Reservoir Engineering Module

Steady State Flow

PAM/PBM 5123: Jan 2021 Semester

Dr. Mohammed Abdalla Ayoub

Dr. Syed Mohammad Mahmood
 Lesson’s Outcomes

➢To explain the primary reservoir characteristics.

➢To describe the linear and radial flow behavior of

the reservoir fluids in porous media.

➢To understand the mathematical relationships

that are designed to describe the flow behavior of
the reservoir fluids in porous media.

Internal
2/26/2021 2
 Introduction
• Flow in porous media is a very complex
phenomenon and as such cannot be described as
explicitly as flow through pipes or conduits.

• Unlike measuring the length and diameter of a pipe

and compute its flow capacity as a function of
pressure; flow in porous media is different in that
there are no clear-cut flow paths which could lend
themselves to measurement.

Internal
2/26/2021 3
 Objectives
➢To present the mathematical relationships that are
designed to describe the flow behavior of the reservoir
fluids.

➢To understand the variations in mathematical

relationships depending upon the characteristics of the
reservoir.

➢To understand the primary reservoir characteristics that

must be considered.

Internal
2/26/2021 4
 Primary Reservoir Characteristics
• Types of fluids in the
reservoir
• Flow regimes
• Reservoir geometry
• Number of flowing fluids
in the reservoir

Internal
2/26/2021 5
 Types of fluids

• The isothermal compressibility coefficient is

essentially the controlling factor in identifying
the type of the reservoir fluid.
• In general, reservoir fluids are classified into
three groups:
❖ Incompressible fluids
❖ Slightly compressible fluids
❖ Compressible fluids

Internal
2/26/2021 6
 Isothermal Compressibility Coefficient

• The isothermal compressibility coefficient

c is described mathematically by the
following two equivalent expressions:

• In terms of fluid volume:

1  V 
c =−   -------------- (1)
V  P T

Internal
2/26/2021 7
 Isothermal Compressibility Coefficient

• In terms of fluid density:

1   
c =   -------------- (2)
  P 

• where V and ρ are the volume and density

of the fluid, respectively.

Internal
2/26/2021 8
 Incompressible Fluids

• An incompressible fluid is defined as the fluid

whose volume (or density) does not change with
pressure, i.e.:
 V 
 =0
 P 

  
 =0
 P 
Internal
2/26/2021 9
 Slightly compressible fluids
❑ These “slightly” compressible fluids exhibit
small changes in volume, or density, with
changes in pressure. Most of the crude oils
fall in this category.

❑ The changes in the volumetric behavior of

this fluid as a function of pressure p can be
mathematically described by separating
variables and integrating Equation (1) (on
slide 7) to give:
Internal
2/26/2021 10
 Slightly compressible fluids
P V
dV
− c  dP =  • where;
Pref Vref
V • P = pressure, psia
• V = fluid volume at pressure P, ft3
• Pref = initial (reference) pressure,
psia
(
c Pref − P ) V
e = • Vref = fluid volume at initial
Vref (reference) pressure, ft3

(
c Pref − P )
Vref e = V -------------- (3)

Internal
2/26/2021 11
 Slightly compressible fluids

• The ex may be represented by a series expansion as:

2 3 n
x x x
e = 1 + x + + + ... +
x
-------------- (4)
2! 3! n!
• Because the exponent x [which represents the term
c(pref−p)] is very small, the ex term can be
approximated by truncating Equation (4) to:

e x = 1 + x -------------- (5)
Internal
2/26/2021 12
 Slightly compressible fluids

• Combining Equation (5) with Equation (3) gives:

 
V = Vref 1 + c(Pref − P) -------------- (6)
• A similar derivation is applied to Equation (2) to
give:

 = ref 1 − c(Pref − P) -------------- (7)

where V = volume at pressure p
ρ = density at pressure p
Vref = volume at initial (reference) pressure pref
ρref = density at initial (reference) pressure pref

Internal
2/26/2021 13
 Compressible Fluids
• These are fluids that experience large changes
in volume as a function of pressure

• All gases are considered compressible fluids.

• The truncation of the series expansion, as given

by Equation (5), is not valid in this category and
the complete expansion as given by Equation
(4) is used.

Internal
2/26/2021 14
 Compressible Fluids

• The isothermal compressibility of any compressible

fluid is described by the following expression:

1 1  z 
cg = −   -------------- (8)
P z  P T

• Figures (1) and (2) show schematic illustrations of

the volume and density changes as a function of
pressure for the three types of fluids:
Internal
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 Pressure-volume relationship

Internal
2/26/2021 Figure(1): Pressure-volume relationship 16
 Pressure-Fluid Density Relationship

Figure(2): Fluid density versus pressure for different fluid types

Internal
2/26/2021 17
 Flow Regimes
• There are basically three types of flow regimes
that must be recognized in order to describe the
fluid flow behavior and reservoir pressure
distribution as a function of time:
• Steady-state flow
• Unsteady-state flow
• Pseudosteady-state flow

Internal
2/26/2021 18
 Steady-State Flow

• The pressure at every location in the

reservoir remains constant and does not
change with time

 P 
  = 0 -------------- (9)
 t i

Internal
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 When It Happens?
• In reservoirs, the steady-state flow condition
can only occur when the reservoir is completely
recharged and supported by strong aquifer or
pressure maintenance operations. This
condition is rarely achieved in the field.

Internal
2/26/2021 20
 Unsteady / Transient State Flow
• The fluid flowing condition at which the rate
of change of pressure with respect to time at
any position in the reservoir is not zero or
constant

• The pressure derivative with respect to time

is essentially a function of both position i
and time t

 P 
  = f (i, t ) -------------- (10)
 t 
Internal
2/26/2021 21
 Pseudosteady-State Flow

• The pressure at any given location, i, in the

reservoir is declining linearly as a function of
time

 P 
  = constant -------------- (11)
 t i

Internal
2/26/2021 22
 Characteristic of Fluids

Internal
Figure (3): Volume change behavior of Fluids with change in pressure
2/26/2021 23
 Reservoir Geometry

➢The shape of a reservoir has a significant effect on

its flow behavior

➢Most reservoirs have irregular boundaries

➢Rigorous mathematical description of geometry is

often possible only with the use of numerical
simulators

➢The actual flow geometry may be represented by

one of the following flow geometries:

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 Reservoir Geometry,… contd

Linear flow Radial Flow

Spherical flow Hemispherical Flow

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 Radial Flow

structure in radial-cylindrical
• Flow into or away from a

Three-dimensional flow
wellbore will follow

coordinate system
radial flow lines from a
substantial distance from
the wellbore
• In the absence of severe
reservoir heterogeneities,
fluids move toward the
well from all directions
and converge at the
wellbore

A typical one-dimensional,
Internal
2/26/2021 radial-cylindrical flow model 26
 Ideal radial flow into a wellbore

Figure (4)
Ideal radial flow into a wellbore.

Internal
2/26/2021 27
 Linear Flow
• When flow paths are parallel and the fluid flows
in a single direction (i.e. no flow perpendicular to
or angular to the main flow streams)

• The cross sectional area to flow must be constant

• A common application of linear flow equations is

the fluid flow into vertical hydraulic fractures

Internal
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 Linear Flow

Figure (5)
Linear flow
Internal
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 Ideal linear flow into vertical fracture

Figure (6)
Ideal linear flow into vertical fracture
Internal 2/26/2021 30
 Spherical flow due to limited entry

Figure (7)
Spherical flow due to limited entry

Internal
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 Spherical Flow
➢A well which is only perforated in the central part of the formation and
not in the entire pay zone could result in spherical flow in the vicinity of
the perforations.

➢The kind of limited perforation in the central part of the pay zone
could be beneficial if there is a possibility of water coning from the
bottom and gas encroachment from the top.
 Hemispherical flow in a partially
penetrating well

Figure (8)
Hemispherical flow in a partially penetrating well

Internal
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 Hemispherical Flow
➢A well which only partially penetrates the pay zone not in the entire pay
zone could result in hemispherical flow.

➢This kind of partial penetration could be beneficial if there is a

possibility of water coning from the bottom but no chance of gas
encroachment from the top.
 Number of Flowing Fluids in the Reservoir

• Single-phase flow (oil, water, or gas)

• Two-phase flow (oil-water, oil-gas, or gas-

water)

• Three-phase flow (oil, water, and gas)

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 Henry Darcy
• Was a 19th century French engineer

• Was designing a filter to process

his town’s water demand

• Studied vertical flow of water

through packed sand

• Introduced the concept of

permeability (unit: mD)

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 Darcy’s Law

• What are the parameters that affect fluid flow?

Internal
2/26/2021 38
 L

q
A
dx

• For one-dimensional, horizontal flow through a porous

medium, Darcy’s Law states that:

kA dp
q=− -------------- (12)
 dx q =Flow rate (cm /s) 3

A= Cross sectional area (cm2)

μ =Viscosity of flowing fluid (cp)
k =Permeability (Darcy)
𝑑𝑃/𝑑𝑥=Pressure gradient (atm/cm)
Transport eqn. implying velocity is proportional to pressure gradient and
reciprocal to viscosity
Internal
39 2/26/2021
 Pressure Profile in Linear System

Internal
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 Darcy’s Law for Radial Flow

kA dp k (2rh) dp
q=− =− -------------- (13)
 dr  dr
Curved surface
open to flow

For fluid flow to occur, a pressure gradient must be established

between the inner and outer boundary of the reservoir.

h Pressure gradient dp/dr

Internal
2/26/2021 41
 Pressure Profile in Radial System

Internal
2/26/2021 Pressure gradient in radial flow 42
 Conditions for Darcy’s Law

• Darcy’s Law applies only when the following

conditions exist:

➢Laminar (viscous) flow

➢ Steady-state flow
➢Incompressible fluids
➢Homogeneous formation

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 STEADY-STATE FLOW
• Represents the condition that exists when the
pressure throughout the reservoir does not
change with time
• The applications of the steady-state flow include:
➢Linear flow of incompressible fluids
➢Linear flow of slightly compressible fluids
➢Linear flow of compressible fluids
➢Radial flow of incompressible fluids
➢Radial flow of slightly compressible fluids
➢Radial flow of compressible fluids
➢Multiphase flow
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2/26/2021 44
 Section 2
In this section, students will be able to ;
1- Derive an equation for simple Linear Flow of
Incompressible fluid

2- Understand the fluid potential concept

3- See how units can be converted from one

system to another

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 Linear Flow of Incompressible Fluids
❖ The flow occurs through a constant cross-sectional area A
❖ both ends are entirely open to flow
❖ no flow crosses the sides, top, or bottom

Internal
2/26/2021 Linear flow model 46
 Linear Flow of Incompressible Fluids
• If an incompressible fluid is flowing across the element dx, then the fluid
velocity v and the flow rate q are constants at all points

• The flow behavior in this system can be expressed by integration the

differential form of Darcy’s equation within limits of Injection end (x=0,
P= P1) and producing end (x=L,P=P2)

q
L
k 2
P
kA(P1 − P2 )
A0 dx = −  dP
 P1
OR q=
L
• In field units
Permeability (mD) Area (ft2)
Pressure (psi)
0.001127 kA(P1 − P2 )
Flowrate (bbl/d) q= -------- (14)
L
Viscosity (cp) Distance (ft)
Internal
2/26/2021 47
 Example
• An incompressible fluid flows in a linear porous
media with the following properties:
L = 2000 ft; h = 20′; width = 300′
k = 100 md; Ø= 15%; μ = 2 cp
P1 = 2000 psi; P2 = 1990 psi

• Calculate:
a. Flow rate in bbl/day
b. Apparent fluid velocity in ft/day
c. Actual fluid velocity in ft/day

Internal
2/26/2021 48
 Solution
• a. Calculate the flow rate Calculate the cross-sectional area A:
A = (h) (width) = (20) (300) = 6000 ft2

• b. Calculate the apparent velocity:

• c. Calculate the actual fluid velocity:

Internal
2/26/2021 49
 Fluid Potential (Φ)
• The fluid potential at any point in the reservoir is the pressure at that
point plus the pressure that would be exerted by a fluid head
extending to an arbitrarily assigned datum level.
• Δzi is the vertical distance from a point i in the reservoir to this datum
level

-------------- (15)

-------------- (16)
where ρ is the density in lb/ft3

Internal
2/26/2021 50
 Darcy’s units

In terms of Darcy units

-------------- (17)
v= apparent fluid velocity, cm/sec;
k= permeability, darcy;
μ= fluid viscosity, cp;
p= pressure, atm
l= length, cm;
ρ= fluid density, gm/cm3;
g= Acceleration due to gravity, cm/sec2; and
Z= elevation, cm.

• The vertical distance Δzi is assigned as a positive value when the point i is
below the datum level and as a negative when it is above the datum level

Internal
2/26/2021 51
 In fields units

-------------- (18)
where
Φi = fluid potential at point i, psi
pi = pressure at point i, psi
Δzi = vertical distance from point i to the selected datum level
ρ = fluid density, lb/ft3
γ = fluid specific gravity (water=1)
v= apparent fluid velocity, res bbl/day/ft2;
A= total cross-sectional area, ft2
B= formation volume factor, RB/STB.
k= permeability, md
θ= dip angle of the reservoir or formation measured counterclockwise
from the horizontal to the positive flow path

The negative sign in Eq. (16) accounts for the sign convention that flow is considered
positive in the positive direction of the flow path length, and pressure decreases in the
direction of flow

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 • Applying the previous-generalized concept to
Darcy’s equation gives:

-------------- (19)

• The fluid potential drop (Φ1 − Φ2) is equal to the

pressure drop (p1 − p2) only when the flow system
is horizontal

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 Linear Flow of Slightly Compressible Fluids
• The relationship that exists between pressure and
volume for slightly compressible fluid is:

 
V = Vref 1 + c(Pref − P) -------------- (6)

• The above equation can be modified and

written in terms of flow rate as:

 
q = qref 1 + c(Pref − P ) -------------- (20)

where qref is the flow rate at some reference pressure Pref.

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 • Substituting the previous relationship in Darcy’s equation gives:

• Separating the variables and arranging:

• Integrating gives:

-------------- (21)

where qref = flow rate at a reference pressure pref, bbl/day

p1 = upstream pressure, psi
p2 = downstream pressure, psi
k = permeability, md
μ = viscosity, cp
Internal
2/26/2021 c = average liquid compressibility, psi−1 55
 • Selecting the upstream pressure P1 as the reference pressure Pref and
substituting in Equation (21) gives the flow rate at Point 1 as:

---------- (22)

• Choosing the downstream pressure P2 as the reference pressure and

substituting in Equation (19) gives:

---------- (23)
where q1 and q2 are the flow rates at point 1 and 2, respectively
Internal
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 Darcy’s Unit Conversion

Internal
2/26/2021 57
 • You hate extra homework given by the tutors
or instructors???
• Good news, you are not alone

Internal 2/26/2021 58
 Linear Flow of Compressible Fluids (Gases)

• For a viscous (laminar) gas flow in a homogeneous-linear

system
• The real-gas equation-of-state can be applied to calculate the
number of gas moles n at pressure p, temperature T, and
volume V

PV
n =
ZRT
• At standard conditions, the volume occupied by the above n
moles is given by:
nZsc RTsc
Vsc =
Psc
Internal
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 • Combining the two expressions and assuming zsc = 1
gives:

PV PscVsc
=
ZT Tsc

• Equivalently, the above relation can be expressed in

terms of the flow rate as:

5.615 Pq PscQsc
=
ZT Tsc

Internal
2/26/2021 60
 • Rearranging:

 Psc  ZT  Qsc 

T 
 P  5.615  = q ---------- (24)
 sc   
where:
q = gas flow rate at pressure p in bbl/day
Qsc = gas flow rate at standard conditions, scf/day
Z = gas compressibility factor
Tsc, psc = standard temperature and pressure in ◦R and psia, respectively.

• Replacing the gas flow rate q with that of Darcy’s Law

gives:
q  Psc  ZT  Qsc  1  K dP
=
 
     = − 0 . 001127
A  Tsc  P  5.615  A   dx
Internal
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 • The constant 0.001127 is to convert from Darcy’s units to field units.
Separating variables and arranging yields:

 Qsc PscT L p2
P
   dx = −  dP
p1 Z
 0.006328 Tsc Ak  0 g

For simplification purposes, we assume that the product of Z*μg is

constant over the specified pressure range between p1 and p2, and
integrating, gives: Qsc = gas flow rate at
standard conditions, scf/day
0.003164 Tsc Ak ( p12 − p22 ) k = permeability, md
Qsc = T = temperature, °R
PscTZ g L μg = gas viscosity, cp
A = cross-sectional area, ft2
L = total length of the linear
system, ft
Internal
2/26/2021 62
 It is essential to notice that those gas properties Z and μg are very strong
functions of pressure, but they have been removed from the integral to
simplify the final form of the gas flow equation. The above equation is valid for
applications when the pressure is less than 2000 psi.
The gas properties must be evaluated at the average pressure p as defined
below:

Setting psc = 14. 7 psi and Tsc = 520◦R in the above expression gives:

Qsc =
(
0. 111924 Ak p12 − p22 ) ---------- (25)
TZ g L

p12 + p22
p=
2
---------------- (26)
Internal
2/26/2021 63
 Example
A linear system with a specific gravity of 0.72 is flowing in linear porous media
at 140◦F. The upstream and downstream pressures are 2100 psi and 1894.73
psi, respectively. The cross-sectional area is constant at 4500 ft2. The total
length is 2500 ft with an absolute permeability of 60 md. Calculate the gas flow
rate in scf/day (psc = 14. 7 psia, Tsc = 520◦R).

Solution:

• Step 1. Calculate average pressure by using Equation (26)

2100 2 + 1894 .37 2

p= = 2000 psi
2

Internal
2/26/2021 64
 • Step 2. Using the specific gravity of the gas, calculate its pseudo-critical
properties

Tpc = 168 + 325γg − 12. 5γg2

= 168 + 325(0. 72) − 12. 5(0. 72)2 = 395. 5◦R
ppc = 677 + 15. 0γg − 37. 5 γg2
= 677 + 15. 0(0. 72) − 37. 5(0. 72)2 = 668. 4 psia

• Step 3. Calculate the pseudo-reduced pressure and temperature.

P 2000 T 140 + 460

p pr = = = 2.99 Tpr = = = 1.52
p pc 668 .4 Tpc 395 .5

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 Step 4. Determine the Z-
factor from a Standing–
Katz chart to give:
Z = 0. 78

Internal
2/26/2021 66
 Step 5. Solve for the viscosity of the gas by applying the Lee–
Gonzales–Eakin method and using the following sequence of
calculations:

Ma = 28. 96γg
= 28. 96(0. 72) = 20. 85
ρg =pMa/ZRT = (2000)(20. 85)/(0. 78)(10. 73)(600) = 8. 30 lb/ft3
K = (9. 4 + 0. 02Ma)T1.5/(209 + 19Ma + T)
= (9. 4 + 0. 02(20. 96)(600)1.5/(209 + 19(20. 96) + 600) = 119. 72
X = 3. 5 +986/T + 0. 01Ma
= 3. 5 +986/600 + 0. 01(20. 85) = 5. 35
Y = 2. 4 − 0. 2X
= 2. 4 − (0. 2)(5. 35) = 1. 33
μg = 10−4K exp[ X(ρg /62. 4)Y ] = 0. 0173 cp
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2/26/2021 67
 • Step 6. Calculate the gas flow rate by applying equation (25)

Qsc =
(
0. 111924 Ak p12 − p22 )
TZ g L

0. 111924 (4300 )(60 )(2100 2 − 1894 .732 )

Qsc = = 1,224,242 scf/day
(600 )(2500 )(0.78)(0.0173 )

1,224,242 scf/day
Internal
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Internal
2/26/2021 69
 Lesson Outcomes- “Reminder”

i. To explain the primary reservoir characteristics.

ii. To describe the linear and radial flow behavior

of the reservoir fluids in porous media.

iii. To understand the mathematical relationships

that are designed to describe the flow behavior
of the reservoir fluids in porous media.

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 Radial Flow
Section Outcome
❖Radial Flow of Incompressible Fluids

❖Average Reservoir Pressure Pr

❖Radial Flow of Slightly Compressible Fluids

❖Radial Flow of Compressible Gases

❖Approximation of the Gas Flow Rate

❖Horizontal Multiple-Phase Flow

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 Radial Flow of Incompressible Fluids

➢All fluids move toward the producing well from all

directions

➢The pressure in the formation at the wellbore must

be less than the pressure in the formation at some
distance from the well for flow to occur

➢The pressure in the formation at the wellbore of a

producing well is know as the bottom-hole flowing
pressure (flowing BHP, pwf)

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 • The formation is considered to have a uniform thickness h and a
constant permeability k.

• The flow rate q must be constant at all radii

• Due to the steady-state flowing condition, the pressure profile

around the wellbore is maintained constant with time

---------------- (27)

where v = apparent fluid velocity, bbl/day-ft2

q = flow rate at radius r, bbl/day
k = permeability, md
μ = viscosity, cp
0.001127 = conversion factor to express the equation in field units
Ar = cross-sectional area at radius r

Internal
2/26/2021 73
 Radial flow model

Internal
74 2/26/2021
 • At any point in the reservoir the cross-sectional area across which flow
occurs will be the surface area of a cylinder, which is 2πrh,

• The flow rate for a crude oil system is customarily expressed in

surface units. Change it to reservoir conditions.

where
Bo = the oil formation volume factor bbl/STB
Qo = the oil flow in STB/day

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2/26/2021 75
 • The flow rate in Darcy’s equation can be expressed
in Rb/day to give:

• Integrating the above equation between two radii,

r1 and r2, when the pressures are p1 and p2 yields:

------------ (28)

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 • For incompressible system in a uniform formation,
Equation (26) can be simplified to:

• Performing the integration, gives:

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2/26/2021 77
 • The steady state radial flow equation In field units:

External pressure (psi)

Permeability (mD) Height (ft)
Bottom hole
flowing Pressure at
0.00708 kh(Pe − Pw ) (psi)
q=
 re  ---------------- (29)
o Bo ln  r 
 w External or
drainage
radius(ft)
Oil flow rate
(STB/d) Viscosity Oil formation volume Wellbore
(cp) factor (Bbl/STB) radius(ft)

Internal
78 2/26/2021
 • The external (drainage) radius re is usually determined
from the well spacing by equating the area of the well
spacing with that of a circle

OR ------ (30)

• Equation (29) can be arranged to solve for the pressure

p at any radius r to give:

-------------- (31)
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 Example
An oil well in the Nameless Field is producing at a stabilized rate of 600 STB/day at
a stabilized bottom-hole flowing pressure of 1800 psi.
Analysis of the pressure buildup test data indicates that the pay zone is
characterized by a permeability of 120 md and a uniform thickness of 25 ft. The
well drains an area of approximately 40 acres. The following additional data is
available:

rw = 0.25 ft A = 40 acres
Bo = 1.25 bbl/STB μo = 2.5 cp

Calculate the pressure profile (distribution) and list the pressure drop
across 1 ft intervals from rw to 1.25 ft, 4 to 5 ft, 19 to 20 ft, 99 to 100 ft,
and 744 to 745 ft.

Internal
2/26/2021 80
 Solution
• Step 1. Rearrange Equation (29) and solve for the pressure
p at radius r.

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2/26/2021 81
 • Step 2. Calculate the pressure at the designated radii.
r, ft p, psi Radius Interval Pressure drop

0.25 1800
1.25 1942 0.25 – 1.25 1942 − 1800 = 142 psi
4 2045
5 2064 4–5 2064 − 2045 = 19 psi
19 2182
20 2186 19 – 20 2186 − 2182 = 4 psi
99 2328
100 2329 99 – 100 2329 − 2328 = 1 psi
744 2506.1
745 2506.2 744 – 745 2506.2 − 2506.1 = 0.1 psi

• Figure (1) shows the pressure profile on a function of

radius for the calculated data.
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 Figure (1)
Pressure profile around the wellbore

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2/26/2021 83
 Average Reservoir Pressure Pr

• Should be used in performing material balance

calculations and flow rate prediction.
• Craft and Hawkins (1959) showed that the average
pressure is located at about 61% of the drainage radius re
for a steady-state flow condition.
• Substitute 0.61 re in Equation (29) to give:

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 • in terms of flow rate:

----------------- (32)

-------------- (33)

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 • Golan and Whitson (1986) suggesteded a method for
approximating drainage area of wells producing from
a common reservoir.
• They assume that the volume drained by a single well
is proportional to its rate of flow.
• Assuming constant reservoir properties and a
uniform thickness, the approximate drainage area of a
single well, Aw, is:

-------------- (34)

Where Aw = drainage area

AT = total area of the field
qT = total flow rate of the field
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2/26/2021 qw = well flow rate
86
 Radial Flow of Slightly Compressible Fluids

where qref is the flow

rate at some reference
pressure pref

• Separating the variables in the above equation and integrating

over the length of the porous medium gives:

OR

 
1 + c ( pref − pe ) 
  
 0.00708 kh 
= ln  
 re   1 + c( pref − pwf )
qref

 c ln    where qref is oil flow
  rw   rate at a reference
pressure pref
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 • Choosing the bottom- hole flow pressure pwf as the reference pressure
and expressing the flow rate in STB/day gives:

 
 
Qo = 

0 .00708 kh

 re  
o 
 ln 1 + c ( p − p ) -------------- (35)
wf e

 o Bo co ln   
  rw  

Where
Qo = oil flow rate, STB/day
k = permeability, md
co = isothermal compressibility coefficient, psi−1

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 Example

The following data are available on a well in the Red River Field:
pe = 2506 psi pwf = 1800
re = 745′ rw = 0.25
Bo = 1.25 μo = 2.5
co = 25 × 10−6 psi−1 k = 0.12 Darcy h = 25 ft.
Assuming a slightly compressible fluid, calculate the oil flow rate.
Compare the result with that of incompressible fluid.

Solution:
• For a slightly compressible fluid, the oil flow rate can be calculated by
applying Equation (35):  
 0.00708 (120 )(25) 
Qo =  
 (2.5)(1.25)(25  10 −6 )ln  745  
  0.25  
 
ln 1 + (25  10 −6 )(1800 − 2506 ) = 595 STB / day
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 • Assuming an incompressible fluid, the flow rate can
be estimated by applying Darcy’s equation, i.e.,
Equation (29):

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 Radial Flow of Compressible Gases
• The basic differential form of Darcy’s Law for a
horizontal laminar flow is valid for describing the
flow of both gas and liquid systems
• For a radial gas flow, the Darcy’s equation takes
the form:

-------------- (36)

where qgr = gas flow rate at radius r, bbl/day

r = radial distance, ft
h = zone thickness, ft
μg = gas viscosity, cp
p = pressure, psi
0.001127 = conversion constant from Darcy units to field units

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 • The gas flow rate is usually expressed in Scf/day
• Applying the real gas equation-of-state to both conditions to get:

OR

-------------- (37)

where psc = standard pressure, psia

Tsc = standard temperature, °R
Qg = gas flow rate, scf/day
qgr = gas flow rate at radius r, bbl/day
p = pressure at radius r, psia
T = reservoir temperature, °R
z = gas compressibility factor at p and T
zsc = gas compressibility factor at standard condition ≅ 1.0

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 • Combining Equations 36 and 37 yields:

• Assuming that Tsc = 520 °R and psc = 14.7 psia:

----------------- (38)

• Integrating Equation 6-36 from the wellbore conditions

(rw and pwf) to any point in the reservoir (r and p) gives:

------------ (39)

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 • Imposing Darcy’s Law conditions on Equation (39)
– Steady-state flow which requires that Qg is constant at all radii
– Homogeneous formation which implies that k and h are
constant

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 • Combining the above relationships yields:

--------- (40)

• The integral is called the real gas

potential or realgas pseudo-pressure and it is
usually represented by m(p) or ψ

-------------------------- (41)

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 • in terms of the real gas potential

OR

------------ (42)

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 • Equation (41) indicates that a graph of ψ vs. ln r/rw
yields a straight line of slope (QgT/0.703kh) and
intercepts ψw (Figure 2). The flow rate is given exactly
by

---------------- (43)

• In the case when r = re, then:

---------------- (44)

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2/26/2021 97
 Figure 2. Graph
of Ψ vs. ln (r/rw).

where ψe = real gas potential as evaluated from 0 to pe, psi2/cp

ψw = real gas potential as evaluated from 0 to Pwf, psi2/cp
k = permeability, md
h = thickness, ft
re = drainage radius, ft
rw = wellbore radius, ft
Qg = gas flow rate, scf/day
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 • The gas flow rate is commonly expressed in Mscf/day

---------------- (45)

• Where Qg = gas flow rate, Mscf/day, expressed in terms of

the average reservoir pressure pr instead of the initial
reservoir pressure pe as:

-------------- (46)

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 Approximation of the Gas
Flow Rate
❑Removing the term 2 g z outside the integral as a constant .
❑Zg is considered constant over a pressure range <2000 psi.
❑Equation 39 can be written as:

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 • Removing the term and integrating gives:

-------------- (47)

where Qg = gas flow rate, Mscf/day

k = permeability, md

• The term (μg z)avg is evaluated at an average pressure

p that is defined by the following expression:

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 Horizontal Multiple-Phase Flow
At the end of this lesson, students will be able to
understand:

• The physics of simultaneous flow of fluids in a

horizontal porous system.

• The concept of the effective permeability to each

phase and the associated physical properties.

• How to handle the generalized form of Darcy’s

equation.

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 Generalized form of Darcy’s Law

Oil

Water

Gas

where ko, kw, kg = effective permeability to oil, water, and gas, md

μo, μw, μg = viscosity to oil, water, and gas, cp
qo, qw, qg = flow rates for oil, water, and gas, bbl/day
k = absolute permeability, md (not used in above equations)
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 • In reservoir conditions

-------------- (48)

-------------- (49)

-------------- (50)

where Qo, Qw = oil and water flow rates, STB/day

Bo, Bw = oil and water formation volume factor, rbbl/STB
Qg = gas flow rate, scf/day
Bg = gas formation volume factor, rbbl/scf
k = absolute permeability, md
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 • Final form after regular integration

➢ Oil Phase

------------ (51)

➢ Water Phase

----------- (52)

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 ➢ Gas Phase

• In terms of the real gas potential:

-------------- (53)

• In terms of the pressure-squared:

----------- (54)

where Qg = gas flow rate, Mscf/day

k = absolute permeability, md
T = temperature, °R

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 • In petroleum engineering calculations, it is convenient
to express the flow rate of any phase as a ratio of other
flowing phase
• Water-oil-ratio (WOR)
• Gas-oil-ratio (GOR)

• The generalized form of Darcy’s equation can be used

to determine both flow ratios

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 Water-Oil-Ratio (WOR)
• The ratio of the water flow rate to that of the oil
• Both rates are expressed in stock-tank barrels per day

Dividing Equation (51) by Equation (52)

where WOR = water-oil ratio, STB/STB

----------- (55)

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 Gas-Oil-Ratio (GOR)
• The total gas flow rate divided by the oil flow rate
is expressed in scf/STB as:

OR

----------- (56)

where GOR = “instantaneous” gas-oil ratio, scf/STB

Rs = gas solubility, scf/STB
Qg = free gas flow rate, scf/day
Qo = oil flow rate, STB/day
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 • Substituting Equations (48) and (50) into Equation (56) yields:

----------- (57)

where Bg is the gas formation volume factor as expressed in bbl/scf

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Internal
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