Guide to Drawing: By Bill Martin

Bill Martin's Guide to Drawing was designed and written by the Visionary Art master. The
words and images on these pages are his, just as he left them, before his passing on October 28,
2008.

Table of Contents
 Getting Started
 Basic Shapes and Forms
 Value and the Illusion of Form
 Contrast
 Cast Shadows
 Texture
 Reflections
 Transparency
 Elliptical Perspective
 Linear Perspective
 Composition
 About Bill Martin
Getting Started
We know what we see, but we don't always know how we know what we see. When we look out
the window, how do we know how far away a particular tree is? Or, how do we know how steep
a hill is? And, how do we distinguish one texture from another without ever touching them? We
know from experience... experience based on a lifetime of interpreting specific visual clues. If an
artist knows what these clues are and how to use them, the illusions he or she creates will be very
convincing.

Our visual perception of reality is a rather complex

phenomenon. However, it can be separated into relatively
few concepts that, once learned, afford the artist a much
greater understanding of what is seen and what is to be
depicted.

Just as writers must learn to organize their thoughts into

words, sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, artists benefit
from learning the language of form, color, texture,
shadow, image, and composition to better organize and
communicate their thoughts.

By reading this guide and doing the exercises at the end

of each chapter, you will learn the perceptual clues our
eyes and minds use to interpret the surfaces, textures,
sizes, forms, and spatial relationships of all things in the
world around us, and how to use these clues to
communicate your perceptions and imaginings to others
through drawing and painting.

There are many rules in this guide, yet they represent only some of the options available to the
artist and should not be interpreted as either exhaustive or absolute. Rather, the artist can and
should go wherever imagination leads.

In this guide I present my method of drawing; there are many others, and you will evolve your
own. But until you do, I will lend you mine.
Materials
Virtually anything can be called into service to make a drawing. The artist's imagination and
invention are the only limitations. In art school we drew with stale coffee, using the chewed end
of a matchstick as a brush. There are, however, more traditional materials, ones that have served
the most purposes for most artists over time. This very brief survey is simply meant to give you
something to work with as the book proceeds; I encourage you to explore many different
materials, a process that can be the source of inspiration.

Paper
More drawings are made on paper than on any other surface. The papers [me artists use most
often are classified by surface texture, of which [here are three types: hot~pressed papers, which
have a smooth, hard, nonabsorbent surface well suited to pen and ink; rough papers, which are
well suited to charcoal and pastel; and cold-pressed papers, which are medium-textured and best
for pencil. Water media (wash, watercolor, gouache) are most frequently used on cold-pressed
papers.

Pencils
Artist's pencils come in a great variety of hardnesses, identified by a number and letter code on
the shaft. An HB or an F is medium hard and produces a medium-gray mark. An H pencil is
harder than an HB. It will produce a lighter gray mark and will hold its point longer. A 2H pencil
is harder still and gives an even lighter gray. The H pencils go up to a 10H, a pencil so hard some
people say you only have to sharpen it once. The B pencils are softer than the HB and produce a
darker mark; their leads get softer and blacker as the numbers go up. An 8B is the darkest and
softest. The softer leads tend to break and are therefore thicker. A way to tell the softness or
hardness of different pencils is to look at the thickness of the leads; the thicker the lead, the
softer it is and the darker its mark. An easy way to remember the pencil code is this: "H" stands
for hard, "HB" stands for hardly breaks, and "8" stands for breaks easily.

You can work with pencils in either of these ways. In one approach, you divide the subject of
your drawing into values of gray and use a variety of pencils to render these values... harder
pencils for light values, softer pencils for dark ones... applying a uniform degree of pressure. The
other approach, and the one I favor, is to vary the pressure on whatever pencil you are using to
create the value range... lighter pressure for lighter makes, heavier pressure for darker ones. This
method works best with an HB or softer pencil so that a wide range of values is possible. To
achieve a finer coverage or a more distinct edge in dark values, you can go over an area created
by a soft, dark pencil with a harder pencil. This manipulates the marks already on the paper.

For small drawings and my ceaseless doodles, I find a 5-millimeter mechanical pencil (which
uses a clicker to advance the lead) very useful because the point never needs sharpening. The 5-
mm leads are available in a wide variety of hardnesses.
Charcoal
Charcoal is probably the oldest drawing material, first used by prehistoric cave dwellers. It is
incompletely burned wood-the same as the leftovers of your camp fire. Charcoal is generally
used on rough paper and can produce a wide range of light and dark and thick and thin marks.
There are two types: vine charcoal and compressed charcoal. Vine charcoal is usually made from
willow branches and looks like a blackened stick.

Softer, lighter, and easier to erase than compressed charcoal, it is used on medium- or rough-
surfaced papers. Compressed charcoal is finely ground charcoal compressed into a stick or into
leads for use in charcoal pencils. It is used when greater contrast or control is desired. Both kinds
of charcoal are available in various degrees of softness (the softer, the darker) and can be used
together.

Fixative
Pencil and charcoal drawings are vulnerable to smearing. If you want to preserve your drawings,
you should mount them under glass and/or use a fixative. Fixative is a form of varnish that seals
the graphite or charcoal to the paper. It is applied by spraying. There are two kinds, gloss and
workable; both are suitable for preserving finished art. The gloss type leaves the paper's surface
slick, meaning you can't add to your drawing after applying it. Workable fixative, however, lets
you renew the surface of a drawing (isolate a layer) when the buildup of graphite or charcoal is
so great that it becomes difficult to add more. But, because fixative prevents smearing, it also
prevents erasures; thus, marks that have been fixed are permanent.

Erasers
There are four types of erasers that artists commonly use. They are the kneaded eraser (usually a
gray color), the rubber eraser (usually pink), the art gum eraser (usually a tan color), and the
plastic eraser (usually white). All of these will effectively remove unwanted marks from your
drawing. The most unusual of these is the kneaded eraser, which can be molded like clay into
whatever form you need to efficiently erase a particular area; to clean this type of eraser, you
simply knead it as you would bread dough. The kneaded eraser, the art gum eraser, and the
plastic eraser have the least harmful effects on paper. An art gum eraser is best for removing
light marks and smudges; for hard-to-remove marks the pink rubber eraser is most effective.

When your eraser is too large to remove small errors, you can use an eraser shield, a thin sheet of
metal with convenient openings of different shapes to erase through. Homemade paper shields
can also be used to isolate areas to be erased.

Pen and Ink

Pen and ink is another traditional drawing medium. Pen holders with various nibs (pen points)
come in a wide variety of shapes, sizes, and flexibilities. The more flexible the nib, the greater
the variation in line thickness. I recommend you try several types to see which suits your style.
When I draw with a dip pen, I have a scrap of paper close by to test the stroke after dipping to
prevent surprises, such as having too much ink.
When working in this medium I prefer to draw with a fountain pen because it eliminates the need
to dip the pen in ink every few moments. I find a gold-plated steel point the most responsive and
smoothest flowing. If you use a fountain pen, it is important that you use only inks that are made
for fountain pens. Waterproof inks contain shellac, which will ruin a fountain pen.

Virtually anything can be used to make a drawing. Pictured here are various pen nibs, drawing
pencils, a fountain pen, white plastic eraser, gray kneaded eraser, art gum eraser, compressed
charcoal, vine charcoal, ink, and workable fixative.
Basic Drawing Techniques
We now consider some basic techniques of drawing. First is the way you hold your drawing tool
(pencil, pen, brush, charcoal, whatever). We all have experience writing with pencils and pens.
Holding your drawing tool as you would for writing confines you to an area of about one to two
inches in any direction, which is agreeable if the area you're drawing is no larger than this. But
when you want to draw large shapes, don't hold the drawing tool this way, because your hand
will block your view of part of the drawing. This can lead to proportion and placement errors.
When drawing the eyes in a portrait, for example, I start with the eye on the left side of the paper
first because I am right-handed. If I were to draw the eye on the right first, my hand would block
my view of that eye while I drew the left one. I would then not be able to compare the eyes while
drawing.

It is easiest to render the large shapes of your drawing first. When drawing these large areas (or
when making large drawings) it is helpful to shift control from your fingertips to your wrist,
shoulder, or, if you're standing, to your whole body. I suggest you start by holding the pencil
from the eraser end. Or, hold it with your thumb and fingers in opposition, with the backs of your
fingers against the paper. You can hold a stick of charcoal with the tips of your thumb and
middle and index fingers. Another method is to position yourself far enough away from your
paper to be able to use your body to influence the marks you make. These methods will keep
your drawing light, loose, and focused on large shapes, and will eliminate or subdue the tendency
to become involved in details too soon.

Holding the drawing tool this way is appropriate for small drawings or small areas of a
drawing.
Holding the tool like this is good for making large, loose shapes in a drawing.

This method of holding the drawing tool shifts control from the fingers to the arm, which helps
simplify the early stages of a drawing.
This way of holding the drawing tool also shifts control from the fingers to the arm.

There is nothing wrong with seeing detail or making a drawing that has a lot of detail in it. What
is important is the sequence in which this happens. Start with the large, general shapes, followed
by more specific shapes, then their lights and shadows, and then the details. At the end of your
drawing, during the detail phase, it is appropriate to hold your pencil the way you would while
writing, because now you are concerned with areas no larger than one or two inches in any
direction. One of the most common errors students make is failing to follow this sequence.
Remember: If you draw large, simple things first and small, complex things last, your drawing
will develop easily and naturally.

It is helpful to draw on large paper; 18 x 24" (45.7 x 61 em) is a convenient size. Your individual
drawings need not be this large, but you don't want to run out of paper just as you get to an
interesting part. No matter what size you choose, it is a good policy to use paper that is larger
than your intended drawing. It is always possible to cut the paper afterward to the ideal size for
the drawing. A drawing board slightly larger than your paper is also useful. If the board has a
noticeable texture, it is a good idea to place extra sheets of paper underneath your drawing while
you work to prevent any unexpected bumps or irregularities in the board's surface from
interfering with your drawing.
When you are drawing, the distance from your eye to the top of the paper should be equal to the
distance from your eye to the bottom of the paper. If this is not the case, unwanted distortion may
occur. If, for example, you are drawing with your paper flat on a table, the distance from your
eye to the top of the paper is greater than it is to the bottom of the paper, and, as a result, the
upper part of your drawing will tend to be larger in proportion to the lower part. To avoid this
problem, rest your drawing board on the edge of the table and your lap for a better angle.

Resting your hand on the paper as you draw can cause problems-pencil, charcoal, or wet ink may
smear, and the oil from your hands can affect the way paper takes ink. A simple solution is to
place a clean sheet of paper under your hand while you work.

Start with large, simple shapes, followed by smaller, more specific shapes. Save the details until
the end. When you work simple to complex, large to small, loose to tight, your drawing develops
quickly and easily.
Distortions can result when the distance from your eye to the top of the page is not equal to the
distance from your eye to the bottom of the page.

When you tilt your working surface like this, the distance from your eye to the top and bottom of
the page is equal and there will be fewer distortions in your drawing.
Guidelines
When you begin a drawing, simple guidelines of some sort are helpful. These lines are usually
very light and, where possible, are erased before the drawing is finished. If you are drawing an
object that is somewhat circular in form, draw a light circle first and place the object within It.
This is helpful in establishing the size of the object and its placement on the page If the object
has parallel sides, draw parallel guidelines and then place the object within them. If the object is
symmetrical (meaning that one half is the mirror image of the other half), start with the center
line as a guide. Variations in the outer contours of symmetrical objects can be accurately drawn
using guidelines that are perpendicular to the center line. For example, to draw a violin, start
with the center line, then draw the parallel lines of the body and neck; next, draw lines
perpendicular to the center line for accurate placement of the top, neck, shoulder, and waist of
the violin. With these and any other necessary guidelines in place, you can then roughly draw in
the violin. If corrections need to be made, this is when it is best to make them. Erase all
unnecessary guidelines. Now refine and correct the drawing until you are satisfied.

Symmetrical objects can best be drawn by beginning with a center line. Loose, light lines are
then placed at appropriate equal distances from the center line. Lines perpendicular to the
center line limit the extent of these lines and accurately locate features on each side of the
object. Once the object is established, erase your guidelines and refine the drawing.
This simplified front view of a face starts with an egg shape, which is divided in half vertically
and horizontally. To locate the eyes, divide the horizontal center fine of the oval into five equal
parts. The eyes fit in sections 2 and 4. To locate the length of the nose and the opening of the
mouth, divide the lower half of the face into five parts. The bottom of the nose is usually located
on the line between sections 2 and 3 of this division, the opening of the mouth on the line
between sections 3 and 4. A nose is as wide as an eye; the width of the mouth is usually equal to
the distance between the irises.
Angles and Proportions
Draw lightly and loosely at first. Find the placement on the page of what you are drawing and
lightly rough in the general shapes. As you draw, measure constantly, always comparing the size
of one thing or part to another. The edge of your pencil can be helpful in seeing angles.
Remember to keep your drawing light and loose until you have everything where you want it.
Now erase all wrong or unnecessary lines. This is your foundation. Next, make your
commitments to specific lines or lights and shadows. Refine and correct this continually until
you can think of nothing else to do. Then your drawing is done and you are ready to begin
another. The more you draw, the better you will become at drawing.

To gauge the incline of an object accurately, hold your pencil parallel to it. Then, without
changing the pencil's angle, move it to the drawing and make a mark on your paper. The mark
should be parallel to the angle of your pencil and thus to the object you are drawing.
Finding the correct proportions of an object can sometimes be achieved by drawing a simpler
view of the object and transferring those proportions to the view you want. Here, a simple top
view is converted to a more complex, three-quarter view.
Some Basic Artistic Terms
Every profession has its own vocabulary. Before you go any further in this book, it will be
helpful to familiarize yourself with the terms defined here.

Highlight: The side of an object receiving light and/or the actual brightest spot within a
highlighted area.

Cast shadow: The shadow of an object in its environment.

Contrast: The relationship of light and dark values. Black juxtaposed with white is a high-
contrast relationship; light gray next to dark gray is a lower contrast.

Ellipse: An oval; a circle seen at an angle.

Horizon line: The apparent junction of earth and sky, without regard to valleys, hills, mountains,
or buildings.

Parallel: As
applied to lines or
surfaces, always
the same distance
from each other.

Picture plane:
The actual
surface of a
drawing or
painting.

Perpendicular:
At a right, or 90
degree angle to a
gIven line or
surface.

Proximity shadow: The shadow occurring at the point of contact or near-contact of two objects
or surfaces.

Plane: Any flat surface, such as a wall, floor, or meadow.

Shadow: The absence of light on an object, as distinguished from a cast shadow.

Value: The relative lightness or darkness of a color.

Vanishing point: A point at which parallel lines receding into space appear to meet.

Basic Shapes and Forms

The first step in drawing is always simplification. The world is a complex place. A mistake many
students make is trying to depict the world in all its complexity. It is possible to put all the details
of your perception in a drawing
or painting, but don't start with the details. Simplify first. All subjects are made up of just a few
basic shapes and forms. Learn to identify these basic, components, then begin your drawings
with them.

If you can draw the basic forms and see them in complex objects you will be better able to draw
those objects.
Silhouette and Line
The simplest depiction of an object its silhouette, or outside contours. When I begin to draw an
object, I usually start with its outside contours.

Choosing which silhouette to draw is important. The more information available in a drawing,
the more likely the viewer's acceptance of the drawing's illusion of reality. If the silhouette is
informative, the subsequent layers of light, shadow, and texture will be more understandable.
With a subject such as a cow or a pitcher, it is the side view that provides the most information.
Naturally we do not want to limit ourselves to side or profile views. But because the
contour/silhouette is the first thing we see, it helps to present significant information at this level.

Many drawings are restricted to just line, with no definition in values. In such drawings the
silhouette is supplement by internal lines that can describe overlapping forms, changes in
direction (such as the corner of a cube), or changes in color and value (such as the sports on a
leopard or the edges of a cast shadow). These lines are a code virtually everyone understands, but
they do not create the illusion of reality; they are always abstract. Because most drawings and
paintings start with outer contour and internal lines, even if only as a preliminary guide, it is
appropriate to practice their use.
An object's silhouette is the first thing we see. The angle from which you view an object
determines its silhouette, and some silhouettes give more information about the object than
others. When you draw an object, your choice of an informative silhouette will greatly enhance
your viewer's perception of the object. All of the images shown here inform us about the
subjects, a pitcher and a cow, but in both examples, the side view tells us the most. The more
descriptive a silhouette, the less we need to depend on color and values for comprehension
Basic Two-Dimensional Shapes
At the two-dimensional level-the level of silhouettes-there are three basic shapes: the square, the
circle, and the triangle. Simplified silhouettes of objects are created by combining variations of
these three basic shapes.

All silhouettes can be constructed by combining parts of the three basic shapes: the square,
circle and equilateral triangle. Variations of these basic shapes include ovals, rectangles, and
triangles with sides of different lengths.
Even complex shapes like these are made by combining variations of the triangle, square, and
circle
Basic Three-Dimensional Forms
At the three-dimensional level there are five basic forms: the sphere, the cone, the cylinder, the
torus, and the cube. All three-dimensional objects can be constructed from the parts of these five
forms. Things with flat surfaces and abrupt changes in surface plane, like the corners of a house
or the hexagonal head of a bolt, relate to cubes. Curved planes, like the rounded arms of a sofa or
the ripples of a flag, relate to cones or cylinders. Bumps, dents, and hills relate to spheres. A
barbecue is composed of spheres and cylinders; a mailbox is a half-cylinder and a cube. The
rounded circular rim of a cup relates to the torus, which is also the basic form of a coiled snake
or chain links.

In studying the basic forms, you must also consider how they appear in the negative. For
example, a crater is a negative sphere; a rut or a groove is a negative cylinder; an empty
rectangular swimming pool is part of a negative cube.

The Sphere
The sphere is the easiest of the forms to draw because no matter what your angle of view, it is
always drawn as a circle. Nearly pure examples of spherical forms are oranges, the moon, soccer
balls, and bubbles.

The sphere drawn in line is simply a circle.

The Cone

The cone is the next easiest to draw. It is simply a V with a circle between its ends. When seen at
an angle, the circle is an ellipse. A line drawn from the center of the circular base to the point of
the V is the cone's midline. If the cone's base is perpendicular to the midline, the cone's sides are
drawn from the narrow ends of the ellipse. If not, the base of the cone will be seen as though cut
at an angle. Nearly pure examples of cone forms are pencil points, Christmas trees, ships' masts,
and witches' hats.

A cone is drawn as a triangle with an ellipse on one end. A line drawn from the middle of the
ellipse to the point of the cone is called the midline. If a line drawn through the widest part of
the ellipse is not perpendicular to the midline, the cone will not stand up straight.
Complex forms can be seen as combinations of the basic forms.
The Cylinder

The cylinder is drawn with parallel lines for the sides and circles between the parallel lines. (As
with the cone, the circles become ellipses when seen at an angle.) If the top and bottom of the
cylinder are perpendicular to its sides, the parallel lines are drawn from the narrow ends of the
ellipses. A line from the center of one ellipse to the center of the other is the cylinder's midline.
A line drawn through the widest part of the ellipse will be perpendicular to the midline of the
cylinder. It is important to remember that although the top and bottom surfaces of a cylinder are
parallel, they are not drawn as identical ellipses. The closer one of these surfaces IS to your eye
level (also known as the horizon line), the narrower the ellipse will appear; the farther from eye
level, the rounder the ellipse will appear. (For more on this, see the chapter on elliptical
perspective.) A foreshortened cylinder-one that is drawn narrower at one end to give the illusion
of projection or extension into space-will appear to have sides that are not parallel, because they
are drawn in perspective. In perspective, parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into
space. Nearly pure examples of cylindrical forms are cans, broom handles, and curtain rods.

A cylinder is drawn as a pair of parallel lines with an ellipse at each end between the parallel
lines. The ellipse nearer to your eye level will appear narrower than the one farther away from
your eye level.
In this illustration cylinder #1, at left, is drawn correctly, while the other three are wrong. In #2,
the top and bottom ellipses are the same, but this cannot be the case because they are seen at
different levels. Cylinder #3 is wrong because even though it sits on a flat surface, the bottom
should not be drawn flat because the bottom of the form itself is curved. In cylinder #4, the top
ellipse should be narrower because it is closer to our eye level than the bottom ellipse.
The Torus
The torus is a doughnut shape. Seen from above, it is just two circles, one within the other. From
a three-quarter view, the middle of the external edge is the middle portion or an ellipse; the ends
are portions of two small circles. The inside of the torus (the hole in the doughnut) is depicted by
two arcs that form an ovoid (oval-like) shape with pointed ends. Nearly pure examples of a torus
are a bagel, a coiled garden hose or snake, and a chain link.

A torus is drawn either as two ellipses, one within the other, or as an ellipse with two opposing
arcs forming a pointed ellipse within. Seen (rom the side, a torus con be two parallel fines with a
half- Circle on either end.
The Cube

A cube is a box with six square sides. Pure examples of cubes are dice, filing cabinets, sheds, and
washing machines. The cube is the most difficult form to draw correctly because it involves
linear perspective. A more thorough explanation of linear perspective will be presented later in
this book, but on the following pages you will find some basic concepts.

A cube is a six-sided form; each side is a flat square. This is the most difficult of the five basic
forms to draw because it requires an understanding of linear perspective
Perspective and the Cube
In linear perspective it is necessary to understand the concept of the picture plane, which is the
actual two-dimensional surface of your paper (or canvas). The image on the paper is the
depiction of what would be seen behind the paper's surface. If you were to trace the view out a
window onto the glass, the glass would represent the picture plane.

The other concept to understand is the horizon line, which is, of course, the horizon; it is also
called the eye level. Imagine a piece of cardboard with a rectangle cut out of it-a viewfinder. If
you hold the viewfinder at the level of your eye, the horizon will be in the middle of the opening.
If you lower the viewfinder, the horizon appears to move to the top of the opening. If you raise
the viewfinder, the horizon appears to move to the bottom of the opening. Thus, in a drawing,
when the horizon is high on the page, our focus is on things below our eye level (we are looking
down). When the horizon is low on the page, our focus is on things above our eye level-over our
head (we are looking up).

Imagine you are looking at a level box. If you can see the top of the box, it is below your eye
level, so the horizon is above the box. If you can see the underside of the box, it is above your
eye level, so the horizon is below the box.

The picture plane is the actual surface upon which an image is created. The image appears to be
behind the surface.
To give the impression of looking down, the horizon is placed high on the page.

To give the impression of looking up, the horizon is placed Iow on the page.
To give the impression of looking down, the horizon is placed high on the page. To give the
impression of looking up, the horizon is placed low on the page.
One-Point Perspective and the Cube

The two most common and useful types of perspective are one-point and two-point perspective.
The simplest demonstration of one- point perspective is to look down a straight road. We know
the road to be the same width throughout its length, and yet as we look toward the horizon the
road appears to get increasingly narrow, until it diminishes to a point on the horizon. This is
called the vanishing point because it is where the road appears to vanish. On level ground, the
vanishing point is always on the horizon. Place a cube in this road with the sides of the cube
parallel to the sides of the road. The lines that describe the receding edges of the cube will
converge at the same vanishing point that the road does. All receding parallel lines will share the
same vanishing point.

These three boxes are drawn in one-point perspective. The dotted lines indicate receding lines.
All the receding lines meet at one point on the horizon line, indicating that they are parallel to
one another.
In one-point perspective, a straight flat road seems to get narrower in the distance, although we
know that it doesn't. Imagine a box whose receding edges are parallel to those of the road. All of
these edges "vanish" at the same point on the horizon.

One-point perspective is also used when you are depicting boxes or interiors that have races or
walls parallel to the picture plane. The horizontal and vertical lines on the faces parallel to the
picture plane are drawn perpendicular to each other. All other receding edges or an object will
converge at a point on the horizon line. In one-point perspective, the front and back of a cube are
parallel to the picture plane. They are drawn as squares with perpendicular corners. The top,
bottom, and sides of a cube in one-point perspective recede into space. The lines defining their
receding edges will converge at a point somewhere behind the cube.
Remember: In one-point perspective, verticals and horizontals are perpendicular to each other on
surfaces parallel to the picture plane.

When drawing a cube or box in one-point perspective, start with a perfect square or rectangle
(all corners are 90° angles). This represents the side that is parallel to the picture plane. (The
vanishing point is denoted as VP.)

To establish the top of the cube, draw lines from the top corners of the square to a point behind
the cube on the horizon line.
The back of the cube is established (arbitrarily for now) by making a line parallel to the top of
the front of the cube; the width of this line is defined by the perspective lines you drew from the
cube's top front corners.

The receding lines of the top are now drawn in, connecting the back of the cube to the front.
We have now established a closed cube in one-point perspective.

To open the front of the cube, draw the receding lines of the bottom of the cube from the bottom
front corners to the vanishing point. The bottom edges are parallel to the top ones, so they will
share the same vanishing point.
Vertical lines are now drawn from the back corners of the cube to the receding lines of the
bottom of the cube.

Where the vertical lines of the back of the cube meet the receding lines of the bottom, draw a line
parallel to the front bottom line.
The back vertical fines are now drawn to where they meet the receding lines of the bottom of the
cube. Note: We can't see through the top of the cube, so we won't see these lines meet the top
back corners.

This is an open cube in one-point perspective.

Two-point perspective and the Cube

Two-point perspective is used when only the vertical edges of the cube are parallel to the picture
plane. This is unlike one-point perspective, in which whole sides of the cube are parallel to the
picture plane.

With a cube in two-point perspective, only the verticals are truly parallel to each other. All other
lines will appear to point to one of two vanishing points. If the cube is level, the vanishing points
will be on the horizon. All lines parallel to each other will share the same vanishing point. The
farther apart the two vanishing points are placed, the farther away from the object your viewpoint
appears to be.

In one-point perspective, whole sides of the cube are parallel to the picture plane, as the
example at near right shows. In two-point perspective, only the cube's vertical edges are parallel
to the picture plane, as in the example at for right.

To draw a cube in two-point perspective, we start with the vertical edge nearest the picture
plane. Vanishing points are placed (arbitrarily for now) on the left and right sides of the horizon
line.
Lines from the top and bottom of the near edge are drawn to the vanishing point at right. This
will establish the top and bottom edges of the right side of the cube.

Similar lines are drawn for the left side of the cube.

Vertical lines are now chosen (arbitrarily for now) for the back corners of the cube. These lines
fit between the receding dotted lines.
The top and bottom edges of the two sides are now drawn.

To find the back edges of the top of the cube, draw a line from the left bock corner to the
vanishing point at right. Draw another line from the right back corner to the vanishing point at
left.

The back top edges are now drawn in.

This is a closed cube in two-point perspective.

To depict an open cube in two-point perspective, draw a line from the vanishing point at left to
the right front bottom corner.

To establish the depth of the cube, draw a line from the vanishing point at right to the back left
bottom corner. Then draw a vertical line from the top back corner to where the lines from the
vanishing points cross.
Draw the lines where we would see them if only the right side of the box were open.

This is an open cube in two-point perspective.

Exercises
Reading about these concepts is not enough. You must teach your hand what your mind knows.

Draw the silhouettes of the basic forms from many different angles. I recommend drawing them
on gray construction paper. Cut out the silhouettes, turn them over so you don't see your drawing
lines, and determine which of the views you prefer and which best describe the forms.

As a further exercise, find several objects that are combinations of the basic forms, such as an ice
cream cone, which is made of a half-sphere and a cone, or a Band-Aid box, which is a cube with
cylindrical corners. Draw many views of these combined forms on the gray construction paper,
cut them out.Turn them over, and determine which you prefer and which give the most
information.

These are the silhouettes of the five basic forms

Value and the Illusion of Form
We now look at how value-the relative lightness or darkness of a color-defines the basic forms.
Value shapes are, in fact, stronger indicators of form than outside contours. Since childhood we
have recognized objects by the characteristic light and shadow shapes and value patterns that
describe them. However, we may not realize how we came to have this knowledge. Increasing
our awareness of how value defines form will greatly enhance our ability to create the
convincing illusion of three dimensions in the objects we draw and paint.

Value patterns are stronger indicators of form than contours. Here, the value pattern on A
describes the square as the face of a cube parallel to the picture plane. The value patterns on
square B and circle C describe cylinders, while the pattern on circle D actually describes part of
a cone.

Notice how the dark value shapes alone can define the basic forms
Exercises
Return to the shapes you cut from the gray paper in the previous exercises.

Cut from black and white paper the light and shadow shapes that will further define the forms:
triangle shapes for the cone, parallel stripes for the cylinder, crescents and ovals for the sphere,
four-sided shapes for the sides and top of the cube. (if you can find blended paper, use it for the
cube; otherwise, just use a different value of gray for each side.)

Now glue the various pieces together to create the impression of three-dimensional forms.
Defining the Basic Forms with Value
Presented here are the rules that govern how value patterns define the basic forms in their ideal
state. It is possible to find on these forms light and shadow shapes that do not fit the rules-shapes
created when the light source is at an unusual angle, for example. It is not necessarily wrong to
include these "other" shapes in your drawings, but they will not enhance, and may actually
confuse, your viewer's recognition of a given form, as well as interfere with the illusion of three-
dimensionality.

The Cube
A cube is made up of flat areas called planes. When a cube's plane is parallel to the picture plane,
it is depicted as a single tone. A cube in one-point perspective will have its front surface, or
plane, depicted as a single tone because the front is parallel to the picture plane. When a cube's
plane is not parallel to the picture plane, it is depicted as a blend, a gradual transition from a
lighter to a darker value.

Strong contrast between an object and its surroundings (including adjacent forms) makes the
object appear to advance; weak contrast between these elements makes the object appear to
recede, A cube's plane appears to recede in space when the contrast between its value and that of
its surroundings is greatest in the foreground and least in the background. Thus, when drawing a
cube's plane against a light background, you would make the blend darkest on the part of the
plane that's closest to the foreground so it will seem to advance, and lighten the blend
progressively as the plane recedes in space toward the light background.

A cube with no side parallel to the picture plane is made up of various blends. How these blends
are arranged will determine whether we are looking at the outside or the inside of the cube. If the
light portion of a blend on one plane meets the dark portion of a blend on an adjoining plane, a
strong contrast results, creating the impression of an edge that comes forward. Conversely, a low
contrast between the values of blends meeting at the Juncture of two planes creates the
impression of an inside or receding corner. Imagine an open box. The corner nearest the picture
plane is composed of two adjacent planes that contrast more with each other than do the two
planes that meet to form the inside far comer of the same box.

Remember these points:

 All flat planes are treated the same as the sides of a cube.
 A clearly defined border between the values of two flat planes implies a sharp edge. As the
border between these two values becomes more gradual, or blended, the edge appears
rounded; the wider the blend the more rounded the edge. The rounded edge of a cube is
actually a portion of a cylinder.
Cubes are made of flat areas called planes. A plane that is parallel to the picture plane is
depicted as a single value. A plane that is not parallel to the picture plane is depicted with a
blend, a gradual transition from one value to another.

The plane of this wall is parallel to the picture plane of the canvas. It is therefore depicted on the
canvas as a single value.
The plane of the cheese is not parallel to the picture plane of the canvas in this illustration. It is
therefore depicted on the canvas as a blend from one value to another.

The inside corner of the room appears to recede because where the planes (walls) meet, the
blends that describe them are in low contrast. The near corner of the box advances because the
blends of its planes meet in high contrast.
The Cylinder
A solid cylinder has a flat top and bottom, which are depicted as fiat planes, just as the sides of a
cube are. The curved part of the cylinder is depicted with a blend of values rendered as parallel
stripes. As long as values are in parallel stripes, the form described is cylindrical.

Cylindrical forms are described by blends of light to dark parallel stripes. The angle from which
you view a cylinder determines the shape of its top; from overhead this shape is a circle, while at
other angles it appears to be an ellipse (for more on this, see the chapter on elliptical
perspective).

A roll of paper is a cylindrical shape; its light and shadow shapes are blends of parallel stripes.
(The loose paper is a cone.)
The Cone
The flat bottom face of a solid cone is a plane and is therefore depicted with a blend, as on a
cube. The top of the cone is created with adjacent triangular blends of different values radiating
from the apex. There is more contrast between the light and dark areas on the narrow pan of the
cone than on the wide pan.

A fir tree is cone-shaped. Look for triangular areas of light and dark.

Adjacent triangular blends radiating from a point describe cones.

The Sphere
A sphere is made of two shapes, a crescent and an oval. Depending on the angle of the light
hitting it, the sphere is a combination of light crescent (its lit side) and dark oval, or dark crescent
(its shadow side) and light oval. A sphere illuminated so its light and dark sides are evenly
divided, and thus represented as two half-circles (one light, one dark), will look only somewhat
three-dimensional. When l have to draw such spheres, I usually adjust the shadow and light to
form subtle crescents and ovals, because I know that this will enhance the illusion of three-
dimensional form.

On spheres, the light and shadow shapes are crescents and ovals (actually ovoids, or oval-like
shapes).

An oak tree resembles a half-sphere. Look for a partial crescent or oval on its shadow side.
The Torus
The torus is a combination of the cylinder and the sphere. The middle portions of a torus are
curved cylinders. Where the cylinder curves back on itself, the torus looks like portions of a
sphere. As defined by value shapes, the middle of the torus is seen as curving parallel stripes and
the returning curves are seen as portions of crescents or ovals.

The torus combines the light and shadow shapes of spheres and cylinders. The middle portions
of a torus are usually defined by curving parallel stripes. The returning curves are portions of
crescents or ovals.

This piece of rope is a torus. Look for the distinguishing light and shadow shapes of its form.
In observing forms, take note of the following:

 When we see a single value, we are seeing a plane that is parallel to the picture plane
 When we see values as an even blend, we are seeing a plane that is not parallel to the picture
plane.
 When we see values as blends of parallel stripes, we are seeing cylindrical forms.
 When we see values as blends of adjacent triangles, we are seeing conical shapes. And we
expect to see a little more contrast between darks and lights at the point than at the wide part.
 When we see values forming crescents and ovals, we are seeing spherical shapes.

This form combines a cylinder and a cube. Notice how with each change in plane there is a
change in value.

The object on the right combines a cylinder and a cube. Notice the treatment of its corners and
how they differ from those of the object at left.
Negative Forms
All of the basic forms have negatives of themselves. For example, the inside of a soup bowl is a
negative sphere; the inside of an open box is a negative cube; a well is a negative vertical
cylinder. The same rules about value shapes that apply to positive forms apply to negative forms.

The negative form of a sphere is a crater, in which we see crescents and ovals of light and dark
just as we do in the positive form.

The negative cylinder is depicted with light to dark blends of parallel stripes.
The negative cone shape is depicted using adjacent triangular blends
Contrast
Contrast describes the relationship between light and dark values. To understand contrast, make
a value scale. Draw ten squares, making the first one white and the last one black. Then create a
range of eight grays between them, progressing from light to dark. It is the distance between
values on such a scale by which we measure degrees of contrast. The farther apart two values are
on the scale, the stronger the contrast between them. Black is farthest from white; thus, when
juxtaposed, these two extremes create the greatest possible value contrast. Less contrast exists
between a light gray and a dark gray, and still less between a dark gray and black, which are very
close to each other on the scale. Contrasting values placed side by side will accentuate each
other; lights will appear lighter and darks will appear darker.

As you will discover, a skillful use of contrast can help you establish the illusion of distance and
define the quality of light in your drawings.

This is a value scale. Contrast is the relationship of two or more values on the value scale.

The two cubes at left contrast less with each other than the two on the right.
Creating the Illusion of Distance and Depth
One of the innate clues we use in our perception of distances is this: The greatest degree of
contrast will be in the foreground, the least in the distance. Imagine two identical white horses
standing in a field at midday, each at a different distance from you. The light and dark areas on
the near horse will appear slightly more pronounced than on the distant horse. Likewise, the cast
shadow of the near horse will appear darker than that of the far horse. This type of contrast
relationship establishes distance even without the additional clues of scale, perspective, or
placement in the environment.

The shadows and cast shadows of the horse in the foreground are darker than those of the
background horse. This contrast relationship indicates each horse's distance from the picture
plane.

These two spheres are the same size and have the same placement in space. The sphere on the
right appears closer to the viewer because it contrasts more with the white background than the
sphere at left.
The corner of the screen that comes forward does so because the contrast between the planes
that form it is greater than that between the planes of the corner that recedes. If we isolate the
middle of the screen so that we see no perspective, these corners still advance and recede.

When you are dealing with vast areas, it is easy to see the reduction of contrast between the light
and dark sides of objects. When you are viewing distant mountains, you may see so little contrast
between the light and shadow on them that they can appear as a single-value silhouette. Contrast
is also important in distinguishing small distances, such as in a portrait, where a subtle contrast
of light and shadow between the tip of the nose and the planes of the cheeks will define the
distance between those features.

Strong value contrast in the foreground of your drawing is very useful in the depiction of
foreshortened objects. It works this way: When you draw an object on a flat surface like paper,
you are limited to working in two dimensions, height and width. To express depth, you
foreshorten the object-shorten the parts that come forward-thus creating the illusion of projection
or extension in space. Contrast is used to enhance this illusion; an object seems to come forward
in space when the contrast between light and shadow is strong, and seems to recede when this
contrast is weak.
The contrast between light and shadow is stronger on the rock formations in the foreground of
the picture plane than on those that recede into the background.

The light and dark contrasts on the hand, and between the hand and the background, are
stronger than those on the face. This shows how, even in comparatively shallow space, contrast
differences are used to establish spatial relationships.
The value of the background in your composition can enhance the illusion of depth. For
example, depicting a light object against a dark background (or a dark object against a light
background) sets up a strong contrast that makes the object appear closer to the viewer. And,
because strong contrast naturally attracts the eye, it is an important tool when you want to draw
the viewer's attention to a particular area of a composition.

Although the perspective implies two receding planes, only the one on the right appears to
recede. The example at left appears to stand upright because the contrast between the shape's
light top and the dark background is equal to the contrast between the shape's dark bottom and
the light background.

Placing a subject against a contrasting background is a good way to call attention to it. If these
rabbits were reversed in compositional placement, both would disappear.
Reflected Light
Light can strike an object from many different directions, but it is the strongest light-the primary
light source-that best defines an object. Thus, to firmly establish form in a drawing, emphasize
the primary light source, then hint at other light sources.

The most common and, when you are depicting form, useful of the other light sources is the light
reflected back to an object from nearby surfaces. Light from the primary source that does not fall
on an object continues past it into the environment, and some of this light is bounced back as
reflected light. Most convex objects will have some reflected light within their shadowed side.
The lighter the area reflecting the light, the greater the amount of reflected light on the object.

It would seem logical to assume that the part of an object farthest from the light source would be
the darkest. But this is not the case. Because of reflected light, the darkest dark of a convex
object is usually within the object, not on its edge.

It would also seem logical that the lightest part of an object would be on the side nearest the
light, but this is not so. The light striking the side of an object nearest the light source is bounced
back toward the light source. The light on the lightest part we see must bounce off a surface
somewhere between the angle of the light source and the angle of our vision. Because of the path
light must follow to get to our eye, the brightest part of a lit object is not its edge.

We have said that the lightest light and the darkest dark rarely appear on the edge of an object; it
follows, then, that on a convex object, the value contrast is stronger on the middle of the form
than at its edges Thus, the middle of the form appears to come forward, while its edges appear to
recede. As contrast between light and shadow is increased, so is the illusion of three dimensions.

Reflected light comes in the same shapes on the basic forms as other lights and shadows; on a
cone, for example, it appears as a triangle.

Reflected light bounces back from the environment and lights the shadow side of objects.
Reflected light is never as strong as the primary light.
The lighter the reflecting surface, the greater the amount of light it will reflect.
Distinguishing Concave from Convex
Imagine two blocks of wood, each six inches square. On top of one is a wooden sphere five
inches in diameter. The top of the other has a five- inch-wide, half-spherical hole carved into it.
The sphere is a convex form; the half-spherical hole is a concave form. Imagine you are looking
down at the top of these two blocks and are asked to draw them. In both drawings the contours
would look the same, a square with a circle inside. What value clues would you use to
distinguish these two objects? How do we distinguish what goes in (concave) from what goes out
(convex)?

Convex objects receive reflected light; thus, the darkest part of a shadow on a convex object is
not on the object's edge. Concave objects do not receive reflected light: thus, the darkest part of a
shadow on a concave form is on its edge. In drawing the convex wooden sphere, include some
reflected light on the side opposite the one In by the primary light source. This will place the
darkest part of the shadow closer to the middle of the object. The brighter the reflected light, the
nearer to the middle of the form the darkest dark will be. In drawing the concave half-sphere,
place the darkest dark on the edge nearest the primary light source. The darkest shadows on
concave forms are on the side nearest the light.

It is important to note that concave objects can appear, at first glance, as either convex or
concave, but that convex objects only appear convex.

We distinguish between concave and convex forms through reflected light. Concave forms
receive no reflected light; convex forms do. The darkest dark on a concave form is on the edge
closest to the light. Because of reflected light, which appears on the side opposite the light, the
darkest dark on a convex form will not be on the edge.

Concave
Convex

One of these pictures seems to describe a concave form, the other a convex form. Turn the page
upside down and see what happens. Concave forms at first glance can appear either convex or
concave. Both of these examples are concave.
When depicting convex objects in almost purely frontal light or back light (light sources that
least define an object's three-dimensionality), it is useful to include some trace of reflected light
in order to enhance the illusion of convexity.

Concave forms are also identified by value shapes. In cone-shaped holes, shadow and light will
take the shape of triangles; inside cylinders, they will appear as stripes; in concave spheres, they
will appear as portions of crescents or ovals; and inside cubes, they will appear as gradual
blends.

Here we compare concave and convex forms. What are the important differences?
At the top of each column is a line drawing that can imply any of the forms shown below it.
Value has been used to define the many three-dimensional possibilities. To the right of each form
is its profile in silhouette
Value Contrast and the Quality of Light
There are two basic types of light: direct and diffused. Direct light is what we see outdoors on a
sunny day or emanating from a strong spotlight. Diffused light is what we see outdoors on a
foggy or overcast day, or indoors where there are multiple light sources or where the light is
bounced off another surface, like the ceiling.

Direct light gives the best definition of texture and three-dimensional form, whereas diffused
light offers the least definition. (Strong direct frontal or back lighting, however, can cause
silhouetting-flattening of form.) The area of transition from light to shadow on an object in direct
light is short; in diffused light the transition from light to shadow is long.

Direct light yields distinct, sharply focused, dark cast shadows; the darkest cast shadows result
from the strongest light. Diffused light yields cast shadows that are indistinct, have their edges
out of focus, and are lighter than those caused by direct light. If the light is sufficiently diffused,
the only cast shadow is a proximity shadow, one that results when two objects touch.

A picture whose values are all in the middle to dark range looks as if it is in a shadow. If the
values are all in the middle to light range, the picture seems to be covered with a haze or mist.
Using a wide range of values in a picture, including extremes of light and dark, creates a feeling
of strong light and clear air.

The two basic types of light are direct and diffused light. Direct light, such as sunlight, causes
strong contrasts and well-defined cast shadows.
Diffused light, as on a rainy day, causes low contrasts and vaguely defined cast shadows.

In direct light, the texture of an object appears more pronounced and is confined to a relatively
small area. In diffused light, texture is subtler and can be seen over a wider area.
In extremely diffused light, the only cast shadows are proximity shadows-the shadows we see
when two objects touch.

Light is everywhere, even in cast shadows, where, although greatly diminished, it still reveals
form. Objects located within cast shadows are in diffused light.
Some points to remember:

 Objects located within cast shadows are always lit with diffused light.
 The effects of direct light are:
- high contrast
- well-defined transitions between light and shadow areas
- pronounced textures
-clearly defined cast shadows
 The effects of diffused light are:
- low contrast
- subtle transitions between light and shadow areas -muted textures
- vaguely defined cast shadows
Exercises
Draw an even tone to depict a plane parallel to the picture plane. Then draw a blend
describing a plane that is not parallel to the picture plane.

Draw, in succession, a blend that describes a cylinder; a cone; and a sphere.

Using line only, draw the five basic forms as they would appear when concave and when convex.
Next, put the appropriate shadow and light shapes on these drawings. include reflected light on
the convex forms. Arrange the contrast so that some forms appear to advance toward the
foreground and others recede into the background.

Again using only line, draw two squares with a circle inside each. Then draw the lights and darks
so that one circle looks like a concave form and the other convex.
When a composition has only middle and light values overall, a haze or mist seems to cover the
picture. When only middle to dark values are used, the picture seems to be in a cast shadow.
When a full range of values that includes extremes of dark and light is used, the picture seems to
be in clear air and strong light.
Cast Shadows
For purposes of clarity, a distinction is made between the shadowed part of an object (which we
will refer to simply as shadow) and the shadow the object creates on another surface (its cast
shadow). Each has distinct functions, and knowing them can help you create the illusion of three-
dimensional form in your drawings.

A shadow is defined as the part of an object not receiving light. A cast shadow is the shadow on
object casts on another surface by blocking the light
Cast Shadows and Three-Dimensional Form
In your efforts to convey three-dimensions in your drawings, it is helpful to remember the
following points:

 Shadows serve to define the internal contours of an object.

 Cast shadows serve to orient an object in its environment; they also help to describe that
environment.

For example, a cast shadow that is not connected to the object that casts it indicates that the
object is floating in the air. A cast shadow that duplicates the silhouette of the object indicates
that the surface receiving the cast shadow is parallel to the picture plane and the light source is
near the observer. The curves in the cast shadow of a straight object help describe the curved
surface receiving the shadow.

The characteristics that distinguish cast shadows from stains, wet spots, and other variations in
value are these:

 A cast shadow is darkest near the object that casts it and lightest at the point farthest from
that object.
 A cast shadow's edge is in sharpest focus near the object casting the shadow and becomes
softer farther away from that object.

The cast shadow of the pencil helps define the contours of the fingers.
The cast shadow of the cylinder defines the ground plane and helps to define the step.

In the drawing at near right the separation between the bird and its cast shadow shows that the
bird is off the ground. In the drawing at far right the bird's cast shadow tells us that there is a
wall close to the bird and that the light source is frontal.
The edge of the seal's cast shadow describes the gravel shore.

The cast shadow of the beehive implies the texture of the grass, even where grass has not been
drawn.
Length and Direction of Cast Shadows
To calculate the length and direction of a cast shadow, follow the steps described in the
sequences of illustrations shown below. Further examples of how cast shadows work show you
what happens in a variety of lighting and compositional situations. Knowing how to do this is
useful when you are drawing from your imagination or when cast shadows are obscured by
objects you don't want to include in your picture.

1. To calculate length and direction of a cast shadow, first locate the light source, and then
locate the point directly beneath the light on the surface (plane) receiving the cast shadow. Make
a mark ot the imagined point of contact. (When the sun is close to the horizon, the horizon is the
point of contact.)

2. From this mark, draw lines through the outer edges of the part of the object touching the
ground. This will give us the direction and width of the cast shadow. (Treat the object as though
it were transparent to locate the edges on the back side.)
3. Draw lines that start from the light source, touch the top of the object, and continue until they
intersect with the lines thar define the edges of the cast shadow. Where these lines meet marks
the length of the cast shadow.

4. Place the cast shadow on the ground within these lines.

The cast shadow of each object in a composition is calculated separately.

If the light source is central to a group of objects, all the cast shadows will radiate from that
central point.

When the light source is off the page, its position must be imagined to calculate the length and
direction of cost shadows within the picture.
Notice how a cast shadow can be calculated even when the surface receiving it changes
direction.
To find a point along the perimeter of the cast shadow, draw a vertical line from the point on the
object you want to locate to the ground beneath it. (In the tirst of these examples, the tree trunk
is the vertical line and the top of the tree the point we want to locate.) Then draw lines from the
light source and the point beneath the light source (you may have to imagine the exact location
of this point on the ground) through the top and bottom of this vertical line. Where these lines
cross will be that particular point in the cast shadow. This is helpful in locating the corners of
cubes in cast shadow or the shadows of floating objects, and in plotting the cast shadows of
curving objects.
When the sun is directly overhead, as at midday, the lines you draw from the light source to the
ground to calculate the length of cast shadows are virtually parallel.

For close up views of small objects depicted in midday sunlight, I draw the lines from the light
source exactly parallel to calculate the length of the cast shadows.
Proximity Shadows
A proximity shadow is another type of cast shadow; it is the shadow you see between two
objects that are touching or almost touching. When you press your hands together, for example,
they are visually separated by a proximity shadow. When you hold your hands very slightly apart
you still see a proximity shadow. It is important in illusionist drawing to indicate proximity
shadows, because without them the viewer will have no sense of the separation that exists
between one object and another, or between an object and the surface on which it rests. Imagine
two limpets on a rock, one in light and one in cast shadow. In spite of the difference in lighting
conditions, each will have a proximity shadow. No matter how tightly they hold the rock, they
are still separate from it. Look for a proximity shadow whenever two objects make contact or
near contact. Here are some important points to remember:

 Proximity shadows exist even within cast shadows.

 Proximity shadows are not greatly altered by the direction or quality of the light.
 In extremely diffused light, proximity shadows are the only cast shadows.

A proximity shadow is what we see as the demarcation between two objects that touch or almost
touch.
The tree trunk at left grows out of the ground and appears continuous with it. The trunk at right,
however, appears to sit on top of the ground, a physical separation effectively indicated by a
proximity shadow.

Proximity shadows are not greatly altered by the strength or direction of the light source. Both
limpets have proximity shadows in this illustration.
In very diffused light, proximity shadows will be the primary shadows we see
Exercises
Draw several of the basic forms with their cast shadows falling on a variety of textured surfaces.

Draw several objects with their cast shadows as they would appear first in direct light, and then
in diffused light.

Next, go back to your drawings and indicate proximity shadows wherever you can see the
contact points between the objects and their cast shadows.

Draw objects with cast shadows that describe the environment and the object's relationship to it.

Draw an object in direct light with a cast shadow and in diffused light with a cast shadow.
Draw an object with its proximity shadow. One end of this object has a proximity shadow; the
other doesn't.

Draw an object in the cast shadow of another object. An object in cast shadow looks the same as
it would if seen in diffused light, only darker.
Draw objects whose cast shadows describe the texture of their environment.

What's wrong with this picture? How do we get cast shadows to cross? How many light sources
do we have? Why do we have only one cast shadow per light source?
Texture
When you draw an object, how do you make it look smooth and shiny? Soft and furry? Rough
and pebbly? Depicting textures convincingly in your drawings involves finding a way to
translate your sense of touch into visual terms. A good way to start is to gain an understanding of
how we are able to see and distinguish among textures in the physical world, and how those
visual clues convey tactile qualities.

Light that falls on a rough object is dispersed in many directions. Light that falls on a smooth
object bounces off it in a single direction and is seen on the object's surface as a distorted
picture of the fight source. Reflections help define how smooth a surface is.
How Light Defines Texture
Distinguishing between rough and smooth objects begins by understanding the way light
bounces off surfaces of different textures. When light coming from a single direction strikes a
rough object, it disperses in many directions, creating what is perceived as a soft-edged, or
unfocused, highlight. The same light striking a smooth object will bounce off the object in a
single direction, resulting in a hard-edged, or focused, highlight. On very smooth objects the
highlight 'will be a distorted picture of the light source. This distortion will be similar to the
defining patterns of light and dark we associate with the basic forms. For example, the light from
a square window seen on a glossy cone-shaped object will be distorted into triangles. The round
sun, seen in the highlight of a polished cylinder will appear as a stripe of light.

Side lighting best reveals the texture any object. This is important to remember when you want
to give viewers the most textural information in a drawing. The texture of a rough object is most
apparent in the area of transition between light and shadow; smooth surface texture is revealed
by the presence of a sharply focused highlight.

On a smooth cone, the light from a square window becomes a distorted triangular picture of the
window. On a smooth cylinder, the round sun becomes a stripe of bright light. The smoother a
surface, the more we depend on reflections to define its texture.
The most information about the texture of a rough surface is found where light and shadow are
in transition. In the highlight area and the shadow area, texture is obscured.