ZEAL EDUCATION SOCIETY’S

ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH

NARHE │PUNE -41 │ INDIA
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

503204: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Unit 2: Technical Writing
Writing Thesis: Structure and components of scientific reports, Types of report – Technical reports
and thesis, Significance, Different steps in the preparation, Layout, structure and Language of typical
reports. Writing papers: types of technical papers, Journal papers, Conference papers, Survey papers,
Poster papers, Comparison, Structure of a survey, conference and journal paper. Writing Research
Proposal: Importance of research funding in research, standard formats for different research schemes
of AICTE, DST. Preparation for research proposal, how to write a research proposal.

Introduction:
After collecting and analyzing the data, the researcher has to accomplish the task of drawing
inferences followed by report writing. All this analytical information and consequential inference(s)
may well be communicated, preferably through research report, to the consumers of research results
who may be either an individual or a group of individuals or some public/private organisation.

MEANING OF INTERPRETATION
Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an analytical
and/or experimental study. The task of interpretation has two major aspects viz., (i) the effort to
establish continuity in research through linking the results of a given study with those of another, and
(ii) the establishment of some explanatory concepts. Interpretation is the device through which the
factors that seem to explain what has been observed by researcher in the course of the study can be
better understood and it also provides a theoretical conception which can serve as a guide for further
researches.

TECHNIQUE OF INTERPRETATION
The technique of interpretation often involves the following steps:
1. Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he has found and he
must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying processes and must try to
find out the thread of uniformity that lies under the surface layer of his diversified research
findings.
2. Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered while
interpreting the final results of research study, for it may prove to be a key factor in
understanding the problem under consideration.
3. It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to consult someone having
insight into the study and who is frank and honest and will not hesitate to point out omissions
and errors in logical argumentation.
4. Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all relevant
factors affecting the problem to avoid false generalization.

SIGNIFICANCE OF REPORT WRITING

Research report is considered a major component of the research study for the research task remains
incomplete till the report has been presented and/or written. As a matter of fact even the most brilliant
hypothesis, highly well designed and conducted research study, and the most striking generalizations and
findings are of little value unless they are effectively communicated to others.

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 ZEAL EDUCATION SOCIETY’S
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH
NARHE │PUNE -41 │ INDIA
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Writing a Scientific Report (Thesis)

A scientific report is a document that describes the process, progress, and or results of technical
or scientific research or the state of a technical or scientific research problem. It might also include
recommendations and conclusion of the research.
Elements of a Scientific Report (Thesis)
1. Title Page
2. Table of Contents
3. Abstract
4. Introduction
5. Materials and Methods (Experimental)
6. Results & Discussion
7. Conclusion
8. References
9. Appendices
Title Page

The title page will include the following:

 Title of the report:

o Usually 4-12 words in length.
o Should be short, specific and descriptive, containing the keywords of the report.
 Authorship:
o Always publish under the same name.
o Include author addresses.
o Indicate the corresponding author and their contact details.
 Date:
o The date when the paper was submitted./Not applicable for the Thesis

Table of Contents

A Table of Contents is only required for length reports (usually 6 pages or more).

Abstract

The Abstract is a self-contained synopsis of the report - an informative summary of what you did
and what you found out.

The Abstract should include the following:

 Objectives (as outlined in the Introduction) and scope of the investigation.

 A brief reference to the Materials and Methods.
 A summary of the results and conclusions - a brief but thorough statement of the outcome/s
of the experiment.

If there is a hypothesis, you may state what it is and whether it was supported or refuted.

The following should not be included in the Abstract:

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 ZEAL EDUCATION SOCIETY’S
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH
NARHE │PUNE -41 │ INDIA
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

 Literature citations.
 Formulae and abbreviations, references to tables.

Although the Abstract comes first in a report, it is best to write it last, after you have the results
and conclusions.

Introduction
This provides a summary of the analysis to be undertaken. The purpose of the Introduction is to put
the reader in the picture and place the research/experiment within a context.
The following may be included in the Introduction:
 Background about the analysis to be carried out.
 A brief review of previous research (relevant literature) to give a background - paraphrase
relevant facts from the scientific literature, citing the sources to support each statement.
 Reason/s why the research was undertaken.
 Statement of the hypothesis (an idea or concept that can be tested by experimentation) if
there is one.
 An explanation of the different techniques and why they are used.
 A statement of the objective/s - what you hope to achieve.

The Introduction is the what and why of the experiment, and should answer the following
questions:

 What was the purpose or objective of the experiment/research?

 Why was the experiment/research conducted in a particular manner?
 Why was it important in a broader context?

The Introduction should not include any results or conclusions.

Materials and Methods (Experimental) Algorithms/Methodologies/Techniques

 The Materials and Methods, sometimes called Experimental, is a description of the materials
and procedures used - what was done and how.
 Describe the process of preparation of the sample, specifications of the instruments used and
techniques employed.
 The Method should include such things as sample size, apparatus or equipment used,
experimental conditions, concentrations, times, controls etc. While the Method does not need
to include minute details (e.g. if you followed a set of written instructions, you may not need
to write out the full procedure - state briefly what was done and cite the manual), there needs
to be enough detail so that someone could repeat the work.

Do not keep using the word "then" - the reader will understand that the steps were carried out in
the order in which they are written.

“The Method must be written in the past tense and the passive voice.”
Don’t use I/ME/We

Results
This section states what you found.
The following will be included in your Results:

 Pictures and spectra.

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ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH
NARHE │PUNE -41 │ INDIA
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

 Tables and graphs whenever practical.

 Brief statements of the results in the text (without repeating the data in the graphs and
tables). When writing about each picture, graph or table, refer to it parenthetically e.g.
(Figure 1).
 If possible give a section of related results and then comment on them rather than presenting
many pages of unrelated results and then discussing them at the end. Subheadings can be
used to divide this section so that it is easier to understand.
Massive quantities of data or raw data (not refined statistically) can be presented in appendices.
Include only your own observed results in this section.

The following should not be included in your results:

 What you expected to find or what you were supposed to have observed.
 References to other works (published data or statements of theory).
Use the Discussion section of the report for these.
The Results section should be written in the past tense and passive voice, avoiding the use of
"I" and "we".

Discussion
State your interpretation of your findings, perhaps comparing or contrasting them with the
literature. Reflect on your actual data and observations.

Explain or rationalise errant data or describe possible sources of error and how they may have
affected the outcome.

The Discussion must answer the question "What do the results mean?" It is an argument based on
the results.

Conclusion
 This is the summing up of your argument or experiment/research, and should relate back to
the Introduction.
 The Conclusion should only consist of a few sentences, and should reiterate the findings of
your experiment/research.
 If appropriate, suggest how to improve the procedure, and what additional experiments or
research would be helpful.

References
Cite any references that you have used, ensuring that each item in the reference list has an in-text
citation, and every in-text citation has a full reference in the reference list at the end of your paper.
Ensure that the references are formatted according to the style required by the journal (or your
lecturer/supervisor), and be careful with spelling (the author whose name you misspell may be
asked to review the paper!)

Appendices
Any other relevant information related to the research. Example set of data, formulas used,
program involved.

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 ZEAL EDUCATION SOCIETY’S
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH
NARHE │PUNE -41 │ INDIA
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

TYPES OF REPORTS
 Research reports vary greatly in length and type.
• Business firms prefer reports in the letter form, just one or two pages in length.
• Banks, insurance organisations and financial institutions are generally fond of the short
balance-sheet type of tabulation for their annual reports to their customers and shareholders.
• Mathematicians prefer to write the results of their investigations in the form of algebraic
notations.
• Chemists report their results in symbols and formulae.
• Students of literature/Science usually write long reports presenting the critical analysis of
some writer or period or the like with a liberal use of quotations from the works of the author
under discussion.
 A research investigation can be presented in a number of ways viz., a technical report, a popular
report, an article, a monograph or at times even in the form of oral presentation (conferences).
 Which method(s) of presentation to be used in a particular study depends on the circumstances
under which the study arose and the nature of the results.
 A technical report is used whenever a full written report of the study is required whether for
recordkeeping or for public dissemination.
 A popular report is used if the research results have policy implications.

(A) Technical Report

In the technical report the main emphasis is on (i) the methods employed, (it) assumptions made in
the course of the study, (iii) the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations and
supporting data.

A general outline of a technical report can be as follows:

1. Summary of results: A brief review of the main findings just in two or three pages.
2. Nature of the study: Description of the general objectives of study, formulation of the problem in
operational terms, the working hypothesis, the type of analysis and data required, etc.
3. Methods employed: Specific methods used in the study and their limitations. For instance, in
sampling studies we should give details of sample design viz., sample size, sample selection, etc.
4. Data: Discussion of data collected, their sources, characteristics and limitations. If secondary data
are used, their suitability to the problem at hand be fully assessed. In case of a survey, the manner in
which data were collected should be fully described.
5. Analysis of data and presentation of findings: The analysis of data and presentation of the findings
of the study with supporting data in the form of tables and charts be fully narrated. This, in fact,
happens to be the main body of the report usually extending over several chapters.
6. Conclusions: A detailed summary of the findings and the policy implications drawn from the
results be explained.
7. Bibliography: Bibliography of various sources consulted be prepared and attached.
8. Technical appendices: Appendices be given for all technical matters relating to questionnaire,
mathematical derivations, elaboration on particular technique of analysis and the like ones.
9. Index: Index must be prepared and be given invariably in the report at the end.

It should, however, be remembered that even in a technical report, simple presentation and ready
availability of the findings remain an important consideration and as such the liberal use of charts
and diagrams is considered desirable.

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 ZEAL EDUCATION SOCIETY’S
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH
NARHE │PUNE -41 │ INDIA
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

(B) Popular Report

The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and attractiveness. The simplification
should be sought through clear writing, minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details
and liberal use of charts and diagrams. Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings,
even an occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of the popular report.
Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and policy implications.
We give below a general outline of a popular report.

1. The findings and their implications: Emphasis in the report is given on the findings of most
practical interest and on the implications of these findings.
2. Recommendations for action: Recommendations for action on the basis of the findings of the study
is made in this section of the report.
3. Objective of the study: A general review of how the problem arise is presented along with the
specific objectives of the project under study.
4. Methods employed: A brief and non-technical description of the methods and techniques used,
including a short review of the data on which the study is based, is given in this part of the report.
5. Results: This section constitutes the main body of the report wherein the results of the study are
presented in clear and non-technical terms with liberal use of all sorts of illustrations such as charts,
diagrams and the like ones.
6. Technical appendices: More detailed information on methods used, forms, etc. is presented in the
form of appendices. But the appendices are often not detailed if the report is entirely meant for general
public.

There can be several variations of the form in which a popular report can be prepared. The only
important thing about such a report is that it gives emphasis on simplicity and policy implications
from the operational point of view, avoiding the technical details of all sorts to the extent possible.

ORAL PRESENTATION

Oral presentation is effective when supplemented by various visual devices. Use of slides, wall charts
and blackboards is quite helpful in contributing to clarity and in reducing the boredom, if any.
Distributing a board outline, with a few important tables and charts concerning the research results,
makes the listeners attentive who have a ready outline on which to focus their thinking. This very
often happens in academic institutions where the researcher discusses his research findings and policy
implications with others either in a seminar or in a group discussion.

Different steps in the preparation

There are very definite and set rules which should be followed in the actual preparation of the research
report or paper. Once the techniques are finally decided, they should be scrupulously adhered to, and
no deviation permitted. The criteria of format should be decided as soon as the materials for the
research paper have been assembled. The following points deserve mention so far as the mechanics
of writing a report are concerned:

1. Size and physical design: The manuscript should be written on unruled paper 8 1 2² × 11² in size.
If it is to be written by hand, then black or blue-black ink should be used. A margin of at least one
and one-half inches should be allowed at the left hand and of at least half an inch at the right hand of
the paper. There should also be one-inch margins, top and bottom. The paper should be neat and
legible. If the manuscript is to be typed, then all typing should be double-spaced on one side of the
page only except for the insertion of the long quotations.

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 ZEAL EDUCATION SOCIETY’S
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH
NARHE │PUNE -41 │ INDIA
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

2. Procedure: Various steps in writing the report should be strictly adhered (All such steps have
already been explained earlier in this chapter).

3. Layout: Keeping in view the objective and nature of the problem, the layout of the report should
be thought of and decided and accordingly adopted (The layout of the research report and various
types of reports have been described in this chapter earlier which should be taken as a guide for
report-writing in case of a particular problem).

4. Treatment of quotations: Quotations should be placed in quotation marks and double spaced,
forming an immediate part of the text. But if a quotation is of a considerable length (more than four
or five type written lines) then it should be single-spaced and indented at least half an inch to the right
of the normal text margin.

5. The footnotes: Regarding footnotes one should keep in view the followings:

(a) The footnotes serve two purposes viz., the identification of materials used in quotations in the
report and the notice of materials not immediately necessary to the body of the research text but still
of supplemental value. In other words, footnotes are meant for cross references, citation of authorities
and sources, acknowledgement and elucidation or explanation of a point of view. It should always be
kept in view that footnote is not an end nor a means of the display of scholarship. The modern
tendency is to make the minimum use of footnotes for scholarship does not need to be displayed.

(b) Footnotes are placed at the bottom of the page on which the reference or quotation which they
identify or supplement ends. Footnotes are customarily separated from the textual material by a space
of half an inch and a line about one and a half inches long.

(c) Footnotes should be numbered consecutively, usually beginning with 1 in each chapter separately.
The number should be put slightly above the line, say at the end of a quotation. At the foot of the
page, again, the footnote number should be indented and typed a little above the line. Thus,
consecutive numbers must be used to correlate the reference in the text with its corresponding note
at the bottom of the page, except in case of statistical tables and other numerical material, where
symbols such as the asterisk (*) or the like one may be used to prevent confusion.

(d) Footnotes are always typed in single space though they are divided from one another by double
space.

6. Documentation style: Regarding documentation, the first footnote reference to any given work
should be complete in its documentation, giving all the essential facts about the edition used. Such
documentary footnotes follow a general sequence. The common order may be described as under:

(i) Regarding the single-volume reference

1. Author’s name in normal order (and not beginning with the last name as in a bibliography) followed
by a comma;
2. Title of work, underlined to indicate italics;
3. Place and date of publication;
4. Pagination references (The page number).
Example
John Gassner, Masters of the Drama, New York: Dover Publications, Inc. 1954, p. 315.

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 ZEAL EDUCATION SOCIETY’S
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH
NARHE │PUNE -41 │ INDIA
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

(ii) Regarding multivolumed reference

1. Author’s name in the normal order;
2. Title of work, underlined to indicate italics;
3. Place and date of publication;
4. Number of volume;
5. Pagination references (The page number).

(iii) Regarding works arranged alphabetically

For works arranged alphabetically such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, no pagination
reference is usually needed. In such cases the order is illustrated as under:
Example 1
“Salamanca,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, 14th Edition.
Example 2
“Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin,” Dictionary of national biography.
But if there should be a detailed reference to a long encyclopedia article, volume and pagination
reference may be found necessary.

(iv) Regarding periodicals reference

1. Name of the author in normal order;
2. Title of article, in quotation marks;
3. Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics;
4. Volume number;
5. Date of issuance;
6. Pagination.
(v) Regarding anthologies and collections reference
Quotations from anthologies or collections of literary works must be acknowledged not only by
author, but also by the name of the collector.

(vi) Regarding second-hand quotations reference

In such cases the documentation should be handled as follows:
1. Original author and title;
2. “quoted or cited in,”;
3. Second author and work.
Example
J.F. Jones, Life in Ploynesia, p. 16, quoted in History of the Pacific Ocean area, by R.B. Abel, p.
191.

(vii) Case of multiple authorship

If there are more than two authors or editors, then in the documentation the name of only the first is
given and the multiple authorship is indicated by “et al.” or “and others”. Subsequent references to
the same work need not be so detailed as stated above. If the work is cited again without any other
work intervening, it may be indicated as ibid, followed by a comma and the page number. A single
page should be referred to as p., but more than one page be referred to as pp. If there are several
pages referred to at a stretch, the practice is to use often the page number, for example, pp. 190ff,
which means page number 190 and the following pages; but only for page 190 and the following
page ‘190f’. Roman numerical is generally used to indicate the number of the volume of a book.
Op. cit. (opera citato, in the work cited) or Loc. cit. (loco citato, in the place cited) are two of the
very convenient abbreviations used in the footnotes. Op. cit. or Loc. cit. after the writer’s name
would suggest that the reference is to work by the writer which has been cited in detail in an earlier
footnote but intervened by some other references.

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 ZEAL EDUCATION SOCIETY’S
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH
NARHE │PUNE -41 │ INDIA
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

7. Punctuation and abbreviations in footnotes: The first item after the number in the footnote is
the author’s name, given in the normal signature order. This is followed by a comma. After the
comma, the title of the book is given: the article (such as “A”, “An”, “The” etc.) is omitted and only
the first word and proper nouns and adjectives are capitalized. The title is followed by a comma.
Information concerning the edition is given next. This entry is followed by a comma. The place of
publication is then stated; it may be mentioned in an abbreviated form, if the place happens to be a
famous one such as Lond. for London, N.Y. for New York, N.D. for New Delhi and so on. This entry
is followed by a comma. Then the name of the publisher is mentioned and this entry is closed by a
comma. It is followed by the date of publication if the date is given on the title page. If the date
appears in the copyright notice on the reverse side of the title page or elsewhere in the volume, the
comma should be omitted and the date enclosed in square brackets [c 1978], [1978]. The entry is
followed by a comma. Then follow the volume and page references and are separated by a comma if
both are given. A period closes the complete documentary reference. But one should remember that
the documentation regarding acknowledgements from magazine articles and periodical literature
follow a different form as stated earlier while explaining the entries in the bibliography.

Certain English and Latin abbreviations are quite often used in bibliographies and footnotes
to eliminate tedious repetition. The following is a partial list of the most common abbreviations
frequently used in report-writing (the researcher should learn to recognise them as well as he should
learn to use them):
anon., anonymous
ante., before
art., article
aug., augmented
bk., book
bull., bulletin
cf., compare
ch., chapter
col., column
diss., dissertation
ed., editor, edition, edited.
ed. cit., edition cited
e.g., exempli gratia: for example
eng., enlarged
et.al., and others
et seq., et sequens: and the following
ex., example
f., ff., and the following
fig(s)., figure(s)
fn., footnote
ibid., ibidem: in the same place (when two or more successive footnotes refer to the
same work, it is not necessary to repeat complete reference for the second
footnote. Ibid. may be used. If different pages are referred to, pagination
must be shown).
id., idem: the same
ill., illus., or
illust(s). illustrated, illustration(s)
Intro., intro., introduction
l, or ll, line(s)

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 ZEAL EDUCATION SOCIETY’S
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH
NARHE │PUNE -41 │ INDIA
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

loc. cit., in the place cited; used as op.cit., (when new reference
loco citato: is made to the same pagination as cited in the previous note)
MS., MSS., Manuscript or Manuscripts
N.B., nota bene: note well
n.d., no date
n.p., no place
no pub., no publisher
no(s)., number(s)
o.p., out of print
op. cit: in the work cited (If reference has been made to a work
opera citato and new reference is to be made, ibid., may be used, if intervening
reference has been made to different works, op.cit. must be used. The
name of the author must precede.
p. or pp., page(s)
passim: here and there
post: after
rev., revised
tr., trans., translator, translated, translation
vid or vide: see, refer to
viz., namely
vol. or vol(s)., volume(s)
vs., versus: against

8. Use of statistics, charts and graphs: A judicious use of statistics in research reports is often
considered a virtue for it contributes a great deal towards the clarification and simplification of the
material and research results. One may well remember that a good picture is often worth more than
a thousand words. Statistics are usually presented in the form of tables, charts, bars and line-graphs
and pictograms. Such presentation should be self explanatory and complete in itself. It should be
suitable and appropriate looking to the problem at hand. Finally, statistical presentation should be
neat and attractive.

9. The final draft: Revising and rewriting the rough draft of the report should be done with great
care before writing the final draft. For the purpose, the researcher should put to himself questions
like: Are the sentences written in the report clear? Are they grammatically correct? Do they say what
is meant’? Do the various points incorporated in the report fit together logically? “Having at least one
colleague read the report just before the final revision is extremely helpful. Sentences that seem
crystal-clear to the writer may prove quite confusing to other people; a connection that had seemed
self evident may strike others as a non-sequitur. A friendly critic, by pointing out passages that seem
unclear or illogical, and perhaps suggesting ways of remedying the difficulties, can be an invaluable
aid in achieving the goal of adequate communication.”

10. Bibliography: Bibliography should be prepared and appended to the research report as discussed
earlier.

11. Preparation of the index: At the end of the report, an index should invariably be given, the value
of which lies in the fact that it acts as a good guide, to the reader. Index may be prepared both as
subject index and as author index. The former gives the names of the subject-topics or concepts along
with the number of pages on which they have appeared or discussed in the report, whereas the latter
gives the similar information regarding the names of authors. The index should always be arranged

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 ZEAL EDUCATION SOCIETY’S
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NARHE │PUNE -41 │ INDIA
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alphabetically. Some people prefer to prepare only one index common for names of authors, subject-
topics, concepts and the like ones.

Structure and Language of typical reports.

https://www.eapfoundation.com/writing/reports/structure/

https://eng.kuleuven.be/prev/english/education/reporting/language-style
https://www.eapfoundation.com/writing/reports/language/

https://grimsby.ac.uk/documents/highereducation/skills/Structure-of-Reports-
Learnhigher.pdf

Writing papers: types of technical papers,

https://www.prismnet.com/~hcexres/textbook/otherep.html

Comparison between journal papers and conference papers

https://www.ierek.com/news/index.php/2018/05/23/difference-conference-paper-journal-
paper/

Journal papers, Conference papers, Survey papers, Poster papers, Comparison,

Structure of a survey, conference and journal paper.
1) A journal is a regular periodical publication, printed say monthly or bi-monthly, containing a
collection of peer reviewed papers. A high 'impact rating' helps, this being a measure of citations to
articles in tha journal.

2) Proceedings are collections of papers presented at a conference and printed later.

3) A conference is where you actually turn up to hear a paper presented as a talk. The paper is later
printed in the proceedings.

4) Reviewed papers are those that have been appraised by experts in your field and deemed for
printing in a journal or for presentation at conference.

5) Papers published in a University Journal are those that appear (as said) in the University's own
publications. These might not have been peer reviewed by experts in your field, therefore there is a
risk that mistakes or weaknesses may appear in them.

6) I'll add specialist book chapters to this list, which will also undergo peer review before
publication.

7) For transactions there is another thread in Difference between transactions and journal

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, where they said:

Journals, Transactions, and Letters are the primary means for publishing technical papers
concerning original work in IEEE fields of interest. [..] The primary purpose of Journals,
Transactions, and Letters is to disclose and provide a permanent archival record of original
technical work that advances the state of the art or provides novel insights. Papers in Journals,
Transactions, and Letters should be of lasting value to the professional as judged by the authors’
peers through a formal review process. [..]

From the New Oxford American Dictionary:

transactions published reports of proceedings at the meetings of a learned society.

8) A term paper is a research paper written by students over an academic term, accounting for a
large part of a grade. (From wikipedia Term paper

9) A seminar is a small group of students and teachers. A seminar paper is a record of what you
say to the group about a topic you have studied. Preparing a seminar paper gives you practice in
technical writing which will help you when you write your thesis. Taken from How to Write a
Seminar Paper, a Research Proposal and a The

sis. (Recommended lecture: The Seminar Paper and Academic Writing - Joseph Taylor

10) A technical report is a document that describes the process, progress, or results of technical or
scientific research or the state of a technical or scientific research problem. Unlike other scientific
literature, such as scientific journals and the proceedings of some academic conferences, technical
reports rarely undergo comprehensive independent peer review before publication. Taken from
Writing technical reports

and Technical report

11) Patent for an invention is the grant of a property right to the inventor, issued by the United
States Patent and Trademark Office. Generally, the term of a new patent is 20 years from the date
on which the application for the patent was filed in the United States or, in special cases, from the
date an earlier related application was filed, subject to the payment of maintenance fees. U.S. patent
grants are effective only within the United States, U.S. territories, and U.S. possessions. Under
certain circumstances, patent term extensions or adjustments may be available.

ME-SEM 1 / Unit 2: Technical Writing 12