estimating settlement of cohesionless soils. ties should be checked (see Appendix 111).
These methods use the results of load tests An assessment of the variation of groundwa-
(MRDTM 234), cone penetrometer ter level during and after construction may
(MRDTM 240), and Standard Penetration also he important, particularly in cohesion-
Tests (MRDTM 224). However, in most less soils, in order to determine safe bearing
situations the consolidation of cohesionless pressures and need for dewatering and ex-
materials beneath embankments occur rapid- cavation support.
ly and is unlikely to create post-construction Deep Foundations
problems. In arriving at a choice of deep foundations,
4. Foundations due consideration should be given to the
alternative of foundation improvement. This
In foundation design, the design of structural could include excavate and recompact (or
elements below and above ground and the replacement with mass concrete), or deep
characteristics of the ground are interrelated compaction such as vibro-compaction, com-
and interdependent. To obtain maximum eco- paction piles, or dynamic compaction. In
nomy, the supporting ground, substructure and general, however, deep compaction is only
superstructure should be studied as a whole. In economical where the area requiring treat-
the case of an important structure, it may be ment is sufficiently large to justify bringing to
necessary to consider its overall stiffness and its the site the special equipment involved in the
interrelation with foundation settlements. process. This is unlikely to be the case with
Often theoretical treatments are difficult to conventional structural foundations associ-
apply to many practical problems, and experi- ated with highway construction.
ence and judgement may play an important
Deep foundations include driven piles, dril-
role. led piers, drilled caissons, and large diameter
For highway projects, foundation design is bored piles. The last three are all sometimes
likely to be associated only with bridges, cul- referred to as caissons. In selecting a suitable
verts, and retaining walls, and a simple choice type of pile, due account must he taken of
between shallow pads or strip foundations and the ground and other conditions of the
deep piled foundations is often the most impor- particular site, of the relative costs of the
tant task faced by the geotechnical engineer. In different types of piles, and of their installa-
carrying out the foundation analyses, the effects tion in the special circumstances of that site.
of scour, negative skin friction, earthquake and In assessing the bearing capacity of piled
other lateral and uplift forces should be in- foundations, an important factor is the effect
cluded, where these are applicable. of the method of installation on the soil
 Table 2.06.12
Estimates of Allowable Bearing Pressure

These presumed values of the allowable hearlng pressure are estimates and may need alteration upward or downward. No allowance has been made fur the depth of emhcdmcnt of the
foundation.

M'a~slrclpncuu, and mclamuiphic ruck, (eranife, dlurife. basalt, p e i n ) High to very high 6 , W - 1U.W Illere valucs arc bassd on thc rasumption that the foundations
"I $"""d (2)
C U D ~ ~ L U ~ arc iarncil d u u n o, unwerthercd rock

Fulirtcd mcirmorphic rucks (rlrtr, r h i r t ) in sound condition (I) (2) 3.M" 4.W

snlimmtrry ruck,: ccminicd ,hale, siltstun". rmdstone, limestone 1,SW 2.5W

withnut cmiries. rhnmughly cemented cnnelomerarer. all in mtmd
rondirinn (I) (2)

Sllalc and ulher rrgillassuul ru&, m huund condiliun (2) (4) 1nw to medium sw ~ 1.2W

Brokcn rocks ot any kind r l l h lnodcralcly close ,pacing ul dixunulnuitirr nuo- 1,Luo
( U i m or grcaccri, exccpl arg~llaccvurrocks (ihaic).

Thinly hcddcd limolune. rand,t"nc. rhrle S r r nut? (31

lleavily rhrttrred o r wcrthcred mck5 Sec note (31
Dens gravel or dense rand and grrvel (im Width crf foundrt~on(R) nor lea. than 1 meter. ~ r a u n d v a t e r
l e v 4 asbumcd to remrln at r dcpth not Icsq than R helow ihe
Mcdlvr" dcnrc gravci or lllcdrunl dcrlre ,and and pave1 HXI has< of the fo.ndatran.

I m w m8v.l or lnore sand and grrvcl 2w

ncnrc
sand 400

Medlum dense rand 200

Luuw s m d 11x1

v e r y <tiff tn hard clryr nr heterogeneovs mlrnires such as rdl w Cc>he5ive wilq are 3uueofihlc ro loneierm w n i o h d a t ~ a nsettle-
"lent duc to llnporcd loads and o t l c ~ lsu,cspL>blc Lu wrcrr
Stiff clays UXI rrclllnp or rllr~llkl~lg C Lhc ihanprd muisturc cundit>unr. if
~ U lo
L h Plrsfirlty indcler clceeds m m d the clay concenr exceeds
Firm clays Iw 2 % the llrng term performance of the fousdatlon may be
50 <iplficanlly affected by ruelilngor rhrcnkagc of ihc rubmiis acld
Soh cisys and silts
a complete asresimenr of rhcrc p,ribilirics i s cncccisary.
Very soft clryr m d silt< not applicable

not applicable

Fill vanable
I I I I
NOTES.
(1) The above vrlucr for v d ~ m c n t r r y o rfni#atedrackrapplywhere t h e s t r a t a m fnliarinn are level or nearly so,and, thenonly i t r h c a r c a h a i alnplc latsrrlsuppun. Tiilcdstrataand lhcir relation to nerrhy rlopesor ercavat~onsrhallhe aiser.ed by a ~ r w n
knouledgeahle m this field of work.
(2) Sound rock wndltronr allow mrnor jomtr at spacing ,not lcrr than 1 in>ctcr.
(3) To be drrsr,sd by field eiamh~rtion. inciudlnp lurding irsts d necerrrry, by r person knorledgeohle m this field of uo*.
(4) Thcsc rucks arc apt to iweU an release of stres, and on exposure to warei they are apt to \often m d .well sppremnh~y.
behavior. In most cases, therefore, a pile - the stability of the retaining structure itself
load test is indispensible in assessing pile the structural strength of the structure
capacity.
ground movements due to construction
The ultimate load bearing capacity of a pile
in cohcsivc soil is the sum of the end hearing The magnitude of carth pressure which will
capacity and thc shaft adhesion. For bored be exerted on a retaining structure is depen-
piles. the adhesion between the soil and the dent on the amount of movement that the
shaft may practically equal thc shcar strength wall undergoes; for free-standing retaining
but the shear strength may be greatly re- walls it is usual to assume that sufficient
duced close to the shaft of the pile during outward movement occurs to allow activc
boring. In the casc of driven piles, allowance carth pressures to develop; for rigid or
must be made for the loss of strength in the restrained retaining walls higher (at rest)
surrounding soil due to disturbance. pressures will develop and the wall must be
designed accordingly.
For piles found in cohesive soils. the ultimate
bearing capacity of the pile group should also The computation of earth pressure may be
be checked. bascd on a number of theories. For conven-
tional abutmen: and retaining wall design.
Pile groups in cohesive soils can fail if they active pressures may be computed using
undergo excessive settlement. Pilc groups Kankine's or Coulomb's theories. Passive
will zenerally not be load tested and the resistance may be based on Coulomb's
settlements must be evaluated by other theory when the wall friction is nhsumed to be
means. It should be noted that the settlement less than one-third the angle of friction of the
of a pile group may be up to five or ten times retained soil, otherwise the log spiral or
larger than the settlement of a single pile friction circle method should be used. For
dcpcnding on the size of the pile group. irregular ground surfaces and variaticms in
Settlement computations for pile groups soil strata, the Coulomb Trial Wedge method
usually follow the settlement computations is recommended.
for rigid spread footings: whereby an imagin-
ary raft footing is assumed at some depth. Lateral pressures induced by compaction can
be up to twice the active pressures obtained
The ultimate load bearing capacity of a pile by conventional analysis. If movement of the
in cohesionless soil is the sum of the end wall is allowed to take place these compac-
bearing capacity and the shaft skin friction. tion induced pressures are reduced. Transla-
For bored piles, some loss of strength results tion or rotation of the order of 5 or &,
from d i s t u r b h e of the soil by the boring respectively (where H is the retained height
tools and extraction of the casing. In the case of the wall) are sufficient to reduce the
of driven piles, the surrounding soil will be pressures to near the activc state. The final
compacted during driving and the bearing pressure distribution for translational move-
capacity is correspondingly increased. ment is parabolic rather than triangular, and
the line of thrust is raised.
End bearing and shaft adhesion for piles in
cohcsivc soils are normally determined from Lateral pressures induced by live loads, line
strength parameters obtained from labora- loads and point loads should be taken into
tory tests: end bearing and skin friction for account, where applicable. Unless toe drains
piles in cohesionless soils are normally asses- are used to draw the groundwater surface
sed by empirical methods based on the below the anticipated failure surface, the
Standard Penetration or other field tests. effect of ..:ater pressure must be considered.
This is particularly important where rapid
Analyses should include the effects d scour,
c!rdwdown after flooding is a possibility.
changes in groundwater level, negative skin
friction, and lateral, uplift, and other forces, Lateral pressures induced behind flexible
where those are applicable. structures (sheet piles) depend on type of
soil, method of construction and relative
Walls and Other Retaining Structures flexibility of the structure; and should be
Common types of retaining structures in- estimated carefully using appropriate
clude gravity. cantilevered, counterfort, but- theories.
tressed, gabion, reinforced concrete crib,
tieback, reinforced earth and interlocking 5. Drainage
precast concrete walls.
This section is concerned only with subsurface
In the design of retaining structures, the drainage.
following aspects may need to be considered:
The analysis and design of highway subsurface
the stability of the soil around the structure drainage systems involves the consideration of
 subsurface water from a wide variety of sources. permeable drainage kayer under the ful!
However. it is convenient to consider these width of the pavement. The term drainage
sources in two broad general categories: blanket is applied to such a layer whose width
groundwater, which is defined as the water and length (in the direction of flow) is large
existing in the natural ground in the zone of relative to its thickness. Properly designed
saturation below the water table: and infiltra- open graded bases and subbases can be used
tion, which is defined as surface water that for effective control of both groundwater and
seeps into the pavement structure through infiltration.
joints or cracks in the pavcment surface.
through voids in the pavement itself, or through Longitudinal Drains
unprotected ground surfaces and ditches adja- These are located parallel to the roadway
cent to the road. Where the annual rainfall is centcrlinc and may involve a trench of
less than 0.25111. special drainage measures to substantial depth, a collector pipe, and a
cope with infiltration may not be necessary. protective filter. The degree of sophistication
employed in the design of longitudinal drains
Within the Kingdom, groundwatcr flow affect- will depend upon the source of the water that
ing highways is likely to be a rare occurrence is t o be drained and the manner in which the
and it will usually be possible to intercept drain is expected to function.
groundwater flow and 1 or draw down the free
water surface by means of drainage ditches so 0 Transverse Drains
that little or no water gets into the pavement Subsurface drains that run laterally beneath

a
section. However, it may not always be possible the roadway are classified as transverse
to control the flow of groundwater in this way, drains. These are commonly located at right
and it will then be necessary to deal with angles to the roadway centerline. although in
seepage from such a source in the design of some instances they may be skewed in a
pavement dra~n,,ge.Two possible sources of herringbone pattern. Transverse drains may
groundwater should he considered: gravity involve a trench, collector pipe, and protec-
drainage and artesian t l o ~ .For the casc of tive filtcr, or they may consist of shallow
gravity drainage, the average inflow rate can bc trenches filled with open graded aggregate.
estimated by means of a flow net analysis. For As with longitudinal drains, the degree of
artesian flow. the average inflow ratc can be sophistication employed depends on the
estimated by the use of flow nets or by the use source of the subsurface water and the
of numerical methods based upon the hydraulic function of the drain. When the general
gradient and soil permeability. Once the design direction of the groundwater flow tends to be
inflow rate has been computed, the thickness parallel to the roadway (this occurs common-
and permeability of the drainage layer required ly when the roadway is cut perpendicular to
to convcy this inflow to a suitable outlet can be the existing contours), transverse drains can
determined. The drainage layer should be be more effective than longitudinal drains in
properly outletted to avoid saturation and build intercepting and I or lowering the water
up of pore water pressures. table.
1-0 protect the granular drainage layers from 0 Horizontal Drains
intrusion of fines, the granular material must
satisfy established filter gradation requirement. Horizontal drains consist of near-horizontal
If these requirements are not satisfied. then a holes drilled into cut slopes or sidehill fills to
protective filtcr must be designed and placed tap springs and relieve porewater pressures.
between the fine and coarse soils to prevent In ordinary installations the ends of the
intrusion and clogging. Commonly. this protec- perforated small diameter drain pipes are left
tive filter consists of a laycr of granular soil projecting from the slope and flow is picked
whose gradation and other characteristics satis- up in drainage ditches.
fy established filter criteria. However. a num-
ber of different types of drainage fabrics and 6. Pavement Support
materials are available and can be used for this Assessment of pavement support is normally
purpose. The choice between aggregate filters carried out in accordance with the rccom-.
and drainage fabrics should be based on a mended procedure given in Section 2-1.09.B.2.
careful evaluation of the history of performance The soil support value used in the design of the
and availability. pavement is equal to 90th percentile CBR value
The most common types of subdrainage systems (or Resilient Modulus Value) of the material
are: proposed for subgrade construction. The soil
support value may vary between sections within
Drainage Blankets a particular highway project dependent upon
Rapid drainage of pavcment structural sec- the quality of the proposed subgrade material.
tions can he best achieved by placing a highly In carrying out an assessment of pavement
support, a number of factors come into play. soil by alternative imported soils or aggregates,
Firstly, it is essential to ensure that soil samples to increase the pavement thickness (if appropri-
obtained from the alignment are truly reprc- arc), or to consider an alternative form of
sentative of the matcrials to be used in the construction.
future subgrade. For instance, when the high- Hydrated Lime
way is to be constructed on embankment. the
embankment material may not necessarily be The use of hydrated lime as a soil modifier or
the same as the original ground on which it is to stabilizer is usually associated with fine-
be constructed. grained plastic soils and can be an effective
way of countering the problems of expansive
Secondly, it is necessary to ensure that the soils. The effectiveness is dependent, by and
sampling locations are in themselves repre- large, upon the type of clay minerals present
sentative of the materials in their immediate in the soil. As a general rule. sands do not
vicinity. The use of air photography can bc react with hydrated lime because they do not
helpful in this regard. contain clay minerals, but natural gravel-
sand-clay mixtures may benefit greatly from
Thirdly. an examination of the CBR test results the addition of lime. However, hydrated lime
may reveal sections of the alignment where the may be ineffective with soils containing more
use of selected subgrade or soil-modified suh- than 1% organic carbon.
grade (see next section) would be appropriate,
rather than to use a reduced soil support value 'Typically a hydrated limc contcnt of 2.4%
(and therefore an increased pavement thick- and 3.8% hy dry weight of soil will be
ness) throughout the entire length. required for soil modification and soil stabi-
lization, rcspectively. The reaction of limc
The use of selected suhgrade, soil-modified with the soil generally results in a decreased
subgrade, stabilized soil sub-base and basc need soil density, reduced plasticity, and increased
careful economic appraisal prior to their adop- soil strength. These changes are the result of
tion in any final design. The cost of transport, a number of reactions. Firstly: upon addition
stabilizer, processing, the distance of the mate- of lime and water to the clayey soil an
rials sources from the alignment, are among the increase in the clcctrolyte content of the pore
many factors which nced to be taken into water pressure occurs, causing an increase in
consideration. A procedure by which the sup- attractive forces between clay particles, and
port value of the various pavement layers can be cation exchange by the clay minerals to the
comparcd is given in Vol. 2 in 'Tables l .O9.4 in Calcium (Ca++) forms. This results in floc-
1.09.B. culation and agglomeration of the clay parti-
7. Soil Stabilization cles and produces an apparent change in
texture with clay particles clumping together
The absence of suitable materials for subgrade.
into larger aggregations. The cation ex-
subbase or base course construction may point
change causes the reduction in the plasticity.
to the need to consider soil-modificd or soil-
stabilized pavement layers using stabilizers such Secondly. in the presence of lime and water,
alumina and silica in the soil come into
as hydrated lime, cement, or bitumen. In this
solution and react with the lime (pozzolanic
context. soil modification is considered to be
reaction) to form calcium-aluminum-silicate-
the addition of small quantities of stabilizer to
hydrates, resulting in cementation and a
reduce the plasticity index, increase workabil-
gradual increase in strength.
ity, and increase the stiffness; whereas soil
stabilization is considered to be the addition of Cement
moderate quantities of stabilizer to bond the
Most types of soil can bc modified 11s
soil particles and improve the shear strength
stabilized with cement. Howcver, the quanti-
and load spreading ability. Soil stabilization
ty of cement required incrcnses with incscas-
may also be required for other purposes such as ing plasticity index, and cement stabilizat~o~~
reducing erosion (see Section 8), controlling is therefore traditionally used with nonpl;lhoc
shrinkage and swelling (see Appendix 111; or low plasticity sands and gravels. Many
Section 4), or improving durability. organic soils, particularly tkose havins low
The choice of stabilizer will depend on the use molecular weight organic maltcrs, arc not
for which it is intended, and a guide as to the suit;rble for treatment with cumcnt, and thohe
most appropriate types of stabilizer is given in with sulphate contents exceeding 0.0jY;) arc
Table 2.06.13. The quantity of stabilizer is likely to show loss of strength wi:h time.
generally determined by laboratory tests. In Sulphate concentrations i n excess of 0.05'X)
some cases, the addition of stabilizer may in the mixing water may also cause loss of
increase the cost of construction to such an strength. 'l'ypically a ccmcnt contcnt of 2.3'""
extent that it is more economical to replace the and 4-8% by dry weight of soil will be
 Table 2.06.13
Soil Types and Stabilization Methods
Which Appear Best Suited for Specific Applications
I Recommended
Purpose I Soil Type Stabilization Methods
I

I Subgrade and Suhhax M<,d<ficationor Stabilization

A. Improved lo;!d carrying and \tress distributing Coarse ~ r a n u l a r HSS. CSS, MB. CMS
characreri\~~cs
, Finc granular
Clay%of low PI
C l a y ~ o high
f PI
BSS. CSS, M13. CMS
CSS. CMS. LMS. LSS
LSS. I.MS

B. Watcrproofing and irnpnwcd runoff

C. Control of shrinkage and swell i Clays u: law PI

Ckiys of low P1
Clays of high PI
CMS. BSS. CW. LMS, LSS

CMS.CSS. CW. [.MS. L.SS

LSS
-
LSuhtrase and Bacc Cclursc Stabilization

A . lmpro\emenr oisuhstandi8rd materials Finc granular CSS. RSS. MB

Clays of luw PI CSS. 1.SS

8. Improvrd load carryanp 2nd stress distributing Coarse granular BSS. CSS. MH
charactcrisrios Fine granular CSS. HSS. MB

C . Reduction of pumping Fine granular CSS. BSS. hlB, MLMBRAKES

.3, Shuulder lmpruvcmrnt (UnsurPdied)

A. lmproved load carrying ahility All soils Sec section I,\ a b o w

B , lmproveddurahiiity All soils See section IA ahuve

C. Waterproofing and unproved runofl Plastic soils CMS. I.SS. CW, I M S

D. Control of shrinkaec and swcll Plastic soils Scc xction IC ohove

4 Dust Palliative Finc granular CMS. CI.. BSS.oil or

hiturn~n,lo\hurf:ccc \pray
I'lastic \l,lls ( ' I . ('515. I.SS. LMS

5 Ditch Lining Fioc ioila PSC. ( ' 5 . HSS

Pla~ttcsoil PSC. ( S

(1. Patching & Reconstructiiln Granular buil SC. HSS. MU

KEY:
CMS - Cement Modified Soil CS - Chemical Solidifiers C L - Chlorides
LMS - Lime Modified Sail CW - Chemical Waterproofcrs BSS Bitumen Stabilized Sail
PSC - Plastic Soil Cement MB - Mechanical Blending CSS - Cement Stabilized Sail
LSS - Lime Stabilized Soil

required for soil modification and soil stabi- able precautions are taken such as the incor-
lization, respectively. The reaction of cement poration of a thick asphaltic or unbound
with soil is similar to that of concrete, granular base course.
resulting in cementitious bonding of the soil
particles and, in many cases, a relatively high Plastic soil-cement (see Table 2.06.13) is a
compressive strength. Shrinkage and crack- hardened material formed by curing a mix-
ing are natural characteristics of cement ture of soil, cement, and enough water to
stabilization and the cracks may be reflected produce a mortar-like consistency at the time
through upper pavement layers unless suit- of mixing and placing. This is utilized in ditch
 linings and slope facing to reduce erosion. make surface soils particularly susccptihle tci
slaking and water erosion. Eroded rnatcrials
Bitumen carricd i n suspension can cause filling of ditches
Bituminous stabilization of soils is normally and damming of culverts. High run-off durinhr,
carried out to introduce cohesion or to hcavy rains can cause scour resulting in settle-
provide water-proofing. The process is morc ment and collapse of bridge found.d t I' O ~ S .
successful with granular material than with Soil erosion due to rainfall can he considered a\
cohesive soils, although a wide range of soils a cycle comprising detachment, transportation,
can be stabilized depending on the type of and sedimentation. Erosion by water occurs as:
binder used. These binders include straight-
run bitumen. cutback bitumen, and bitumen Sheet Erosion
emulsion. Straight-run bitumen may be used
in a conventional hot-mix process using Sheet erosion is usually associated with
non-cohesive sands and gravcls; cut-back removal of uniform soil layers due to the
bitumen and bitumen emulsion may be used detaching force of raindrops hitting the
in a cold-mix process using fine-grained soils surface. It is very common in loose soils, soils
(although these may require breaking up of high silt content, fragile sandy soils, and
with the addition of a small percentage of soils deficient in organic rrlatter.
lime) or coarser sandy or gravelly soils. Kill Erosion
In arid climates bitumen stabilization is Rill erosion is the erosion of soil by running
usually used in sandy areas where the soil is water in the form of streamlets. Accelerated
of a granular nature and bitumen provides erosion of rills will develop into channel or
the cohesion normally lacking. Typically a gully erosion. Rill erosion is most common in
straight-run bitumen content of 4 to 6% and regions of intense rainfall and low infiltration
a cut-back bitumen or bitumen emulsion capacities.
content of 5 to 10% by dry weight of soil will Channel Erosion
he required for soil stabilization.
Channel erosion is a development of the
Other stabilization methods include mechanical erosion of rills or other surface depressions.
and chemical stabilization. The objective of The degree of channel erosion and scour is
mechanical stabilization is to change the particle dependent upon the hydraulic characteristics
size distribution by blending togrther two or of the flow and the cohesiveness of the soil.
more selected materials in order !o improve
bearing capacity, permeability, and workability. Streambank Erosion
Chemical stab/lizers have also been used. Streambank erosion occurs primarily due to
generally as a 'surface treatment for unpaved loss of vegetative cover and toe support. The
gravel roads but also to control sand dune degree of erosion and scour is again primarily
movements and for dust control. dependent upon the hydraulic characteristics
of the flow and the cohesiveness of the soil.
Laboratory testing procedures to ascertain a
suitable stabilizer content will depend on the Methods of reducing erosion include:
type of stabilizer proposed and the use for
which it is intended. Hydrated lime or cement - Constructing a layer of less erosive mate-
modified soils are normally evaluated on the rial on the surface to be protected. This
basis of CBR or compressive strength rests. could comprise A-1 or A-2-3 soils in sand
Hydrated lime or cement stabilized soils are dune areas, or more plastic A-4 to A-7
normally evaluated on the basis of unconfined soil? if these are available. Alternatively,
compressive strength tests and durability re- consideration could he given to the ap-
quirements. Tests are performed on specimens plication of plastic soil-cement or a chemic-
with varying stabilizer content and density al soil stabilizer (see Section 6). In areas
where the specimens are allowcd to cure for a where channel or streambank erosion is
number of days prior to soaking and testing. In likely to take place, more durable protec-
addition, for cement stabilized bases and sub- tion may be necessary such as rip-rap
bases it is recommended that the properly cured (grouted or non-grouted), bituminous,
mixes satisfy the "durability criteria" using the concrete or gunite paving, or gabions.
wet-dry tests and / or the freeze-thaw tests as - Provision of crest interceptor ditches
given by the USA Portland Cement Associa- where rising ground occurs behind a slope,
tion. particularly if the catchment area is large.
The ditches may need to be lined to
8. Water Erosion and Scour prevent them from becoming eroded.
In arid and semi-arid regions, desiccation due to - Provision of dykes and chutes. This can be
dryness and heat, and low organic contents, an effective method of reducing sheet
 erosion on embankments. An asphalt or drop structures can be used to minimize
concrete dyke is constructed on the edge of ditch gradients, thereby reducing flow
the highway shoulder to prevent surface velocities. The disadvantage of these struc-
run-off from flowing over the edge and tures are that they are expensive and can
down the slope. Water is channeled by the be a danger to vehicles.
dyke into a chute running down the
embankment slope. Hydraulic Design procedures for bridges,
- Establishing vegetative cover such as grass. culverts, and ditches are given in Section
This is unlikely to be a satisfactory solution 1-1.10.These include methods for determin-
for moTt of the highways in the Kingdom ing scour depth, and for determining the
due to the need for watering. need for streambank protection and channcl
- Provision of drop structures. Concrete linings.
THIS P 4 G E IS BLANK
 APPENDIX V

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Expansive Soils in Highway Subgrades",
- Davies, J.A., and Lord, J.A. "The Effects of Federal Highways Administration Report
Cavities in Limestone on the Construction of No. FHWA-RD-79-51, Washington D.C.,
High Rise Building in Al-Khobar, Saudi 1979.
Arabia", Symposium on Geotechnical Prob-
lems in Saudi Arabia, King Saud University, - Sultan, H.A. "Foundation Failures on Col-
Riyadh, Vol. 1, pp. 109-128, 1981. lapsing Soils in the Tucson, Arizona Area",
Proceedings of the Second Conference on
- Ruwaih, I.A., and Khandker, A. "On the Expansive and Collapsing Soils, Texas
Geotechnical Conditions of Riyadh Area, A & M University, August 1969.
Saudi Arabia", Symposium on Geotechnical
Problems in Saudi Arabia, King Saud Uni- - Sultan, H.A. "Collapsing Soils, State-of-the-
versity, Riyadh, Val. 1, pp. 241-267, 1981. Art", Specialty Session No. 5, "Engineering
Properties of Loess and Other Collapsing
- Grosch, J., Touma, F., and Richards, D. Soils", Proceedings of the Seventh Interna-
"Solution Cavities in the Limestone of East- tional Conference on Soil Mechanics and
ern Saudi Arabia", 2nd., Saudi Engineers Foundation Engineering, Mexico City,
Conference, University of Petroleum & Vol. 3, p. 445, August 1969.
Minerals, Dhahran, Vol. 3, pp. 2879-2902,
incx
A 7"J.
- Gibbs, H.J., and J.P. Bara, "Stability Prob-
lems of Collapsing Soils", A.S.C.E. Journal
- Touma, F.T., & Bellerjeau, W.R. "Experi- Soil Mechanics and Foundation Division,
ence with Foundations of Structures on Rock No. SM 4, pp. 577-594, (1967).
in Saudi Arabia", Symposium on Geotech-
nical Problems in Saudi Arabia, King Saud 8. Seismicity
University, Riyadh Val. 1, pp. 201-239,
1981. - MIDCO & Woodward-Clyde "Behavior of
Highway Bridges During Earthquakes", Re-
7. Collapsing & Swelling Soils port for Ministry of Communications,
- Ruwaih, I.A., and Erol, 0. "Collapsing Riyadh, 1985.
Behavior of Soils from Hutat Bani Tamim, - Dames & Moore "Investigation of Seismic
Saudi Arabia", Symposium on Geotechnical Activity, Saudi Arabia", Report for U.S.
Problems in Saudi Arabia, King Saud Uni- Corps of Engineers, 1979.
versity, Riyadh, Vol. 1, pp. 33-62, 1981. - Barazangi, M. "On the Evaluation of Seismic
- Dhowian, A.W. "Characteristics of Al-Ghatt Risk Along the Western Part of the Arabian
Collapsing & Swelling Soils", Symposium on Plate: Discussion and Recommendations",

8 Geotechnical Problems in Saudi Arabia, King

Saud University, Riyadh, Val. 1, pp. 3-32,
1981.
Bulletin of the Faculty of Earth Sciences,
Vol. 4, King Abdul Aziz University, Jeddah,
1981.
- Gcomatrix "Preliminary Evaluation of Seis- - Lamhe. T.W., & Whitman, R.V. "Soil
mic Hazards - Jizan Town and its Environs, Mechanics", John Wiley, New York, 1979.
Saudi Arabia". Report for Ministry of Muni- - Kirsch, K. and Chamhosse, G. "Deep Vibra-
cipalities & Rural Affairs, Riyadh. 1985. tory Compaction Provides Foundations for
- Mcrghelani. H.h.l., and Gallathine. S.K. Two Major Overseas Projects", Ground En-
"Microearthquakes in the Tihama-Asir Re- gineering, London, pp. 31-38, Nov. 1981.
gion of Saudi Arabia", Bulletin of the Seis-
- Sutherland, H.B. "Review Paper: Session 1.
mological Socicty of America, Vol. 70:
Granular Materials", Proc. Conf. on Settle-
No. 6, pp. 22")-2293, 1980.
ment of Structures, British Geotechnical
- S e e d , H.B. and Idriss, I.M. "Simplified Socicty, pp. 473-499, (1974).
Procedure for Evaluating Soil Liquefaction
Potential". Journal SMFE. ASCE, Vol. 97, - Carter, M. "Geotechnical Engineerin8 Hand-
No. SM 9, pp. 1249-1273, (1971). book", Pentech Press, London. 1983.
- Idriss, I.M. "Evaluating Seismic Risk in - Oweiss. I. and Bowman J . "Geotechnical
Engineering Practice", Theme Lecture Considerations for Construction in Saudi
No. 6, Proceedings XI Int. Conf. SMFE. San Arabia", Journal Geot. Eng. Div. ASCE,
Francisco, Vol. 1, pp. 255-320, (1985). March (1981).
- AASHTO "Guide Specifications for Seismic - Canadian Geotechnical Society "Canadian
Design of Highway Bridges", American Foundation Engineering Manual", Second
Association of State Highway & Transporta- Edition, BiTech Publishers Ltd., Vancouver,
tion Officials, 1983. 1985.
9. Wind-Blown Sands - Holtz, R.D., and Kovacs, W.D. "An
Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering",
- Bagnold. R.A. "The Physics of Blown Sands Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 1981.
& Desert Dunes", Methuen, London, 1941.
- Bjerrum, L. "Problem of Soil Mechanics and
- Kcrr, R.C.. and Nigra, J.O. "Eolian Sand Construction on Soft Clays", Proc. 8th Int.
Control", Bulletin of the American Associa- Conf. SMFE, Moscow, State-of-the-Art Re-
tion of Petroleum Geologists, Vol. 36, No. 8, port. Vol. 3, pp 111-159, 1973.
pp. 1541-1573. (1952).
- Peck, R.B.. Hanson, W.E., and Thornburn,
- Trosscl, C . J . "Eolian Sand Control in Saudi
T.H., "Foundation Engineering", 2nd Edi-
Arabia as Experienced by Ararnco", Sympo-
tion. Wiley & Sons, 1974.
sium on Geotechnical Problems in Saudi
Arabia, King Saud University, Riyadh, - Rcese, L.C. and Wright, S.J. "Drilled Shaft
Vol. 1, pp. 329-361, (1981). Desien" Vols. 1 and 2. Federal Hiehwav
- Redding. J.H.. and Lord, J.A. "Designing
for the Effects of Wind-Blown Sand Along
the New Jeddah-Riyadh-Dammam Express- D.C., 1977.
way", Symposium on Geotechnical Problems - Focht, John A. Jr. "Piles and Other Deep
in Saudi Arabia, King Saud University, Foundations - International State of the
Riyadh, Vol. 1, pp. 363-395, (1981). Practice for Design and Installation of Axially
- Watson, A. "The Control of Wind-Blown Loaded Piles", Proceedings of the Eleventh
Sand and Moving Dunes: A Review of International Conference on Soil Mechanics
Methods of Sand Control in Deserts, with and Foundation Engineering, Vol.1,
Observations from Saudi Arabia", Quarterly pp. 187-210, (1985).
Journal. Eng. Geol. Vol. 18, pp. 237-252. - Meyerhoff, G . G . "Bearing Capacity and
(1985). Settlement of Pile Foundations", Journal of
the Geotechnical Engineering Division,
10. Soil Mechanics & Foundations ASCE, Vol. 102, No. GT3, March 1976.
Bowles, J.E. "Foundation Analysis & De- - Meyerhoff, G.G. "Shallow Foundations",
sign", Third Edition, McGraw-Hill, New Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Founda-
York, 1982. tions Division, ASCE, Vol. 91, No. SM2,
- Tomlinson, M.J. "Foundation Design & March 1965.
Construction", Fourth Edition, Pitman, Lon- - Schmertmann, J.A. "Static Cone to Compute
don. 1980. Static Settlement Over Sand", Journal of the
- Winterkorn, H.F., and Fang, H.Y. "Founda- Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division,
tion Engineering Handbook" Van Nostrand ASCE, Val. 96, No. SM3, May 1970.
Reinhold, New York, 1975. - Schmertmann, J.H. et.al. "Improved Strain
- NAVFAC D M - 7.2 "Foundations & Earth Influence Factor Diagrams", Journal of the
Structures", Design Manual 7.2., U.S. Dept. Geotechnical Division, ASCE, Val. 104,
of the Navy, 1982. No. GT8, August 1978.
- Schmertmann, J.H. "Statics of S P Y , Journal - Morgenstern. N.R. and Price, V.E. "The
of the Geotechnical Engineering Division, Analysis of the Stability of General Slip
ASCE. Vol. 105. No. GT5, May 1979. Surfaces", Geotechnique, Val. 15, No. 1 ,
pp. 79-93, 1965.
11. Slope Stability
- Henkel, D.J. "Local Geology and the Stabil-
- Hoek, E . , and Bray, J. "Rock Slope En-
gineering" Second Edition, The Institution of ity of Natural Slopes", Journal of the Soil
Mining and Metallurgy, London, 1977. Mechanics and Foundations Division, ASCE,
Vol. 93, No. SM4, April 1967.
- Chowdhury, R.N. "Slope Analysis", Develo-
ments in Geotechnical Engineering Vol. 22, - Sarma, S.K. "Stability Analysis of Embank-
Elsevier Scientific, Amsterdam, 1978. ments and Slopes". Journal of the Geotcch-
- Piteau, D.R. and Associates Ltd. "Rock nical Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 105,
Slope Engineering", Federal Highway Admi- No. GT12, December 1979.
nistration. Washington D.C., 1979. - Peck, R.B. "Stability of Natural Slopes",
- Janbu, N. "Slope Stability Computations", Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Founda-
Embankment Dam Engineering, Casagrande tions Division, ASCE, Vol. 93, pp. 403-417,
Volume, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1967.
1973.
h4TIOUAL OFFSET P R N T U G PRESS
7-8 L021.1.0.0 8.. is.li,".d"ll.lll.l*1
Section 2.06 Geotechnical Engineering

(Being Developed)
 Section 2.07 Hydrology
--

a A. General
The hydrologic analysis pcrformed on each
project shall be compiled in a hydrologic re-
These pictures can be placed in the text or
referenced in the text and compiled at the end
of the report.
port. This report shall corrsist of two parts: a 3. Land Use
data section, where the hydrologic
. background Using the topographic maps and the pholo-
information shall be recorded, arid an analysis graphs described above, the engineer shall
section, where the design computatioris shall comment on the nature of the land use in the
be recorded. affected watersheds. Similarly, the Engineer
The following items shall be used as a checklist shall comment on the nature of vegetation and
of the data that shall be included in the soil characteristics of the basir~s. Indi\:idual
hydrologic report. The comprehensiveness of types of land use, vegetation, and soil classifi-
the report shall depend on the nature of the cations shall be indicated as percentages of ba-
wadi or flood plairi to be crossed, the cost of sin area. The extent of anticipted changes
proposed drainage structures, and the class of within any of these areas shall also be indi-
highway. cated.

8. Hydrologic Data 4 Water Use

The Engineer shall comment o n the use of the
1. Topographic Maps
water within the affected drainage hasins. If
Maps are required in order to show how the reservoirs are within the watersheds, the oper-
proposed highway alignment crosses individ- ational procedures of these reservoirs shall bc
ual watersheds. Other watershed parameters described. including the volumes and dates of
such as drainage areas, soil classifications. and anticipated discharges. This section of the re-
vegetation shall also bz indicated or] topo- port shall also contain cornmerits on local uses
graphic maps. The following table indicates or diversions of wadis. Anticipated changes in
which map scale shall be used on each project. water uses shall also be commented on.
Table 2.07.1 5. Rainfall Data
Map Scales
Rainfall data within the study area shall he
Basin Area I Scale [contours included in the report. The data shall cor~sist
Rural of a brief description, the length of rccortl, the
Rolling & accuracy, and the source. The Ministry of Ag-
riculture and Water (AGWAT) has published
5-year summaries of meteorologic data and is
Rural
currently gathering additional hydrologic data.
Rural 6. Gaging Station Data
Rolling & When the proposed highway crosses a wadi,
Flat Terrain the Engineer shall list any available gaging sta-
Rural >2.500 ha 1:50.000 20 rn tion information pertaining to that watershed.

7
1 Moiintainous
Urban
Storm Sewer
l:2,000

*Moppirig in [hi'vicinrty ~ i f ~ hhig1twa)'pnIjecr

1 rn co,lrourr.
e
0.5 rn

shall rhon,
If these data are not available. the Engineer
shall list gaging station data from neighboring
watersheds. A brief descriptiori of the gaging
station data shall be included if this informa-
tion is available. This description shall include
the length of record, the accuracy of the data,
the source, and dates of occurrences. ACWAT
2. Photographs is placing gaging stations in many wadis and
may have information concerning previous
Upstream and downstream (nonaerial) photo- flood flows.
graphs shall be taken of all crossings whose
design flow exceeds 20 m'/s. Whenever possi- 7. Highwater Marks
ble, aerial photographs of upstream watersheds Often highwater marks can be used to estimate
shall also be included in the hydrologic report. peak flows within a basin. Whenever possible
These photographs shall be of sufficient quality the Engineer shall prepare a brief flood history.
to enable the engineer to estimate channel This statement shall iriclude the dates of occur-

a
roughness characteristics, the nature and ex- rence of the flooding and the elevations of
tent of vegetation cover, and land use. Photo- highwater marks. The Engineer shall also
graphs, historic or recent, which support any comment on the nature of the flooding and list
hydrologic data shall be included in the report. any factors that may have effects on thc water
level. Such factor\ may include highwatcr b. Basin Slope
from other wadis, releases from rcscrvoirs, Basin slopes are usually estimated from con-
tidal effects, or other channel controls. tours on topographic maps or determined by
C. Hydrologic Analysis a field survey. This parameter is important
in that steeper basins tend to result in a
1. Drainage Area quicker response time whereas flat basirls
This information is usually determined from decrease response time. Long responsc timc
available topographic mapping. A field inspec- will rend to 11)wer discharge while a short
tion of the drainage area is highly desirable response time tends to increase the dis-
since topographic maps are many times not charge.
up-to-date. Although 5 m or 10 m contour c. Perccr~tImpervious
interval maps may show many areas as con-
tributing to the hasin runoff. a field inspection 'I-his parameter is important in that it re-
may show natural or rnanmade features, such flects the arca under which natural infiltra-
as agricultural terraces and dikes, which will tion and evaporation/transpiraricin will oc-
iritercept all of the runoff from the drainage cur. A field inspection of the drainage basil1
arca. These may include highway or railroad should be made to determine the portion of
embankments that, with the corresponding the total drainage area that should be con-
culverts or bridges, may act as detention struc- sidered impervious. The most reliable
tures. Once the boundaries of the contributing method for calculating percent impcrvious-
areas have been established, they shall be de- ness is to measure the impervious areas from
lineated on a base map and the areas deter- an aerial photograph, An urban area can
mined. This is commonly done using a usually he broken into typical zones, each
planimeter. with similar characteristics as far as impcr-
vious pcrccritagc is concerned. A small area
2. Watershed Parameters can then be selected from each typical cone
Drainage basin characteristics shall be deter- and the percent impervious area, such as
mined in the field or from available maps. The rooftops, driveways, parking lots. and
list of parameters below is based on the infor- streets, can be measured. Models that use
mation needed by the various models used in small tributary areas may use input directly
the hydrologic analysis. Some parameters will from these small typical zones.
be inserted directly into a particular formula d. Infiltraticin
and others will be used in comparing one wa-
tershed to another for use in transferring data. This parameter car1 be estimated by making
field infiltration tests or using typical infil-
a. Basin Length tration rates for a particular soil type. Infil-
This information can usually be measured tration reflects the ability of the soil to ah-
from available topographic mapping. This sorb moisture. This parameter shall be
parameter is important in that the length of expressed in ceritimeters per hour. The infil-
the wadi channel has a direct impact on the tration rate may also be expressed as a decay
travel time from the upstream limits of the equation with infiltration rates being high at
drainage area to the design point. Shorter the beginning of a storm and decreasing as
travel time usually results in a higher dis- the storm continues and the soil becomes
charge. Longer travel time tends to reduce saturated.
the discharge at the design point. This pa- e. Detention Depression Storage
rameter also helps define the overall shape of
a drainage basin. Long, narrow basins will These parameters reflect those losses caused
generally produce lower discharges than by natural or manmade depressions thar de-
shorter, more compact drainage basins. crease runoff. It is usually necessary to esti-
Land development also affects travel time. If mate these depths either through the ohser-
development has occurred, a field inspection vation of previous runoff events or by mak-
of the basin should be made to determine ing detailed field measurements. Detention
changes in the basin length or travei dis- depression storage consists of those areas
tance. This is especially true for small that are not drained other than by infiltra-
basins. Manmade channels may have tion or slow release. Included would be mud
straightened out the natural sinuous course puddles, undrained street depressions,
of a wadi or the pattern of streets may cause depressions caused by ungraded fill areas,
the flow path to be longer than the natural plugged storm drains, depressions in grassed
straight course. These activities shall also be areas and other areas flooded by poor drain-
investigated and recorded. age even during minor storms.
 f Drainage Basin Roughness Coefficients percent equals 2.9 m/s. The critical velocity
for the same flow is only 2.1 m/s, some 27
This is defined as the average roughness co-
percent less. Clearly, the travel time for
efficient for a defined drainage area. These
routirrg would be considerably different for
roughness coefficients may be in the form of
the two situations.
Marrning's "n". The importance of this pa-
ramcter is that i t . along with marly of the When steep channel slopes are involved. the
other parameters previously discussed. ar- Froude number of the flow shall bc checked
fects the response time of a basin contribut- before proceeding with use of the transport
ing to runoff via overland flow. Lower models. If it appears rhat normal flow cal-
roughness coefficients lead to a shorter rc- culations would result in supercritical veloc-
sponse time and high discharges. High ities, the roughness coefficient for the chan-
roughness coefficients increase basin re- nel, normally Manning's "n". should be in-
sponse time and lead to lower discharges. It creased until critical velocities result.
has been found that overland flow roughness
The Froude number is defined as:
coefficients for impervious areas are consid-
erably less than those for pervious areas.
These roughness coefficients may range from b'gd
as low as 0.013 for parking lots up to 0.3 for where V = the mean velocity of flow in
lawns, pastures. elc. The following rough- meters per sec (m/s).
ness coefficients from overland flow areas g = the acceleration of gravity in
are recommended. meters per sec' (m/s2).
d = the hydraulic depth that is de-
fined as the cross sectional
area of the water normal to the
Asphall 0.012 direction of flow in the chan-
Concrete Paving 0.014 nel divided by the width of the
Highly Compacted free surface.
Natural Materials 0.025
Flow is supercritical when FR > 1.
Loosc Sand

1 Light Turf
~ ; n s eShrubbery and
Forest Litter 1 0.4 1
The formula for Manning's equation is given
later in this section.
h. Channel or Conduit Cross Section
g. Channel or Conduit Slope In the case of open channels, the channel
cross section can have a tremendous effect
This parameter is usually determined from on the flood discharges. Channel storage.
available topographic mapping. As is the especially in channels with extremely wide
case with the basin slope, this parameter, flood plains, can be very significant and can
along with channel roughness and channel reduce discharges considerably. Runoff
cross section, has a significant erect on re- models, however, do not usually include the
sponse time. Sleep channels tend to have effects of channel storage. It is, therefore,
very short response times. A field inspection very important that a field inspection of the
is recommended to determine if average channel be made t o determine if channel
map slope is representative of the channel storage should be considered.
slope. Typically, manmade channels, and of-
ten natural channels, include drop struc- i. Channel or Conduit Roughness
tures, resulting in a flatter effective channel Channel and conduit roughness usually has
grade. little effect on the predicted flood discharge
Rainfall-runoff models typically rely on the unless the channel or conduit roughness is
Manning equatiori to determine velocity of very high. This condition may exist in chan-
flow without regard to Froude number. nels grown over with trees and brush or in
Caution should be applied to this assump- conduits considered to have a constrictive
tion in stcep natural channels. It is generally effect on water surface elevations. Channel
held, although not universally accepted, that and conduit roughness does, however, have
natural channels seldom flow at supercritical some effect on basin response time and
velocity. Rather, they flow as a series of hy- should be considered in any hydrologic anal-
draulic jumps, with average flow velocity ysis. Reasonable estimates of channel rough-
equal to critical velocity. Normal flow veloc- ness can be made by visual inspection of the
ity in a char~nelwith a 1.2 m bottom width, channel or conduit being studied and com-
2:l side slopes, n = 0.045, arid slope of 8 parison to roughness factor, Table 2.07.2.
 Table 2.07.2
Values of the Roughness Coefficient "n"
Type of Channel and Deseriotion

A. Closed Conduits Flowing Partly Full

A-I. Metal
a. Brass, smooth
h. Steel
1 . Lockbar and welded
2. Riveted and spiral
c. Cast iron
1. Coated
2. Uncoated
d. Wrought iron
1. Black
2. Galvanized
e. Corrugated metal
1 . Subdrain
2. Storm drain
A-2. ~ o d m e t a l
a. Lucite
b. Glass
c. Cement
I. Neat, surface
2. Mortar
d. Concrete
1 . Culvert, straight and free of
debris
2. Culvert with bends, connec-
tions, and some debris
3. Finished
4. Sewer with manholes, inlet,
etc., straight
5 . Unfinished, steel form
6. Unfinished, smooth wood form
7. Unfinished, rough wood form
e. Wood
1. Stave
2. Laminated, treated
f. Clay
1 . Common drainage tile
2. Vitrified sewer
3. Vitrified sewer with manholes,
inlet, etc.
4. Vitrified subdrain with open
joint
g. Brickwork
1. Glazed
2. Lined with cement mortar
h. Sanitary sewers coated with sewage
slimes, with bends and connections
i. Paved invert, sewer, smooth bottom
j. Rubble masonary, cemented
 Table 2.07.2
Values of the Roughness Coefficient "n" (Continued)
Type of Channel and Description Minimum Normal Maximum

B. Lined or Built-up Channels

R-I. Metal
a. Smooth steel surface
1. Unpainted 0.01 1 0.012 0.014
2. Painted 0.012 0.013 0.017
b. Corrugated 0.02 1 0.025 0.030
B-2. Nonmetal
a. Cement
1. Neat, surface 0.010 0.01 1 0.0 13
2. Mortar 0.01 1 0.01 3 0.0 15
b. Wood
1. Planed, untreated 0010 0.012 0.014
2. Planed, creosoted 0.01 1 0.012 0.015
3. Unplaned 0.01 1 0.0 13 0.015
4. Plank with battens 0.012 0.015 0.018
5. Lined with roofing paper 0.010 0.014 0.017
c. Concrete
I . Trowel finish 0.01 1 0.013 0.01 5
2. Float finish 0.013 0.01 5 0.016
3. Finished, with gravel on
bottom 0.015 0.017 0.020
4. Unfinished 0.014 0.017 0.020
5. Gunite, good section 0.016 0.019 1 0.023
6. Gunite, wavey section 0.018 0.022 0.025
7. On good excavated rock 0.017 0.020
8. On irregular excavated rock 0.022 0.027
d. Concrete bottom float finished
with sides of
1. Dressed stone in mortar 0.015 0.017 0.020
2. Random stone in mortar 0.017 0.020 0.024
3. Cement rubble masonry,
plastered 0.016 0.020 0.024
4. Cement rubble masonry 0.020 0.025 0.030
5. Dry rubble or riprap 0.020 0.030 0.035
e. Gravel bottom with sides of
1. Formed concrete 0.017 0.020 0.025
2. Random stone in mortar 0.020 0.023 0.026
3. Dry rubble or riprap 0.023 0.033 0.036
f. Brick
1. Glazed 0.01 1 0.013 0.015
2. In cement mortar 0.012 0.015 0.018
g. Masonry
1. Cemented rubble 0.017 0.025 0.030
2. Dry rubble 0.023 0.032 0.035
h. Dressed ashlar 0.013 0.015 0.017
i. Asphalt
1. Smooth 0.013 0.0 13
2. Rough 0.016 0.0 16
j. Vegetal lining 0.030 ..... 0.500
 Table 2.07.2
Values of the Roughness Coefficient "n" (Continued)
Type of Channel and Description Minimum Normdl hlaximurn

C. Excavated or Dredged
a. Earth, straight and uniform
I . Clean, recently con~pleted 0.016 0.018 0.020
2. Clean. after weathering 0.018 0.022 0.025
3. Gravel, uniform section, clean 0.022 0.025 0.030
4. With short grass. few weeds 0.022 0.027 0.033
b. Earth, winding and sluggish
1. No vegetation 0.023 0.025 0.030
2. Grass, some weeds 0.025 0.030 0.033
3. Dense weeds or aquatic plants
in deep channels 0.030 0.035 0.040
4. Earth bottom and rubble sides 0.028 0.030 0.035
5. Stony bottom and weedy banks 0.025 0.035 0.040
6. Cobble bottom and clean sidcs 0.030 0.040 0.050
c. praglinc-excavated or dredge
I . No vegetation 0.02 0.028 0.033
. Light brush on banks 0.035 0.050 0.060
d. Rock cuts
1. Smooth and uniform 0.025 0.035 0.040
2. Jagged and irregular 0.035 0.040 0.050
e. Channels not maintained, weeds
artd hrush uncut
1. Dense weeds, high as flow
depth 0.050 0.080 0.120
2. Clean bottom. brush on sides 0.040 0.050 0.080
3. Same, highest stage of flow 0.045 0.070 0.110
4. Dense brush, high stage 0.080 0.100 0.140
D. Natural Wadis
D-I. Minor wadis (top width at flood
stage < 30 m)
a. Wadis on plain
1. Clean, straight, full stage, no
rifts or deep pools 0.025 0.030 0.033
2. Same as above, but more
stones and weeds 0.030 0.035 0.040
3. Clean, winding, some pools
and shoals 0.033 0.040 0.045
4. Same as above, but some weeds
and stones 0.035 0.045 0.050
5. Same as above, lower stages,
more ineffective slopes and
sections 0.040 0.048 0.055
6. Same as 4, but more stunes 0.045 0.050 0.060
7. Sluggish reaches, weedy, deep
pools 0.050 0.070 0.080
8. Very weedy reaches, deep
pools. or floodways with heavy
stand of timber and underbrush 0.075 0.100 0.150
b. Mountain wadis, no vegetation in
channel, banks usually steep, trees
and brush along banks submerged
at high stages
1. Bottom: gravels, cobbles, and
few boulders 0.030 0.040 0.050
2. Bottom: cobbles with large
boulders 0.040 0.050 0.070
 Table 2.07.2
Values of the Roughness Coefficient "n" (Continued)
Type of Channel md Description hlinimum Rorrnal Maximum

D-2. Flood plains

a. Pasture, no brush
1. Short grass 0.022 0.030 0.035
2. High grass 0.030 0.035 0.050
b. Cultivated areas
1. No crop 0.020 0.030 0.040
2. Mature row crops 0.025 0.035 0.045
3. Mature field crops 0.030 0.040 0.050
c. Brush
1. Scattered brush, heavy weeds 0.035 0.050 0.070
2. Light brush and trees. in
winter 0.035 0.050 0.060
3. Light brush and trees, in
summer 0.040 0.060 0.080
4. Medium to dense brush, in
winter 0.045 0.070 0.110
5. Medium to dense brush. in
summer 0.070 0.100 0.160
d. Trees
1 . Dense willows, summer,
straight 0.110 0.150 0.200
2. Cleared land with tree stumps.
no sprouts 0.030 0.040 0.050
3. Same as above, but with heavy
growth of sprouts 0.050 0.060 0.080
4. Heavy stand of timber, a few
down trees, little undergrowth,
flood stage below branches 0.080 0.100 0.120
5. Same as above, but with flood
stage reaching branches 0.100 0.120 0.160
D-3. Major wadis (top width at flood stage
> 30 m). The n value is less than
that for minor wadis of similar
description, because banks offer less
effective resistance.
a. Regular section with no boulders
or brush 0.025 ..... 0.060
b. Irregular and rough section 0.035 ..... 0.100

3. Flood Estimates Discharge estimates employing these indirect

Listed below are several methods for use in methods are based on the correlation between
estimating peak runoff from drainage areas. peak runoff \,alucs and measurable watershed
The first method, the Rational Equation, uti- parameters. The last method, Regression
lizes existing rainfall data and land use in esti- Equations, are formulas that were developed
mating discharge. Its use shall be limited to for use in the Stale of Arizona of the United
small drainage areas. The next method, the States of America. Sections of Arizona closely
Gumbel Distribution, uses existing gaging sta- resemble parts of Saudi Arabia. Where either
tion information in a statistical analysis. This rainfall or gaging data is unavailable, this
method bases its flood estimates on the spatisti- resemblence may he used to establish a storm
cal distribution of previous flood peaks. The runoff.
Indirect Estimate methods shall be used on The following table shall be used in selecting a
ungaged watersheds where runoff data does particular flood estimate procedure.
not exist or exists in very limited quantities.
 Table 2.07.3 It yields only a peak flow, not a
Flood Estimating hlctbods hydrograph.
hlethod Basin Description It assumes that runoff is linearly related
to rainfall.
Rational Areas less than 50 ha.
Equation It assumes the rainfall excess for a
given return period will produce the
Gumbel Areas greater than 100 ha with rur~offfor the same return period.
Distribution gaging statiorr data a t t h e bile.
Runoff Cocficient-Typical values of runoff
Irtdirecr Areas greater than 100 ha with coefficients for use in either rural or urban
Estimates gaginp station data from neigh- areas are listed in Tables 2.07.4 and 2.07.5.
borirrg walersheds.
Regression Areas greater than 100 ha with Table 2.07.4
Equations rainfall data. Typical C Coefficients
Urban Areas
Whether one of these methods or any other
method is chosen to estimate the watershed
runoff, the Engineer shall include in the final
4
design report copy of sample computations
and any references used.
The recurrence intervals for use with
hydrologic computations shall he as follows: Single-Family Areas
Multiunits, Detached

Expressway 100-year (1 percent)

Arterials 50-year (2 percent)
Collectors 50-year (2 percent)
Local

a. Rational Equation
This formula states that the rate of runoff is
proportional to the rate of supply (rainfall
excess) if the rain lasts long enough to per-
mit the entire area to contribute.

I The equation takes the following form:

CIA
Q = --
360
where Q = flow in cubic meters per second
for a return period equal to that of the rain-
fall intensity, I.
C = a runoff coefficient expressing the frac-
tion of the rainfall that is assumed to be-
come direct runoff.
I = the rainfall intensity in millimeters per
hour for a duratlon corresponding to the
catchment area and having a recurrence pe-
I riod appropriate to the project conditions.

I A = the drainage area in hectares

I This method has several important limita-

tions:
 2.07 C

Table 2.07.5
Typical C Coefficients
Rural Areas
Watershed Characteristics
A R C D
Relief Soil Infiltration Vegetal Cover Surface Storage

0.40 0.20 0.20 0.20

Steep rugged No effective soil No effective Negligible;
terrain; average cover: either plant cover; surface depression
slopes greater rock or thin soil bare or very few and shallow;
than 30% mantle negligible sparse soil drainage ways
infiltration cover steep and small,
capacity no ponds or
marshes

0.30 0.15 0.15 0.15

Hilly with Slow to take up Poor to fair: Low; well defined
average slopes water: clay, or clean culti- system of small
of 10 to 30% other soil of vated crops or drainage ways, no
low infiltration poor natural ponds or marshes.
capacity such as cover; less
heavy gumbo than 10% of area
under good cover

0.20 0.10 0.10 0.10

Rolling with Normal, deep loam Fair to good; Normal: consider-
average slopes about 50% of able surface de-
of 5 to 10% area in good pression storage;
grass land, typical of prairie
woodland or lands; lakes,
equivalent ponds, and marshes
cover less than 20% of
area

0.10 0.05 0.05 0.05

Relatively flat High, deep sand Good to excel- High; surface de-
land average or other soil lent; about 50% pression storage
slopes 0 to 5% that takes up of area in good high; drainage
water readily and grass land; system not sharply
rapidly woodland or defined, large
equivalent cover flood plain stor-
age: large number
of ponds and
marshes

Note; R u n f l coqfficieni is equal io sum of c o e ~ c i e n t u

Percent
from the appropriate block in Rows A. R. C. and D. of Total Coefficient
Area Type
These runoff coefficients shall be proportioned to the
percentage of oren covered. Light 20
20 ha % = 0'31 0.65
industrial
Example: A watershed consists of 20 ha of
light industrial areas, 30 ha of apartment Apartment 30
- -
30 ha - 0.46 0.60
dwelling areas, and 15 ha of residential sin- dwelling 65
gle family areas.
Residential
15
Total Area = 65 ha 1 5 ha single - = 0.23 0.40
65
family
Runoff Coeffictent C = ~ninutecand dividing hy [he appropriate
(0 31 X 0.65) t (0.46 X 0.60) - (0.23 X rainfall duration.
0.40) = 0.57 This new set of data is then plotted on
Huit~full Intensity-The rainfall intensity standard graph paper comparing rainfall
value used in the Ratiorial Equation is based il~tenhityversus duration. Curves are then
on essentially three items. These are: the drawn connecting points with similar fre-
amount of rainfall [hat occurs, the time it quencies. This final graph is the Intensity-
takes for this amount of rainfall to occur, Duration-Frequency curve we need to
and the recurrerice interval associated with complete our design.
each design class. These three factors are
A n example of this procedure using data
brought together in an intensity-duration-
from Gaging Station K-001 iri Riyadh fol-
frequency curve (IDF). These curves may be
lows. The example uses only the 30 minute
available from AGWAT. If not available In-
and 1 hour data.
cally, they can he developed with local rain-
Fall data using the following steps.
Step 1
Using the rainfall data gathered in
Maximum Depth of Rainfall (mm)
1-2.07135, list the niaximum depth of rain-
fall (mm) for a specific duration for cach 30 Minute 1 Hour
Year Duration Duration
year of rtcord. This list shall be made for
the follokring durations: 1964 9.0 11.5
10. 20, 30 minutes: 1, 2, 3, 6, 12. and 24 1965 12.0 20.0
hours. 1966 - 2.0
These data are the11 ranked froni lowest 1967 7.0 10.0
to higheht and assigned a plotting posi- 1968 11.0 143
tio~i.The formula for the plotting positiuri 1969 - 5.0
is 1970 2.0 4.0
1971 18.6 21.0
100 m 13.5
Plotting Position = -- 1972 10.0
N 1 2.2 3.5
1973
where N = the total number of ranked 1974 2.0 3.8
rainfall data. 1975 6.0 9.0
m = the rank \ d u e of the rainfall 1976 - 5.6
data.
The rainfall data are then plotted versus Step 2
their plotting positio~lson standard prob- Rank data and determine return period and
ability paper. These points are then fitted plotting position.
with a curve. This procedure is repeated
Position Position
for all rainfall durations.
30 Min. %!!! 60 Min. ?%!
Once these data have been plotted and the Rank Data N +1 Data N t 1
appropriate curves drawn, the Engineer
1 2.0 9.09 2.0 7.14
then determines the rainfall depths for the
2 2.0 18.2 3.5 14.3
25-, SO-, and 100-year events from these
3 2.2 27.3 3.8 21.4
curves. This is done by first compuling
4 6.0 36.4 4.0 28.6
the 11onexceed;ince probability for each
5 7.0 45.5 5.0 35.7
event. The follo\ving formula is used:
6 9.0 54.5 5.6 42.9
1 7 10.0 63.6 9.0 50.0
Nonexceedance Probabihty = 100 ( 1 - -1
Tr 8 11.0 72.7 10.0 57.1
wher6I'r = the return interval for each 9 12.0 81.8 11.5 64.3
event. 10 18.6 90.9 13.5 71.4
11 14.5 78.6
This nonexceedance probability is then
12 20.0 85.7
located along the horizontal axis. By
13 21.0 92.9
drawing a line vertically through this
poirit and intersecting the rainfall curve,
Step 3
the rainfall depth for that particular rc-
turn interval is obtained. These rainfall These values are plotted in Figures 2.07.1
depths are then converted to rainfall in- and 2.07.2.
tensities (mm/hr) by multiplying by 60
 Nonexceedance Probabilitv

Figure 2.07.1
30 Minute Rainfall Duration
Gage: R-001 Riyadh
Date: 5-10-80

0.01 0.05 0.1 0 2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 98 99 99.8 99.9 99.99

Nonexceedance Probability

Figure 2.07.2
60 Minute Rainfall Duration
Gage: R-001 Riyadh
Date: 5-10-80
2.07 C

Step 4
Determine rainfall depths for given return
intervals.

Step 5
Plot Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curve
(Figure 2.07.3).
100

80

-
,
c
L

-,. 60
-
.-

-
0
c
w
c
-
-
-
3 40
.-c
m
[I

20

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Rainfall Duration lmin.)

Figure 2.07.3
I
Intensity Duration Frequency Curve
Gage: R-001 Riyadh

In using this type of statistical approach in conditions. It is their intent that rainfall
determining an I D F curve, one can see the data within a zone be considered homogene-
need for large amounts of rainfall data. The ous and independent and apply uniformly
more information used in the analysis the throughout the zone. The zone boundaries
better the accuracy in the runoff estimation. are delineated on Figure 2.07.4. When using
Unfortunately, information does not always this assumption, the Engineer shall check
exist where the Engineer would like to have the independence and correlation of data by
it. In response to this problem, AGWAT has using standard statistical tests.
established zones with similar hydrologic

142
 Figure 2.07.4
Rainfall Zones in Saudi Arabia

Time of Concenlrarion-The next step is to other words, the time of concentration is the
employ the information on the IDF curve interval of time from the beginning of rain-
and compute the time of concentration of fall to the time when water from the most
the runoff from the watershed. The rime of remote portion of the drainage area reaches
concentration (Tc) is defined as the interval the inlet of the drainage structure. The time
of time in minutes required for the flow at a of concentration for urban areas may be de-
given point to hecome a maximum. This termined using Figure 2.07.5 when the flow
generally occurs when all parts of the drain- is overland.
age area are contributing to the flow. In
Tc = Time of concentration in minutes
L = Length in meters
S = Slope in percent

Figure 2.07.5
Time of Concentration for Use with Rational Equation
(Urban Areas)
 2.07 C

Example: A basin with an average slope of urement of 65 ha, the runoff from the basin
0.4 percent and a main channel length of would be
800 m would produce a time of concentra- CIA
tion of 28 minutes. A 28 minute time of Q=%
concentration would mean the peak runoff (0.57) (43) (65)
would occur and level off after 28 minutes of Q50 =
rainfall. Using the Intensity Duration Fre- 360
quency Chart developed in the previous ex- Q,,= 4.43 m'/sec
ample (Figure 2.07.3), a 50-year event b, ~ ~ ~ i ~ ~ ~b i b ~ ~ t li ~ ~
would have a rainfall intensity of 43 mm/hr.
The Gumbel Distribution can be applied to
When the flow is concentrated in curb and a series of annual flood peaks in two differ-
gutters, drainage channels, or conduits, the ent ways, graphically or analytically. The
time of concentration can be determined us- graphical solution is the easier to use but its
ing the flow velocity. The flow velocity may results are based on the judgment of the En-
be estimated by using the Manning equa- gineer when he fits a curve to the plotted
tion: data. The analytical approach yields a con-
" =
n
~ 2 ' 3~ " 2
sistent result, but it is more complex and
requires the use of several equations.
where V = mean velocity in meters The Engineer shall use both methods and
per second

a
compare results in order to make a com-
n = Manning coefficient of putation check.
roughness
R = hydraulic radius in meters Graphical Solution
S = slope in percent Often the simplest way to examine fre-
The time of concentration will then be the quency relationships for a given set of gag-
flow distances divided by the velocity of ing station data is to plot the data on graph
flow. paper, fit a curve to the data, and predict
future flood flows from the curve.
The rainfall intensity can now be determined
using the time of and the IDF TO Use this method, follow the steps listed
curves. The duration of the storm is set
equal to the time of concentration. Using Select the annual flood peaks from the
this duration value, the Engineer locates the gaging station information listed in
proper value on the x-axis of the I D F curve. 1-2.07B6. Array the annual series in de-
He then draws a vertical line through the scending order and assign an order num-
2 5 , 50-, or 100-year recurrence interval
lines. Projecting these intersections horizon-
tally to the y-axis he thus determines the
. ber "m" to each annual event.
Determine the plotting position (return
interval) for each annual event. The for-
rainfall intensity for each recurrence interval mula for the plotting position is

a for a given storm duration.

A study of the standard storm duration-
rainfall intensity curves indicates that, for
short duration storms, the rainfall intensity
Tr= -
N + l
m
where N = the total number of annual
events.
changes rapidly with a change in the storm m = the order number of each par-
duration. Consequently, attention should be ticular event.
given to computing an accurate time of con- Tr = the plotting position or return
centration for small drainage areas. interval.
Drainage Area-The drainage area is then The data are then plotted, discharge ver-
determined for each particular segment of sus return interval, on Gumbel Distribu-
the watershed. tion paper. Figure 2.07.6 is plotted on
Gumbel Distribution paper.
With these three factors; the runoff coeffi-
A straight line is then fitted through these
cient, the rainfall intensity, and the drainage
area, the Engineer can complete his design. points and flood flows for any given fre-
Inserting these values into the Rational quency can be read from the graph.
Equation the peak discharge for the water- Example: Predict the Q,, and Q,, from the
shed is calculated. following flood records.
Example: Using the runoff coefficient (0.57)
and the rainfall intensity (43 mm/hr) previ-
ously developed and a drainage area meas-

145
 Step 2:
Order Ranked
Yumber Discharac

Step 3
Plot the discharge versus the plotting posi-
tion (recurrence interval) on the Cumbel
Distribution paper. Figure 2.07.6.

0
1 01 1.1 1.2 1.31 41.5 2 3 1 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 20 30 40 50 100 200
Recurrence Interval. In Years

Figure 2.07.6
Example Problem
Gage: Synthetic
Date: 5-10-80
 2.07 C

Step 4: where X and S are defined below and K is a

factor that is a function of the recurrence

a From the curve drawn on Figure 2,07.6, the

values for Qi, and Q,,, are 1 2 and 124 m'/s
respectively.
Analytical Solution
interval. Values of K can be obtained from
Table 2.07.6.
The mean and standard deviation of the
data may be computed by using the follow-
Flood events are a succession of natural ing equations:
events that, as far as can be determined, do
not fit any one specific statistical distribu- x = -z xi
-

N
tion. However, studies have shown that the
1 (Xi - X)Z ."
Gumbel Distribution closely approximates a
natural series of flood events.
The recommended method for fitting the
S=[
N-1
where Xi = Annual ~ e a kflows
I
- = Number of items in data set
N
Gumbel Distribution to observed peaks is to
compute the mean and standard deviation of X = Mean
the data and substitute into the following S = Standard deviation
equation: K,,,, = Coefficient dependent on
T and N
Q = X + Kir~lS T = Recurrence interval

a 147
 Table 2.07.6
Frequency Factor KIT N i

148
 Table 2.07.6
Frequency Factor K(T N , (Continued)

Example: Solve the problem given in the

graphical solution by using the analytical
method.
Data: 94, 90, 86, 84, 71, 65, 63, 42, 34
Data Mean: X =
1 xi
--
N

Standard Deviation:
x
2 (Xi - ): = (94 - 69.9)' +
(90 - 69.9): +
(86 - 69.9)' + (84 - 69.9)' +(71 - 69.9)'
+ (65 - 69.9): + (63 - 69.9)' +
(42 - 69.9)'
+ (34 - 69.9)' =
2 (Xi - X)' = (24.1)' +
(20.1)' +
(16.1)' +
(14.1): + +
(].I)> (-4.9)" +
(-6.9)> +
(-27.9)' + (-35.9)' = 3,582.9
Compute Coefficient K l r ~as, follows: The equation for predicting the discharge
Although there are only nine values in the would have the form Q = a bx. Where Q+
data set, use the K values for 10 from Table is the discharge. x is a basin parameter
2.07.6. (possibly precipitation) and "a" and "b" are
For the 25-year event. KILI.IO, = 2.847.
coefIicicnts to be estimated. These estimates
arc determined by the following formulas:
For the 50-year event. K,5,,.lo,= 3.588.
Therefore: b =
Z Xi Q,
Xi'
Q2, = X + K,2:.l,jlS = 69.9 + 2.847 (21.2)
= 130 mVsec a =Q - bZ Xi)
n
Q," = X + Klio,lolS= 69.9 + 3.588 (21.2)
where Xi = A basin parameter (precipita-
= 146 m V s
tion)
c. Indirect Estimates Q, = The discharges correspor~dir~g
More often than not, gaging station data will to these parameters
not exist at the locatior~in the wadi where a n = The number of data points used
culvert or bridge is to be placed. When this in the analysis
occurs, the Engineer shall transfer data ei- Once "a" and "b" have been determined,
ther from within the same watershed or the basin parameter for the particular site to
from neighboring basins, for use at the be crossed is substituted into the equation
crossing. Only those neighboring basins that and the discharge is calculated. Using a
have similar watershed parameters (Section range of recurrence intervals from the other
1-2.07C2) shall be employed in the transfer watersheds, a flood frequency relationship
of information. can be determined.
The prediction of peak flows from ungaged Example: Using the following data, deter-
watersheds shall consist of two parts. First, mine the linear relationship between the pre-
the data rrom upstream, downstream, or cipitation and corresponding runoff.
neighboring gaged watersheds shall be ana-
lyzed for peak flows using the Gumhel Maximum 24-hour precipitation and arsoci-
Distribution described previously. Then the ated runoff for Noname Wadi.
Engineer shall transfer this information to
the desired crossing using the graphical or Year Precipitation Runoff
analytical approaches described below. (mm) (m3/sec)

Graphical 1953 42.39 13.26

Once the peak flows for the desired recur- 1954 33.48 3.31
rence intervals have been determined for the 1955 47.67 15.17
neighboring watersheds, these values are 1956 50.24 15.50
plotted versus a watershed parameter on ei- 1957 43.28 14.22
ther normal or logarithmic graph paper. 1958 52.60 21.20
Plotting the discharge versus the drainage 1959 31.06 7.70
area is recommended. After these points 1960 50.02 17.64
have been plotted, a curve is drawn through 1961 47.08 22.91
them. The discharge for the desired site is 1962 47.08 18.89
then determined using this curve. 1963 40.89 12.82
1964 37.31 11.58
Analytical 1965 37.15 15.17
The discharges as determined by the 1966 40.38 10.40
Gumbel Distribution on the gaged 1967 45.39 18.02
watersheds are listed in a tabular form alor~g 1968 41.03 16.25
with several of the watershed parameters For
each basin used. A linear or multiple re- For this example let Xi equal the individual
gression analysis, as described in any stan- precipitation values and Y, be the runoff
dard statistical manual, can then be per- values. Also, let xi be the difference between
formed on the data. The results of this type the individual precipitation values and the
of analysis will enable the prediction of dis- mean value, X, and yi be the difference be-
charge from any watershed within that par- tween the runoff values and the runoff mean,
~ ~

ticular region of the country. Y.

A n example of this method using only one
-

X = Mean =
zx,
-
n
parameter, a linear regression analysis, is de-
scribed as follows:
-

Y = Mean =
XYi
-
n
 The relationship between the runoff and the
precipitation will be described by the lir~ear Regression equations similar to the one pre-
equation: viously discussed havc been developed for
Y = a +b)< use in the arid and desert-like regions of the
herc
1%
south&~estpart of thc United States. A very
liberal translation of these equations will al-
a =L Y - b r x,) or (\; b n) low for their use in Saudi Arabia. Where
I1
limited data are available, equations shall be
developed using the methods previously de-
scribed. Where no data exist, the following
techniques can be used to estimate the basin
discharge.
..
Table 2.07.7
And the correlation coefficient:
Regression Equations for Flood Magnitudes
Q = Flood magnitude in cubic meters
per second for indicated rccurrence
The corrclatior~coefficient is an indicator of interval.
how well the computed line tits the observed A = Drainage area in square kilon~eters.
data. The closer r' is to 1.0 the better the E = Mean basin elevation in thousands
relationship of meters above mean sea level.
Calculations: P = Mean annual precipitation in
n~illimeters.
Standard I:rror
Equation of Estimate
in Percent
Hydrologic Region 1

Q, 1.63 AO.4::':l
= 76
Q, = 3.98 A ~ . ~ ~ ~5 3 ~
Q,,, = 6.34 A"'$'5 53
Q,<= 10.4 A"'" 62
Q,,, = 14.4 An""" 72
Q,,,,: = 9.4 83
- 34.9 A<l.SU9
Q
101: - 111
Hydrologic Region 2

0,00147 ~ 0 . 6 X lE~O.,5O"
= ~1.03
81
Q:
0,00706 A" 6") EE".X" "P""X
= '4
Q5
0,0152 AOGM EE-1.00p l l P T 1
= 58
Q ,,:
= 0,0354 AOG" E.l.ld llil.944 58
Q ,5
Q = 0.0594 *"."".'." p093:l
61
5"
- 0.0969 A0 " 0 E-1." O'OW'i 66
Q Irj,, -
~n,l -
0.250 A0 595 E~l.4.5~11.886 78
- Q ,

Hydrologic Region 3

Q: = 0,355 ~ 0 . 4 ps x i 83
Q. = 0,426 All.??"p . 6 0 74
The linear equatlon that can be used to de- Q , = 0.453 A04'"4.31 75
scribe the relationship between precipitation Q = 0.490 A0""8E510 80
and runoff is Q = 0,499 ~ 0 . 2 8 3~ 5 . 6 0 85
T = -13.2 0.65 X+ Q

Q
100
- 0.520 A0.36"G.09
-
- 0,544 *0.34"i.04
91
The correlation coefficient for the relation- -On - 107
ship is Refer to Figure 2.07.7 for the location of
r-. = b Zxi y, 0.6480 (369.4230) -
~~~ -
0,66 each Hydrologic Region.
Zyi' 363.0714
The standard error of estimate associated
Thus, 66 percent of the variation in Y is with each regression equation the E ~ -
explained by the regression equation. The gineer a hint as to the amount of confidence
remaining 34 percent of the variation is due he shall have in the use of this method.
to other factors.
 Figure 2.07.7
Hydrologic Regions in Saudi Arabia
 Section 2.08 Traffic Survevs and
Projections
A. Introduction The procedures set forth herein meet the mini-
mum requirements, and do not preclude the
Traffic volumes are basic to all phases of high-
Engineer from using more sophisticated proce-
way development and operation. No other sin-
dures such as comprehensive origin-destina-
gle reference tells an Engineer as much about
tion surveys, traffic modeling, etc., if the Engi-
a road as the number of vehicles that use it.
neer feels they are required.
Traffic volumes are needed for highway plan-
ning, project cost-benefit comparisons, priority
B. Minimum M O C Procedures for Traffic
determinations, analyzing, monitoring and
Volume Studies
controlling traffic movement on the highways,
traffic accident surveillance, research purposes, The following discussion specifies the mini-
highway maintenance, public information, mum MOC procedures that shall be met when
highway legislation and for many other pur- traffic studies are conducted to estimate the
poses. However, it should be carefully observed present and future ADT for highway project
that the traffic survey and projection tech- design. Three functional classes of highways
niques described herein are specifically ori- (Primary, Secondary, and Feeder) and five
ented toward providing traffic volume data types of improvements (up-grading existing
required by highway project design as is the Primary or Secondary Highway; new Primary

a orientation of the entire HDM (also, see

1-1.06B12).
It is the goal of the MOC to establish a perma-
nent automated traffic data collection system
or Secondary Highway on new location; up-
grading existing intersection/interchange on
Primary or Secondary Highway; new intersec-
tiodinterchange on existing Primary or Sec-
ondary Highway, and new Feeder Highway)
for the Kingdom. However, until this system is
are considered.
fully developed and implemented, the specific
procedures outlined in this section shall be fol-
lowed in establishing traffic data for highway
projects.
Type of Improvement Traffic Counting Procedures
.
-

1. Upgrading existing Primary Twenty-four hour counts shall be taken

or Secondary Highways for 7 continuous days during each of the fol-
lowing 4 seasons. Total hourly volumes shall
be recorded using portable mechanical count-
ers. 1. R. AWAL to J. AWAL, 2. J. THAN1 to
SHABAN, 3. RAMADHAM to D. QUDAH,
and 4. D. HIJJAH to SAFAR. The Engineer
may wave the requirement for some of the sea-
sonal counts when the urgency of the highway
project requires that it be completed within 12
months.
Counts shall not be taken on special holidays
or during events that occur only once a year.
Special considerations may be necessary in the
vicinity of Jeddah-Makkah-Madinah during
the Hajj.
Counters shall be placed at points of obvious
traffic volume change or suspected points of
change, such as, special traffic generators and
road intersections where large volumes of traf-
fic either enter or depart the major road.
Twenty-four hour manual classification counts
shall be made on Sunday, Monday, and Tues-
day in order to determine the percentage of
trucks classified by number of axles. The man-
ual counts are to be taken at the location of
each mechanical counter. The information
from the manual survey shall be used to verify
the machine counts.
,
I
-~ Type o f Improvement
--
---

Mechanical and manual counts shall he made

for both directions of traffic
~~

at each location.
Traffic Counting Procedures
-

,-~
-~ - ~ ~
~
--

2. New Primary or Secondary Information on future land use develop-

Highways on new location ments in the vicinity of the planned new high-
way shall he obtained from the Ministry of
Planning and Ministry of Municipal and Rural
Affairs.
Counts shall be taken on two highways of a
similar class in thc closest feasible proximity to ,
the planned new highway !
Twenty-four hour counts shall he taken for 7
continuous days during each of thc following 4
seasons. Total hourly volumes shall be re-
corded using portable mechanical counters. 1.
K. AWAL to J. AWAL, 2. J. THAN1 to SHA-
BAN, 3. KAMADHAN to D. QUDAH, and
4. D. HIJJAH to SAFAR. The Engineer may
wave the requirement for some of the seasonal
counts when the urgency of the highway pro-
ject requires that it he completed within 12
months.
Counts shall not be taken on special holidays
or during events that occur only oncc a year.
Special considerations may be necessary in the
vicinity of Jeddah-Makkah-Madinah during
the H a j .
Counters shall he placed at points of obvious
traffic volume change or suspected points of
change, such as, special traffic generators and
road intersections where large volumes of traf-
fic either enter or depart the major road.
Twenty-four hour manual classification counts
shall be made on Sunday, Monday, and Tues-
day in order to determine the percentage of
trucks classified by number of axles. The man-
ual counts are to be taken at the location of
each mechanical counter. The information
from the manual survey shall be used to verify
the machine counts.
Mechanical and manual counts shall be made
for both directions of traffic at each location.
When estimating the traffic volume for the new
highway the information collected on the plan-
ned new de\,elopments and the estimated di-
version of traffic from nearby highways shall
be
~-
considered. - ~~

3. Upgrading existing inter- Twenty-four hour manual counts shall be

sections/interchanges on taken for 7 continuous days during each
Primary or Secondary of the following 4 seasons. I.R. AWAL to
Highway I! J. AWAL, 2. J. THAN1 to SHABAN, 3.
RAMADHAN to D. QUDAH, and 4. D.
HIJJAH to SAFAR. Total hourly volumes,
hourly turning movements, and percentage of
trucks classified by number of axles shall be
recorded for each leg of the Intersection/Inter-
change. The Engineer may wave the require-
-. - - ~~ -
 Type of Improvement Traffic Counting Procedures-
--

1
~ ~p
~p~

ment for some of the seasonal counts when the

urgency of the highway project requires that it
be completed within 12 months.
Counts shall not be taken on special holidays
or during events that occur only once a year.
Special considerations may be necessary in the
vicinity of Jeddah-Makkah-Madinah during
the Ha).
One or more trained individuals should be

I
safely located in the near vicinity of the inter-
change in order to accurately record the vari-
ous traffic volumes, turning movements? and
truck classification. -
~ ~
-

1 4. New intersection/interchange For Existing Highway

on existing Prirnary or Twenty-four hour counts shall be taken
Secondary Highway for 7 continuous days during each of the fol-
lowing 4 seasons. Total hourly volumes shall
be recorded using portable mechanical
counter(s). 1. R. AWAL to J. AWAL, 2. J.
THAN1 to SHABAN. 3. RAMADHAN to D.
QUDAH, and 4. D . HIJJAH to SAFAR. The
Engineer may wave the requirement for some
of the seasonal counts when the urgency of the
highway project requires that it be completed
within 12 months.
Counts shall not be taken on special holidays
or during events that occur only once a year.
Special considerations may be necessary in the
vicinity of Jeddah-Makkah-Madinah during
the Hajj.
Twenty-four hour manual classification counts
shall be made on Sunday, Monday, and Tues-
day in order to determine the percentage of
trucks classified by number of axles. The man-
ual counts are to be taken at the location of
each mechanical counter(s). The mechanical
counter(s) shall be located near the proposed
intersectionhnterchange.
For Proposed Intersecting Highway
Analyze the design ADT for the new proposed
highway. Also, review the anticipated purpose
for providing this new highway.
Determine the population, employment, and
auto ownership levels of municipalities that
will have increased access to the existing and
new highways.
Obtain information on future land use develop-
ments in the vicinity of the planned new high-
way intersectiodinterchange from the Min-
istry of Planning and Ministry of Municipal

1
and Rural Affairs.
Conduct "Road-side Interview Origin-
Destination Surveys" (25 percent sample)
outside the nearby municipalities in order to
estimate the directional distribution of traffic
at the proposed intersection/interchange.
.- ~ -
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155
 Type of Improvement Traffic Counting Procedures

/ 5. New Feeder Highway

1
Alternative Procedure # 1
Use standard Feeder Highway design-
therefore no counts required.
Alternative Procedure # 2 I
Twelve hour manual counts taken from 6 a.m.
to 6 p.m. on Sunday, Monday, and Tuesday.
Total hourly volumes shall be recorded.
Trained counter shall be located on the exist-
ing track near the intersection of the track and
the main highway.
The daily 24 hour flow of traffic is estimated by
multiplying the 12 hour volume by 2.

C. Traffic Projections
The Kingdom's highways are designed to serve
the traffic volume anticipated during the next
20 years. Thus, the existing A D T must be proj-
ected over a 20-year time frame. Many vari-
ables such as growth in auto ownership and
vehicle registration, population, employment,
and residential/commercial/industrial land
uses strongly influence the future traffic vol-
ume. Presently, there does not exist a long
historical record of past growth trends for
these important variables. However, the Engi-
neer shall carefully evaluate all available data
files on these important variables from the
Ministry of Planning and Ministry of Munici-
pal and Rural Affairs.

The following formulas shall be used to deter-

mine the ADT for a 20-year time frame A D T
(20). The Engineer must determine the present
ADT by using the minimum level procedures
outlined in this section of the HDM or propose
other technically sophisticated procedures. In
addition, the Ebgineer must estimate the antic-
ipated annual percent of traffic growth for the
next 20 years by considering all previously ac-
quired data regarding all activity growth in the
proximity of the highway improvement. These
formulas may be applied under assumptions of
increasing, decreasing, or equal percentages of
traffic growth over the 20-year projection. For-
mula A shall be used when the Engineerjudges
that the traffic volume over the next 20 years
will increase geometrically (exponentially)
more so than linearly (straight line). Formula
B shall be used when the Engineer judges that
the traffic volume will increase linearly.
Formula A
A D T (20) = ADT present X Growth Factor (GF)

Formula I3
AIIT (20) = 4 D T prewnt t
Annual
- % Traffic Growth X ADT pre\etlt X 20
100
Examples
The following is an example of the use of the
two formulas when the annual percent of traf-
fic growth is anticipated to be 10 percent and
the ADT present equals 4.000.
Formula A
A D T (20) = 4.000 ( 1 110)"= 4,000 (1.10)"
100
= 4.000 (6 7 3 ) = 26,920
Formula 13
ADT (20) = 4,000 + ( l o 4,000) x 20
100

The following is an example of the use nf the

two formulas when the annual percent of traf-
fic growth is ar~ticipatedto be 15 percent over
the first 5-year period and 10 percent over the
last 15-year period. The ADT present equals
4,000.
Formula A
ADT (20) = 4.000 [(
1 t I5
100
1+(l +-
IO)']
100

15 X 4.000 l0X 4,000

ADT (20) = 4,000 +