Chapter 4 Wcu

CHAPTER FOUR collection and distribution
CHAPTER FOUR
4. COLLECTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER
4.1 Intakes.
Intakes are devices or structures in a surface water source to draw water from this source and
then discharge in to an intake conduit through which it will flow in to the water works
system.
An intake consists of:
 The opening, strainer, or grating through which the water enters, and
 The conduit conveying the water, usually by gravity, to a well or sump.
From the well the water is pumped to the mains or treatment plant. Intakes should be so
located and designed that possibility of interference with the supply is minimized and where
uncertainty of continuous serviceability exists, intakes should be duplicated.
The following must be considered in designing and locating intakes:
a) The source of supply, whether impounding reservoirs, lakes, or rivers (including the
possibility of wide fluctuation in water level).
b) The character of the intake surroundings.
 Depth of water
 Character of bottom
 Navigation requirement
 The effect of currents floods and storms up on the structure and in scouring the
bottom.
c) The location with respect to sources of pollution; and
d) The prevalence of floating materials such as ice, and vegetation
4.1.1 Types of Intakes.

There are different types of intakes, such as reservoir intakes, river intakes and canal intake
i) Intakes from Impounding Reservoirs.
The water of impounding reservoirs is likely to vary in quality at various levels, making it
usually desirable to take water from about a meter from the surface. This, with the fluctuations
of water level which may be expected in reservoirs, makes it advisable to have ports at various
heights. Where the dam is of earth, the intake is usually a concrete tower located in deep water
near the upstream toe of the dam. Access to the tower so that the gates various openings may be
manipulated is obtained by means of a foot bridge. The ports may be closed by sluice gates or
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Wachemo University- Department of Civil Engineering
by gate valves on short lengths of pipe. Where the dam is of masonry, the intake may be a well
in the dam structure itself, also with openings at various heights.
Fig 4.1a Reservoir Intake
Or
Figure 4.1b Tower water intake for a lake or reservoir water supply
ii) River Intakes
Where rock foundations are available, some cities have built elaborate river intakes, resembling
bridge piers with ports at various depths, to allow for great fluctuations in river stage. Small
cities may use pipe intakes similar to those described under lake intakes. The bottom must be
sufficiently stable. And the water deep enough to allow for a submergence of at least 1m at all
times with a clear opening beneath the pipe so that any tendency to form a bar is overcome.
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Fig.4.2 River in take

River intakes are especially likely to need screens to exclude large floating matter which might
injure pumps.
River intake is located inside the river so as to get adequate supply in all seasons. Water is
drawn from the upstream side of the river, where it is comparatively of better quality.
The following are the different types of river intakes:

a) Weir intake
b) Intake wells
c) Pipe intakes
d) Intake well with approach channel
a) Weir Intake. This consists of a small weir constructed across a river so that river water
level in the dry season should also be sufficient to provide water. Intake water may be
drawn from the weir through a channel in to a sump well from which it can be pumped
to supply.
b) Intake Well. This consists of a concrete masonry well located inside a river. A number
of penstocks are located at different levels so that water can be drawn in to the well in
all seasons.
c) Pipe Intakes. These consist of a number of pipes laid horizontally across the river.
They are firmly fixed to masonry blocks. The ends of the pipes are fixed with strainers.
The water is drawn in to a jack well and then pumped to purification works. This is a
cheap and simple arrangement.
d) Intake Well with Approach Channel. In case of a very wide river, it is impractical
and inadvisable to construct an intake well in the middle of it. Under such conditions, a
cross approach channel is constructed so as to connect the river with the intake well.
This ensures water supply to the well even during summer.
iii) Canal Intakes

This consists of a concrete well in the canal. An inlet pipe laid in the canal bed leads in to the
well. As the full supply level in the canal is, fairly constant, inlets at different depths are not
necessary.
The inlet end of the pipe is provided with an enlarged bell mouth, to which is fixed a
hemispherical fine screen which prevents floating materials from entering the intake pipe. Also,
there is a coarse screen provided so that big floating particles are excluded. The water from the
out let of the intake pipe is led to a sump well or supply.
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Fig. 4.3 Canal Intake

iv) Lake Intakes
If the lake shore is inhabited, the intake should be so located that danger of pollution will be
minimized. This may require study of currents and effects of winds with particular attention to
movements of sewage or industrial wastes, if these are discharged in to the lake. It is also
advisable to have the intake opening 2.5m or more above the bottom so that large amounts of
silt will not be carried in with the water. Entering velocities must be low, or excessive amounts
of floating matter, sediment, fish and ice may be carried in. Entering velocities have been
usually used less than 0.15 m/s successfully. Offshore winds tend to stir up sediment which will
be carried out for long distances. On this account Great Lakes intakes must be located at a
distance not less than 600 to 900m from shore.
Figure 4.4 Submerged Lake intakes
v) Infiltration Galleries
Infiltration galleries are widely used many monsoon countries, such as India, to abstract water
from river- bed deposits where surface flow disappears during the dry period but subterranean
flow continues. A large diameter concrete caisson or ‘wet well’ is sunk in the river bed
sediments. The infiltration galleries comprise porous, perforated or un- jointed concrete or
asbestos-cement pipes, usually 200-300mm diameter, laid in gravel filtered trenches cut in the
river-bed sediments, connected to the wet well in which the pumps are sited. The galleries, of
which there may be several many meters long, extend cross- River or up-river to places where
it is thought will best pick up the main subterranean flow.
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4.2 Methods of Distribution

Water is distributed to consumers in several different ways, as local conditions or other
considerations may dictate. These methods are:
 Gravity Distribution
 Distribution by means of pumps with storage (Pumping + Gravity )
 Use of Pumps with out storage ( Direct Pumping)
1. Gravity Distribution. This is possible when the source of supply is a lake or impounding
reservoir at some elevation above the city so that sufficient pressure can be maintained in
the mains for domestic and fire service. This is the most reliable method if the conduit
leading from source to city is adequate in size and well safeguard against accidental breaks.
High pressure for fire fighting, however, may be obtained only by using the motor pumps
of the fire department.
2. Distribution by means of pumps with storage. In this method the excess water pumped
during periods of low consumption is stored in elevated tanks or reservoirs. During periods
of high consumption the stored water is drawn up on to augment that pumped. This method
allows fairly uniform rates of pumping and hence is economical, for the pumps may be
operated at their rate capacity. Since the water stored furnishes a reserve to care for fires
and pump breakdowns, this method of operations fairly reliable. Motor pumpers must
ordinarily be used for higher fire pressure, although it is possible to close the valves leading
to the elevated storage tanks and operate a fire pump at the pumping plant.
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3. Use of Pumps with out storage. In this method the pumps force water directly in to the
mains with no other outlet than the water actually consumed. It is the least desirable system,
for a power failure would mean complete interruption in water supply. As consumption
varies, the pressure in the mains is likely to fluctuate. To conform to the varying
consumption several pumps are available to add water output when needed, a procedure
requiring constant attendance. The peak power consumptions of the water plant is likely to
occur during periods of otherwise high current consumption and thus increase power cost.
An advantage of direct pumping is that a large fire service pump may be used which can
run up the pressure to any desired amount permitted by the construction of the mains.
4.3 Service Reservoirs (Function and Capacity)
4.3.1 Functions
A service reservoir has four main functions:

1. To balance the fluctuating demand from the distribution system, permitting the source
to give steady or differently phased output.
2. Provide a supply during a failure or shutdown of treatment plant, pumps or trunk main
leading to the reservoir.
3. To give a suitable pressure for the distribution system and reduce pressure fluctuations
therein.
4. To provide a reserve of water to meet fire and other emergency demands.
It is seldom possible or economic for a source to give a fluctuating out put in step with demand.
Filtration plants need to be run 24 hours a day with only infrequent, carefully controlled
changes of out put. Pumps need to be run near their design point for maximum efficiency,
whilst electricity tariffs may influence their running times; it is not economical for a long
supply main to have an overlarge capacity simply to meet the peak demand of a few hours
duration. A technical and economic study of the capital and operating costs of the various
options available, including possible silting for a service reservoir is necessary before deciding
service reservoir requirements.
During the summer months the evening peak may be higher and more prolonged due to garden
watering. There will be a slightly different pattern of demand at weekends and on holidays. In
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the winter there will also be a higher rate through out if a severe frost causes many pipes burst
on consumers’ premises.
Position and Elevation of Reservoirs

If the service reservoir is to be of maximum value as a safeguarded against break down of the
supply to consumers then it should be positioned as near as possible to the area of demand.
From the service storage the distribution system should spread directly with such
interconnection of mains that, should a break of any one main occur, a supply may be
maintained by rerouting the water. It is, of course, not always possible to find a high point
which in the center of the distribution area and the best must be done in the circumstances. If
the high point is remote from the area of demand the aim should be to feed the demand area by
two major mains from the service reservoirs which are interconnected at appropriate points. If
there is some high ground which is not quite high enough, then a water tower or several water
towers may meet the demand. It is also usually necessary to site the reservoir at such elevation
that a steady pressure is maintained at all points of the distribution system, sufficient to give an
adequate flow to the top most storey of three or four storey buildings.
The elevation at which it is desirable to position a service reservoir depends up on both the
distance of the reservoir from the distribution area and the elevation of the highest building to
be supplied.
If the distribution area varies widely in elevation it may be necessary to use two more service
reservoirs at different levels, so that the lower area do not receive an unduly high pressure.
Wherever possible the use of non-stand pipes for high pressures should be avoided as such
pipes are expensive.
Pressure control valves are some times installed in inlet mains from service reservoirs in order
to reduce the pressure to low laying zones, or to limit increase of pressure at night to reduce
leakage. In making a decision to install pressure control devices it should be borne in mind that
if the device fails to operate, which it will do if the equipment is not properly maintained, then
the downstream mains will be subjected to a sudden increase of pressure and may burst. In
addition, excessive wastage of water may also take place through consumers’ ball valves
unaccustomed to working at high heads.
Break pressure tanks give better protection to low laying zones and are preferable to pressure
reducing devices; however the use of them or pressure reducing valves in pumping schemes
represent a direct wastage of pumping energy and more economic alternative should be sought.
Types of Service Reservoirs

Generally, there are two types of service reservoirs:
1. Surface reservoir (Ground Reservoir or Non-elevated)
2. Elevated reservoir ( Over head Tank)
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Accessories of Service Reservoirs

The service reservoirs are to be provided with the following accessories:
1. Inlet Pipe : For the entry of water
2. Ladder : To reach the top of the reservoir and then to the bottom of the reservoir, for
inspection and cleaning
3. Lightening Conductor : In case of elevated reservoirs for the passage of lightening
4. Manholes : For providing entry to the inside of reservoir for inspection and cleaning
5. Outlet pipe: For the exit of water
6. Outflow Pipe : For the exit of water above full supply level
7. Vent pipes : For free circulation of air
8. Washout pipe : For removing water after cleaning of the reservoir
9. Water level indicator: To know the level of water inside the tank from outside.
LIGHTENING CONDUCTOR
MANHOLE
LADDER
WATER LEVEL INDICATOR
OVER FLOW PIPE
WASH OUT PIPE
INFLOW PIPE
OUTLET PIPE
DITCH
Design Capacity of Service Reservoirs

The three major components of service storage are:
i) Equalizing or operating storage
ii) Fire reserve
iii) Emergency reserve
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Equalizing or operating capacity can be obtained from a mass curve of water consumption rates
and pumping supply rates.
1) The capacity can be analytically determined by finding out maximum cumulative
surplus during the stage when pumping rate is higher than water consumption rate and
adding to this maximum cumulative deficit which occurs during the period when the
pumping rate is lower than the demand rate of water.
2) The above figure can be obtained by drawing mass curves of water consumption rates
and water pumping supply rates.
Example-1. A small town with a design population of 1600 is to be supplied water at

150liters per capita per day. The demand of water during different periods is given in the
following table:
Time (hr) 0-3 3-6 6-9 9 -12 12 - 15 15 18 18 -21 21- 24

Demand(1000liters) 20 25 30 50 35 30 25 25
Determine the capacity of a service reservoir if pumping is done 24 hours at constant rate.
Solution
Water supply = 150l/c/d
Total water demand = demand * population = 150*1600 = 240,000liters
Rate of pumping = 240,000/24 = 10,000lit/hr = 30,000lit/3hr
1). Analytical Method
Time Pumping Demand Surplus Deficit Cummulative

0-3 30,000 20,000 10000 0 10000
3. - 6. 30,000 25,000 5000 0 15000
6. - 9 30,000 30,000 0 0 15000
9. - 12 30,000 50,000 0 -20000 -5000
12. - 15 30,000 35,000 0 -5000 -10000
15. -18 30,000 30,000 0 0 -10000
18. - 21 30,000 25,000 5000 0 -5000
21. -24 30,000 25,000 5000 0 0
Maximum cumulative surplus = 15,000 liters
Maximum cumulative deficit = 10,000 liters
Total 25,000lit = 25 m3
25 * 4
If the reservoir is circular with depth, h = 3.0 m, d   3.4m
3
Example2. If in example -1 pumping is done for:

a) Eight hours from 8 hrs to 16 hrs
b) Eight hrs from 4 hrs to 8 hrs and again 16 hours to 20 hrs.
Solution.
Total water demand = 240,000lit/hr
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Rate of pumping = 24,000/8 = 30,00l/h = 90,000lit/3hrs

Case I
A) Analytical Method
For Graphical Method
Cummulative Cummulative
Demand supply
Time Pumping Demand Surplus Deficit Cumulative
0-3 0 20000 0 -20000 -20000 20000 0
3-6. 0 25000 0 -25000 -45000 45000 0
6.-8 0 20000 0 -20000 -65000 65000 0
8-9. 30000 10000 20000 0 -45000 75000 30000
9. -12 90000 50000 40000 0 -5000 125000 120000
12. -15 90000 35000 55000 0 50000 160000 210000
15. -
16 30000 10000 20000 0 70000 170000 240000
16. -18 0 20000 0 -20000 50000 190000 240000
18.-21 0 25000 0 -25000 25000 215000 240000
21. -24 0 25000 0 -25000 0 240000 240000
Maximum cumulative surplus
= 70000
Maximum cumulativeDeficit = -65000
Balancing Storage , S = 135000 litres
135 m3
B) Graphical Method
Case II
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A) Analytical Method For Graphical Method

Cummulative Cummulative
Time Pumping Demand Surplus Deficit Cumulative Demand supply
0-3 0 20000 0 -20000 -20000 20000 0
3-4. 0 8333 0 -8333 -28333 28333 0
4. - 6 60000 16667 43333 0 15000 45000 60000
6. - 8 60000 20000 40000 0 55000 65000 120000
8 - 9. 0 10000 0 -10000 45000 75000 120000
9.-12 0 50000 0 -50000 -5000 125000 120000
12. -
15 0 35000 0 -35000 -40000 160000 120000
15. -16 0 10000 0 -10000 -50000 170000 120000
16.-18 60000 20000 40000 0 -10000 190000 180000
18. -
20 60000 16667 43333 0 33333 206667 240000
20. -
21 0 8333 0 -8333 25000 215000 240000
21. -
24 0 25000 0 -25000 0 240000 240000
Maximum cumulative surplus
= 55000
Maximum cumulative Deficit = -50000
Balancing Storage , S = 105000 litres
105 m3
B) Graphical Method:
MASS CURVE
300000
Cum m ulative Dem and

250000 Cum m ulative s upply
CUMULATIVE SUPPLY & DEMAND
200000
150000
MAX DEFICIT
100000
Max Surplus
50000
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
TIM E (HOURS)
Depth and Shape of Service Reservoirs

The following are some notes on the salient features of service reservoirs and the alternatives
that may be adopted.
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A. Depth
There is an economical depth of service reservoir for any given site. For a given quantity of
water either a shallow reservoir having long walls and a large floor area may be constructed or,
alternatively. A deep reservoir may be constructed with high retaining walls and a smaller floor
area. Depths most usually used are as follows:
Size (m3) Depth of water (m)

Up to 3500 2.5 to 3.5
3500 to 15,000 3.5 to 5.0
Over 15,000 5.0 to 7.0
These figures don’t apply to water towers or pre-stressed concrete reservoirs. Factors
influencing depth for a given storage are:
1. Depth at which suitable foundation conditions are encountered
2. Depth at which the out let main must be laid
3. Slope of ground, nature and type of back fill
4. The need to make the quantity of excavated material approximately equal to the
amount required for backing, so as to reduce unnecessary carting of surplus
material to tip.
5. The shape and size of land available
B. Shape
Circular reservoir is geometrically the most economical shape, giving the least amount of
walling for a given volume and depth: it has the attraction of allowing construction of a thin
reinforced concrete dome shaped roof, free of all supporting columns, resting on ring beam
fixed to the top of the wall for diameters of up to about 60m.
However, this shape is seldom adopted. It is unsuitable for division in to two compartments,
which would allow one half to be drained for maintenance without taking the whole reservoir
out of service.
 Its shape frequently does not permit best use of available land, and
 Problems of design will arise if it is to be partially buried in sloping ground
A rectangular reservoir with a length to width ratio 1.2 to 1.5:
 Usually proves most economical when division walls are incorporated
 Floors and roof should be sloped to not flatter than 1:250 for drainage ( such slopes
should be parallel to maintain uniform column and wall heights)
 The total depth of the reservoir must be sufficient to allow the maximum inflow
assumed in the design calculation to pass over the over flow weir, with a safety
margin of at least 150mm below the under side of roofing beam.
 It is good practice to set the over flow weir slightly higher, say by 50mm, than the top
water level at which the supply is cut off by a ball valve or an electrode.
4.4 Pipes Used in the Water Distribution System

4.4.1 Pipe Materials
For use in transmission and distribution systems, pipe materials must have the following
characteristics:
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Adequate tensile strength and bending strength to withstand external loads.

High bursting strength to withstand internal water pressure
Ability to resist impact loads to water flow suitable for handling and joining facilities
Resistance to both internal and external corrosion
The types of pipes used for distributing water include:
1. Cast iron pipe 5. Asbestos cement pipe

2. Steel pipe 6. Copper pipe
3. Concrete pipe 7. Lead pipe
4. Plastic pipe
A pipe material is selected based on various conditions:
 Cost
 Type of water to be conveyed
 Carrying capacity of the pipe
 Maintenance cost
 Durability, etc.
Asbestos cement pipes

Advantages Disadvantage
 The inside surface of pipe is smooth  The pipes are brittle
 The joining of pipes is very good  The pipes are not durable
and flexible  The pipes are not laid in exposed
 The pipes are ant-corrosive and places
cheap in cost  The pipes can be used only for very
 Light in weight to handle and low pressure
transport
Cast iron pipes

Advantages
 The cost is moderate
 The pipes are easily joined
 The pipes are not subjected to corrosion
 The pipes are strong and durable
 Service connections can be made easily
Disadvantage
 The breakage of this pipe is large
 Carrying capacity decreases with increase in life
 The pipes become heavy and uneconomical when their sizes increase (especially
beyond 1200mm)
Cement Concrete Pipes
Advantages o The inside surfaces of the pipes can

be made smooth
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o The maintenance cost is very low o If no reinforcement is provided they

o Under normal conditions the pipes cannot resist high pressure
are durable o The pipes are and difficult to
o The pipes can be cast in place(in transport
site) o The pipes are likely to crack during
o Due to high weight (heaviness) the transport and handling
pipes can resist force of buoyancy o The repair of these pipes are
when placed under water even when difficult
they are empty o These pipes are affected by acids,
o Pipes can resist normal traffic loads alkaline, and salty waters
when placed below roads o These pipes are likely to cause
o There is no danger of rusting and leakage due to porosity
incrustation
Disadvantage
Galvanized Iron Pipes

Advantages Disadvantage
 These pipes are liable to incrustation
 The pipes are cheap (due to deposition of some materials
 Light in weight and easy to handle inside part of pipe)
and transport  Can be easily affected by acidic or
 Easy to join alkaline water
 Short useful life
Plastic Pipes
Advantages
 The pipes are cheap
 The pipes are flexible and possess low hydraulic resistance (less friction)
 They are free from corrosion
 The pipes are light in weight and it is easy to bend, join and install them
 The pipes up to certain sizes are available in coils & therefore it is easy to transport
Disadvantage
 The coefficient of expansion for plastics is high, the pipes are less resistant to heat
 Some types of plastics may impart taste to the water
4.4.2 Determination of Pipe Sizes

The size of the pipe is determined by considering the discharge through the pipe and
permissible velocity of the flow in the pipe.
Q = A*V
Where, Q = discharge (m3/s)
V = permissible velocity (0.6 to 1.50m/s)
A = Cross sectional area of pipe (m2)
The size of the pipe used in the water distribution system can be determined by one of the
following formulas:
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2
1. Darcy –Weisbach formula; h f  fLV
2 gD
2. Hazen-Williams formula; Q  0.278CD 2.63S 0.54 , S  h f
L
3. Manning’s Formula; 1AR 2 / 3 S 1 / 2
Q
n
* The most common pipe flow formula used in design and evaluation of a water distribution
system is the Hazen-Williams’ formula.
The water supply pipes sizes available are given in the following table:
Metric sizes 10 20 25 30 40 50 60 80 100 150 200 250 300 350 375 400 450 500 525 600
(mm)
English (In) 1/2 3/4 1 11/4 11/4 2 21/2 3 4 6 8 10 12 14 15 16 18 20 21 24
Metric sizes 675 750 900 950 1050

(mm)
English (In) 27 30 36 38 42
Example-1
Given
Total population of a town = 80,000
Average daily consumption of water = 150liters/capita/day
If the flow velocity of an outlet pipe from intake  1.5 m/s, determine the diameter of the outlet
pipe.
Solution
Total flow, Q = Demand* Population = 150*80,000 = 12x106 lit/day
12 X 10 6
  0.1389m 3 / sec
(24 * 60 * 60 *10 3 )
Required pipe area, A  Q  D  Q  D  4Q  0.1389 * 4  343mm
2
V 4 V V 1.5 * 
But the pipe size available on the market is 300mm & 350mm, then take D = 350mm
Example-2
A town has a population of 100,000 persons. It is to be supplied with water from a reservoir
situated at a distance of 6.44km. It is stipulated that one-half of the daily supply of 140lit/capita
should be delivered in 6 hours. If the loss of head is estimated to be 15m, calculate the size of
pipe. Assume f = 0.04.
Solution
Total daily supply = 100,0003 *140  14,000m 3
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Since half of this quantity is required in 6 hours
Maximum flow = 14,000
 0.324m 3 / s
(2 * 6 * 60 * 60)
According to the Darcy-Weisbach formula:
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fLQ 2
hf  Where, hf = 15m,f = 0.04, L= 6440m
12.1d 5
0.04 * 6440(0324) 2 0.04 * 6440 * (0.324) 2

 15  5
d   0.683m  683mm
12.1 * d 15 *12.10
But available pipe sizes 675mm & 750mm, take 750mm diameter pipe
b) What size of pipe line (L = 1000m) should be used to supply 100l/s so that the head loss
does not exceed 10m. Use both the three formula, C= 100, n = 0.013, f = 0.035, find also the
velocity.
4.4.3 Energy Losses in Pipes

Energy loss (head loss) in pipes can be found by one of the following formulas:
1) Darcy-Weisbach formula
fLV 2
hf 
2 gD
Where, hf = head loss (m)
F = friction factor (which is related to the relative roughness of the pipe material &
the fluid flow characteristics)
L = length of pipe (m)
V = velocity of flow (m/s)
D = diameter of pipe (m)
G = Acceleration due to gravity (9081m/s2)
The term hf represents the energy loss that occurs in any distribution system. The major
loss of energy is due to friction between the moving water and pipe material; however,
energy losses also occur from flow disturbance caused by valves, bends in pipes line, and
changes in diameter.
Exercise-1. Calculate the head loss in 600mm pipe , 1500m long smooth walled concrete
( = 0.001) pipe line carrying a water of 0.30m3/s [Ans, hf = 2.43m)
Exercise-2.Calculate the head loss in 200mm pipe, Q = 30l/sec, f = 0.035, L= 1500m

[Ans, hf = 12.20m]
2) Hazen-Williams formula; Q  0.278CD 2.63S 0.54 , S  h f

L
Where, C = coefficient that depends on the material and age of the pipe
S = Hydraulic gradient (m/m)
Table - Values of C for the Hazen-Williams formula

Pipe Material C
Asbestos Cement 140
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Cast Iron
 Cement lined 130 – 150
 New, unlined 130
 5years-old, unlined 120
 20 years old, unlined 100
Concrete 130
Copper 130 - 140
Plastic 140 -150
New welded Steel 120
New riveted Steel 100
Nomographs shown in fig – solve the equation for C = 100.Given any two of the parameters
(Q, D, hf or V) the remaining can be determined from the intersections along a straight line
drawn across the nomograph.
Exercise -3
For Q = 30l/s, D = 200mm,C = 100,L = 1500,Find hf.
Solution
From nomograph, hf = 12.15m
Using the formula, hf = 12.30m
2 / 3 1/ 2
3) Manning’s Formula; Q  1AR S , R = D/4, S = hf/L
n
Where, n = Coefficient of roughness depending on pipe material, usually
n = 0.013 GI pipes
n = 0.009  Plastic pipes
n = 0.015  Clay concrete pipes
Exercise 4.
For Q = 30l/s, D = 200mm,n = 0.013,L = 1500
hf 10.936n 2 Q 2 10.936n 2 Q 2 10.936(0.013) 2 (30 / 100) 2
S   hf  * L  *1500  12.550
L D16 / 3 D16 / 3 200 / 100016 / 3
From Nomograph, hf/L = 0.00825
 = 0.00825*1500 = 12.38m
4.4.4 Pipe Appurtenances
Valves. Used to isolate and drain pipe line sections for test, inspection, cleaning and repair
i) Gate valves. Are installed in every main and sub-main to isolate a portion of the
network system during a repair.
ii) Check-valves (Non-Return valves). Are generally used to prevent reversal of flow
when a pump is shot down
iii) Air-Relief Valves. In long pipes lines air will accumulate in the high points (summits)
of the line and may interfere with the flow. It is necessary, therefore, to place air relief
valves at those points where trouble is expected.
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iv) Pressure regulating valves. These valves automatically reduce pressure on the d/s side
to any desired magnitude and are used on lines entering low areas of a city, with out
such reductions pressures would be too high.
v) Sluice Gates. Are vertically sliding valves which are used to open or close openings in
to walls.
 Fire hydrants. It is used on mains to provide a connection for fire hazards to
fire fighting
 Water meters. In most cities, the water furnished to a consumer is measured,
and the consumer charged accordingly to the amount of water
consumed.
4.5. Pipe Systems

4.5.1 Methods of Laying Distribution Pipes.
There are two basic types of networks of pipes which used to distribute water in a city.
1) Branched (Dead-end) pattern
2) Grid-Iron pattern
1. Branching Pattern. This is also known as the tree system of lay out and it consists of one
supply main from which sub-mains are taken. The sub-mains again divided in to several
branch lines from which service connections are given to the consumers.
BRANCH
DEAD-END
MAIN
SUB-MAIN
Advantages
 The design calculations are simple
 Cut off valves required are comparatively less in number
 The system is cheap and economical
 Laying the water pipes is simple
Disadvantages
 During repair, a large portion of the distribution system is affected
 The pipes terminate at the dead-end and no circulation of air (due to stagnation,
pollution may occur)
 Common in small scale rural water supply schemes
2. Grid Pattern. In this pattern, the main, sub-mains and branches are interconnected with
each other.
18
LOOP
Advantages
 Flow can occur in more than one direction and stagnation does not occur
 In case of repairs, a very small portion of the distribution area will be affected
 When a fire occurs plenty of water is available for fighting purposes.
Disadvantages
 The cost of laying the system is high
 The procedure for calculating the sizes of pipes and for working out pressures
are complicated
 A large number of valves are required.
Pipe networks (Grid Pattern)
A group of interconnected pipes forming several loops or circuits is called a network of pips.
Such networks of pipes are commonly used for municipal water distribution systems in cities.
The main problem in a pipe network is to determine the distribution of flow through the various
pipes of the network such that all the conditions of flow are satisfied and all the circuits are
then balanced.
The conditions to be satisfied in any network of pipes are as follows:
1. According to the principle of continuity the flow into the junction must be equal to the
flow out of the junction.
2. In each loop, the loss of head due to flow in clock wise direction must be equal to the loss
of head due to flow in anti-clock wise direction.
3. The Darcy – Weisbach equation must be satisfied for flow in each pipe.
 Minor losses may be neglected if the pipe lengths are large. However, if the minor
losses are large , they must be taken into account by considering them interims of the
head lost due to friction in equivalent pipe lengths
 according to Darcy- Weisbach equation the loss of head hf though any pipe
discharging at the rate of Q can be expressed as:
H L  KQ n -------------------- (1)
Where K = proportionality factor which can be determined for each pipe, knowing the friction
factor f, length L, and the diameter D of the pipe.
fL
K ----------------------- (2)
12.1D 5
n = an exponent having a numerical value ranging from 1.72 to 2.0.
For any pipe if Qo is the assumed discharge and Q is the corrected discharge, then:
Q  Qo  Q ---------------------- (3)
and the head loss for each pipe is
19
H L  KQ n  K (Qo  Q) n ---------------------- (4)

Thus for the complete circuit:
 H L   KQ n   K (Qo  Q) n ------------------------- (5)

By expanding the terms the terms in the brackets:
 KQ n   K (Qon  nQon1Q  ...) ------------------------- (6)
If Q is small, compared with Qo, all terms of the series after the second one may be dropped.
Thus,
 KQ n   KQon   KnQon1Q -------------------------- (7)
For the correct distribution the circuit is balanced and hence  KQ n  0 .
Therefore,
 KQo n  Q KnQon1  0 --------------------- (8)
In the above expression Q has been taken out of the summations as it is same for all the pipes
in the circuit. Solving for Q:
Q  
 KQo n

 hL ------------------ (9)
 KnQo n 1
hL
n ( )
Q
 In the above expression for the correction the denominator is the sum of absolute terms
and hence it has no sign.
 Further if the head losses due to flow in the clock wise direction are more than the head
losses in the due to flow in the anti-clock wise direction, then according to the sign
convention adopted, Q will be negative and hence it should be added to the flow in the
anti-clock wise direction and subtracted from the flow in the clock wise direction.
 For pipes common to two circuits or loops a correction from both the loops will be
required to be applied.
 With the corrected flow in all the pipes, a second trial calculation is made for all the
loops and the process is repeated till the correction becomes negligible.
Procedures can be expressed as follows:

1. Assume any internally consistent distribution of flow. The sum of the flows entering
any junction must equal the sum of the flows leaving
2. Compute the head losses in each pipe by means of an equation or diagram.
Conventionally, clockwise flows are positive and produce positive head losses.
3. with due attention to sign, compute the total head loss around each circuit:
hL = KQn.
4. Compute, with out with out regard to sign, for the same circuit, the sum of: KnQn-1.
5. Apply the corrections obtained from equation (9) to the flow in each line. Lines
common to two loops receive both corrections with due attention to sign.
Exercise 1 (Design of a dead head-end system with gravity system of distribution)
20
Water is supplied from a reservoir at an elevation of 200m. The elevations of various points in
the pipe line are given in brackets. Design the pipes RA, AA2and AB. Assume the minimum
pressure in pipes in resident area to be 35m of water and in business districts 50m of water.
R
ELE.
200m
Q=1000l/s,
L=3200m A
(100) Q =180l/s.
A1 L =1300m A2 (90m)
Q=600l/s,
L=2000m
B1 B(70m) B2
Q = 430l/s
L = 1200m
C1 C(55m) C2 Business
District
D1 D(54m) D2
Exercise-2 Find the floe distribution in the gravity supply system through the following pipe
network shown below. Use Hazen – Williams formula (C= 100) . If the pressure at point A is
490.5 KPa, find the pressures at points B & C. Assume all pipe junctions are at the same
elevation.
250l/s
F
A 45 l/s
B
45 l/s 75l/s 75l/s
30l/s
100l/s
LOOP II
LOOP I
10l/s
10l/s
D C
E
80 l/s 40l/s
40 l/s
21
Solution
250l/s
F
A 45 l/s
B
45 l/s 75l/s 75l/s
30l/s
100l/s
LOOP II
LOOP I
10l/s
10l/s
D C
E
80 l/s 40l/s
40 l/s
Hazen- Williams’s formula, Q  0.278CD 2.63S 0.54

1 / .54
 Q 
S 2.63 
 ( 0.278CD ) 
22
Exercise-2
C = 100
1st Correction loop I
Pipe Diameter Length Flow Slope Head loss hL/Q
D(mm) L(m) Q(l/s) (m/1000m) hL= S*L (m)
AD 250 1000 100 0.025 25.483 0.255
DE 150 2000 10 0.004 8.628 0.863
EF 200 1000 -30 -0.008 -8.127 0.271
FA 250 2000 -75 -0.015 -29.916 0.399
 -3.933 1.787
Q11 = hL/1.85(hL/Q)
1.189
1st Correction loop II

AB 250 2000 75 0.015 29.916 0.399
BC 200 1000 30 0.008 8.127 0.271
CD 100 2000 -10 -0.031 -62.164 6.216
DA 250 1000 -100 -0.025 -25.483 0.255
 -49.603 7.141
Q11 = hL/1.85(hL/Q)
3.755
2nd Correction loop I

AD 250 1000 97.435 0.024 24.285 0.249
DE 150 2000 11.189 0.005 10.624 0.949
EF 200 1000 -28.811 -0.008 -7.541 0.262
FA 250 2000 -73.811 -0.015 -29.044 0.393
 -1.675 1.854
Q21 = hL/1.85(hL/Q)
0.488
2ndCorrection loop II
AB 250 2000 78.755 0.016 32.749 0.416
BC 200 1000 33.755 0.010 10.111 0.300
CD 100 2000 -6.245 -0.013 -25.997 4.163
DA 250 1000 -97.435 -0.024 -24.285 0.249
 -7.423 5.127
Q22= hL/1.85(hL/Q)
0.783
23
3rd Correction loop I

D(mm) L(m) Q(l/s) (m/1000m)hL= S*L (m)
AD 250 1000 97.140 0.024 24.150 0.249
DE 150 2000 11.678 0.006 11.499 0.985
EF 200 1000 -28.322 -0.007 -7.306 0.258
FA 250 2000 -73.322 -0.014 -28.689 0.391
 -0.346 1.882
Q31 = hL/1.85(hL/Q)
0.099
3rd Correction loop II
AB 250 2000 79.537 0.017 33.354 0.419
BC 200 1000 34.537 0.011 10.549 0.305
CD 100 2000 -5.463 -0.010 -20.289 3.714
DA 250 1000 -97.140 -0.024 -24.150 0.249
 -0.535 4.687
Q32= hL/1.85(hL/Q)
0.062
4th Correction loop I
AD 250 1000 97.240 0.024 24.196 0.249
DE 150 2000 11.777 0.006 11.681 0.992
EF 200 1000 -28.223 -0.007 -7.258 0.257
FA 250 2000 -73.285 -0.014 -28.662 0.391
 -0.044 1.889
Q41 = hL/1.85(hL/Q)
0.013
4th Correction loop II

AB 250 2000 79.599 0.017 33.402 0.420
BC 200 1000 34.599 0.011 10.584 0.306
CD 100 2000 -5.401 -0.010 -19.866 3.678
DA 250 1000 -97.178 -0.024 -24.167 0.249
 -0.047 4.652
Q42= hL/1.85(hL/Q)
0.005
24

AD 250 1000 97.247 0.024 24.199 0.249
DE 150 2000 11.790 0.006 11.704 0.993
EF 200 1000 -28.210 -0.007 -7.252 0.257
FA 250 2000 -73.272 -0.014 -28.653 0.391
 -0.002 1.890
Q51 = hL/1.85(hL/Q)
0.001
AB 250 2000 79.605 0.017 33.406 0.420
BC 200 1000 34.605 0.011 10.587 0.306
CD 100 2000 -5.395 -0.010 -19.829 3.675
DA 250 1000 -97.185 -0.024 -24.170 0.249
 -0.006 4.649
Q52= hL/1.85(hL/Q)
0.001

AD 250 1000 97.247 0.024 24.199 0.249
DE 150 2000 11.790 0.006 11.705 0.993
EF 200 1000 -28.210 -0.007 -7.252 0.257
FA 250 2000 -73.271 -0.014 -28.652 0.391
 0.000 1.890
Q61 = hL/1.85(hL/Q)
0.000

AB 250 2000 79.605 0.017 33.407 0.420
BC 200 1000 34.605 0.011 10.587 0.306
CD 100 2000 -5.395 -0.010 -19.824 3.675
DA 250 1000 -97.185 -0.024 -24.170 0.249
 0.000 4.649
Q52= hL/1.85(hL/Q)
0.000
25
Therefore, the flow distribution will be

Pipe D(mm) L(mm) Q(l/s) S hL(m)
AD 250 1000 97.247 0.024 24.20
DE 150 2000 11.790 0.006 11.70
EF 200 1000 -28.210 -0.007 -7.25
FA 250 2000 -73.271 -0.014 -28.65
AB 250 2000 79.605 0.017 33.41
BC 200 1000 34.605 0.011 10.59
CD 100 2000 -5.395 -0.010 -19.82
DA 250 1000 -97.185 -0.024 -24.17
26
27
28
Figure 4-7 Nomograph for Manning formula, for circular pipes flowing full based on n=0.013
29

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CHAPTER FOUR collection and distribution

4.1.1 Types of Intakes.

Fig 4.1a Reservoir Intake

Fig.4.2 River in take

The following are the different types of river intakes:

iii) Canal Intakes

Fig. 4.3 Canal Intake

Figure 4.4 Submerged Lake intakes

4.2 Methods of Distribution

4.3 Service Reservoirs (Function and Capacity)

A service reservoir has four main functions:

Position and Elevation of Reservoirs

Types of Service Reservoirs

Accessories of Service Reservoirs

OVER FLOW PIPE

WASH OUT PIPE

Design Capacity of Service Reservoirs

Example-1. A small town with a design population of 1600 is to be supplied water at

Time (hr) 0-3 3-6 6-9 9 -12 12 - 15 15 18 18 -21 21- 24

1). Analytical Method

Time Pumping Demand Surplus Deficit Cummulative

Example2. If in example -1 pumping is done for:

Rate of pumping = 24,000/8 = 30,00l/h = 90,000lit/3hrs

A) Analytical Method For Graphical Method

Cum m ulative Dem and

Depth and Shape of Service Reservoirs

Size (m3) Depth of water (m)

4.4 Pipes Used in the Water Distribution System

Adequate tensile strength and bending strength to withstand external loads.

1. Cast iron pipe 5. Asbestos cement pipe

Asbestos cement pipes

Cast iron pipes

Cement Concrete Pipes

Advantages o The inside surfaces of the pipes can

o The maintenance cost is very low o If no reinforcement is provided they

Galvanized Iron Pipes

4.4.2 Determination of Pipe Sizes

Metric sizes 675 750 900 950 1050

0.04 * 6440(0324) 2 0.04 * 6440 * (0.324) 2

4.4.3 Energy Losses in Pipes

Exercise-2.Calculate the head loss in 200mm pipe, Q = 30l/sec, f = 0.035, L= 1500m

2) Hazen-Williams formula; Q  0.278CD 2.63S 0.54 , S  h f

Table - Values of C for the Hazen-Williams formula

4.4.4 Pipe Appurtenances

4.5. Pipe Systems

H L  KQ n  K (Qo  Q) n ---------------------- (4)

 H L   KQ n   K (Qo  Q) n ------------------------- (5)

Procedures can be expressed as follows:

Exercise 1 (Design of a dead head-end system with gravity system of distribution)

Hazen- Williams’s formula, Q  0.278CD 2.63S 0.54

1st Correction loop II

2nd Correction loop I

3rd Correction loop I

4th Correction loop II

5th Correction loop I

6th Correction loop I

6th Correction loop II

Therefore, the flow distribution will be

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