Unit IV Theories of failure

Introduction: Due to large numbers of examples of compound stresses met

with in engineering practice, the cause of failure or permanent set under such
conditions has attracted considerable attention. Certain theories have been
advanced to explain the cause of failure and many of theories have received
considerable experimental investigation. No great uniformity of opinion has
been reached and there is still room for a great deal of further experimental
investigation.

The principal theories are:

1. Maximum principal stress theory

2. Maximum shear stress or stress difference theory
3. Strain energy theory
4. Shear strain energy theory
5. Maximum principal strain theory
6. Mohr’s theory
In all above theories:
σ et
, σ ec = Tensile stress at the elastic limit in simple tension and
compression respectively.
σ 1 , σ 2 , σ 3 = Principal stresses in any complex system (such that

σ 1 >σ 2>σ 3 )
It may be assumed that the loading is greater or static (and there is no
cyclic or impact loading).

1.Maximum principal stress theory:

 This theory is usually associated with Rankine, but also received

considerable support from other writers.
 This theory is simplest and the oldest theory of failure.
 According to this theory, failure will occur when the maximum principal
σ1
tensile stress ( ) in the complex system reaches the value of
σ et
maximum stress at the elastic limit ( ) in simple tension or the
minimum principal stress (that is the maximum principal compressive
σ ec ¿
stress) reaches the elastic limit stress ( in simple compression
σ1 σ et
i.e., = ( in simple tension)
 |σ 3| = σ ec ( in simple compression)
|σ 3| means numerical value of σ 3 .
 If the maximum principal stress is the design criterion, then maximum
principal stress must not exceed the working stress σ for the material.
σ1 ≤ σ
Hence .
 This theory disregards the affect of other principal stresses and of the
shearing stress on other planes through the element. For brittle materials
which do not fail by yielding but fail by brittle fracture, the maximum
principal stress theory is considered to be reasonably satisfactory.
 This theory appears to be approximately correct for ordinary cast-irons
and brittle metals.
 The maximum principal stress theory is contradicted in the following
cases:
1. On a mild steel specimen when simple tension test is carried out
sliding occurs approximately 450 to the axis of the specimen; this
shows that the failure in this case is due to maximum shear stress
rather than direct tensile stress.
2. It has been found that a material which is even though weak in simple
compression yet can sustain hydrostatic pressure far in excess of the
elastic limit in simple compression.

Problems:

1. In a metallic body the principal stresses are +35 MN/m2 and

-95MN/m2, the third principal stress being zero. The elastic limit
stress in simple tension as well as in simple compression is equal and
is 220 MN/m2. Find the factor of safety based on the elastic limit if the
criterion of failure for the material is the maximum principal stress
theory.

Solution: The given principal stresses are:

σ1
= +35 MN/m2

σ2
=0

σ3
= -95 MN/m2
 σ et σ ec =¿
and = 220 MN/m2

σ et σ ec
where, = Elastic limit stress in tension, and = Elastic limit stress
in compression.
σ1 = σ t (working stress in tension)

σ et
σ 1=
F.S .

σ et 220
F . S .= = 35 = 6.28
σ1

Also | 3| = c ( working stress in compression)

σ σ

σ ec
or |σ 3|= F . S .

σ ec
|−95| =
F .S.

220
F .S. =
95 = 2.3.

So the material according to the maximum principal stress theory will fail
due to compressive principal stress.
∴ F . S .=2.3 .

2. In a cast-iron body the principal stresses are +40 MN/m 2 and -100
MN/m2 the third principal stress being zero. The elastic limit stresses
in simple tension and in simple compression are 80 MN/m 2 and 400
MN/m2 respectively. Find the factor of safety based on the elastic
limit if the criterion of failure is the maximum principal stress theory.

Solution:

Given Principal stresses are:

 σ 1 =40 MN/m2

σ2 =0

σ3
= -100 MN/m2

σ et
= 80 MN/m2

σ ec
= 400 MN/m2

σ1 σt
Now, = (working stress in tension)

σ et
σ 1=
F.S .

σ et 80
F . S .= = 40 = 2
σ1

Also | 3| = c ( working stress in compression)

σ σ

σ ec
or |σ 3|= F . S .

σ ec
|−100| =
F .S.

400
F
.S. = 100 = 4.

So the material according to the maximum principal stress theory will fail
due to tensile principal stress.
∴ F . S .=2

2. Maximum shear stress or stress difference theory:

 It is also called Guest’s or Tresca’s theory.

 This theory implies that failure will occur when the maximum shear
q max
stress in the complex system reaches the value of the maximum
σ 1 −σ 3
shear stress in simple tension at the elastic limit, i.e., q max= =
2

σ et
2 in simple tension
σ1 σ3 σ et
or - = .
σ et
 In actual design in the above equation is replaced by the safe stress.
 This theory gives good correlation with results of experiments on ductile
materials. In case of any of the three principal stresses is compressive
σ3
then it must be taken as and its proper sign taken in above equation.
σ et
That is, the maximum stress difference is to be equal to .
 In the case of two dimensional tensile stress system, third stress must be
taken as zero and thus the maximum stress difference calculated to equate
σ et
it to .
 This theory has been found to give satisfactory results for ductile
materials.

Worth noting points:

(i) The theory doesn’t give accurate results for the state of stress of
pure shear in which the maximum amount of shear is developed
(i.e., torsion test)
(ii) The theory is not applicable in the case where the state of stress
consists of triaxial tensile stress of nearly equal magnitude
reducing ❑❑ the shear stress to a small magnitude, so that failure
would be by brittle fracture rather than by yielding.
(iii) The theory doesn’t give as close results as found by experiments on
ductile materials. However it gives safe results.
3. A mild steel shaft 120 mm diameter is subjected to a maximum
torque of 20 kNm and a maximum bending moment of 12 kNm at a
particular section. Find the factor of safety according to the
maximum shear stress theory if the elastic limit in simple tension is
220 MN/m2.
Solution:

d = 120 mm = 0.12 m.

T= 20 kNm

M= 12 kNm
σ et = 220 MN/m2

F.S. =?

π 3
M= d σb .
32

32 M 32 ×20 ×10 3
σb ×10−6 MN /m2
= π d3 = πd 3 = 70.74 MN/m2

π
T= f s d3
16

3
16 T 16 ×20 ×10
f s= 3
= 3
×10−6 MN /m2 = 58.95 N/m2
πd π (0.12)

σ
σ= b ±
2 √( σb 2 2
2 ) +f s

=
70.74
2
±
√( 70.74 2
2 ) +58.952

= 35.57 ± 68.75 = 104.12 MN/m2 or -33.38 MN/m2

According to maximum shear stress theory

σ 1−σ 3 = σt

σ 1=104.12 MN / m2

σ 2=0
 2
σ 3 =−33.38 MN / m

104.12−(−33.38 )=σ t

σ t =137.5 MN /m 2

σ et 220
F.S. = σt = ( 137.5 )=1.6
4. A shaft is subjected to a maximum torque of 10 kNm and a maximum
bending moment of 7.5 kNm at a particular section. If the allowable
equivalent stress in simple tension is 160 Mn/m 2 , find the diameter of the
shaft according to the maximum shear stress theory.

Solution:

Maximum torque, T= 10 kNm

Maximum bending moment, M = 7.5 kNm

2
Allowable equivalent stress in simple tension is, σ t =160 MN /m

Diameter of the shaft is d

π 3
M = 32 d

32 M π 3
σb
= π d3 and T = f s 16 d

16 T
fs
= πd
3

Principal stresses are given by,

σ 1,2 =
σb
2
±
√( σb 2 2
2 )
+f s
 [ √( ) ( )]
32 M 2 32 T 2
1 1 32 M
= [ σ ± σ 2 +4 f s2 ]
2 b √ b = 2 π d3
±
πd
3
+
πd
3

16
= π d3
[ M ± √( M ) + ( T ) ]
2 2

16
σ1
= π d3
[ M + √ ( M ) + (T ) ]
2 2

σ 2=0

16
σ3= 3
[ M − √ ( M )2+ ( T )2 ]
πd

According to maximum shear stress theory,

16
σt
=
σ 1−σ 3= 3
[ M + √( M )2 +( T )2 ] − 163 [ M −√ ( M )2 +( T )2 ]
πd πd

32
= π d3
[ √( M ) + ( T ) ]
2 2

32
[ ( M ) 2+ ( T ) 2 ] 32 ×103
3
d = π σt
√ = [ ( 7.5 )2 +( 10 )2 ]
6 √ =7.957 ×10
−4
π 160 ×10

d= 0.0926 m or 92.6 mm
∴ d=92.6 mm

3.Strain energy theory:

 This theory which has a thermodynamic analogy and a logical basis is

due to haigh.
 This theory states that the failure of a material occurs when the total
strain energy in the material reaches the total strain energy of the material
at the elastic limit in simple tension.
 In a three dimensional stress system, the strain energy per unit volume is
given by
 1 2 2
[ 2 2
U= 2 E σ 1 +σ 2 +σ 3 − m ( σ 1 σ 2+ σ 2 σ 3 +σ 3 σ 1 ) ]
σ , σ ∧σ
where 1 2 3 are of the same sign.
Hence at the point of failure,
2
1
2E [ 2
σ 12 +σ 22 +σ 32 − ( σ 1 σ 2+ σ 2 σ 3 +σ 3 σ 1 )
m ] =
σe
2E

[ σ 12+ σ 2 2+ σ 3 2 −
2
(σ σ + σ σ + σ σ )
m 1 2 2 3 3 1 ] = σe
2

σe
In actual design in the above equation is replaced by the allowable stress
obtained by dividing factor of safety.
σ 3 =0 ¿
Taking two dimensional case ( the equation reduces to

[ σ 12+σ 22−
2
(σ σ )
m 1 2 ] = σe
2

If σ is the working stress in the material, the design criteria may be stated as
follows

[ σ 12+σ 22−
2
(σ σ )
m 1 2 ] ≤ σ
2

Worth noting points:

i. The results of this theory are similar to the experimental results for
ductile materials ( i.e., the materials which fail by general yielding, for
σ et σ ec
which = approximately. It may be noted that order of
σ 1 , σ 2∧σ 3
is immaterial)
σ et
ii. The theory doesn’t apply to materials for which is quit different
σ
from ec .
iii. The theory doesn’t give results exactly equal to the experimental
results even for ductile materials, even though the results are close to
the experiments.
 5. A shaft is subjected to a maximum torque of 10 kNm and a maximum
bending moment of 7.5 kNm at a particular section. If the allowable
equivalent stress in simple tension is 160 Mn/m 2 , find the diameter of
the shaft according to the strain energy theory. Take poisson’s ratio,
1
m = 0.24.

Solution:
16
σ1
= 3
[ M + √ ( M )2+ ( T )2 ]
πd

σ 2=0

16
σ3= 3
[ M − √ ( M )2+ ( T ) 2 ]
πd

Now according to strain energy theory,

[
σ t 2= σ 12 +σ 22+ σ 32−
2
( σ σ +σ σ +σ σ )
m 1 2 2 3 3 1 ]
= [ σ 12 + σ 3 2 −
2
(σ σ )
m 1 3 ] (
since σ 2=0 ¿

= ( ) [ 2 ( M + M +T )− m2 ( M −M −T )]
16
π d3
2 2 2 2 2 2

= ( ) [ 4 M +2 T (1+ m1 )]
16
π d3
2 2

σt 16 2

√ 1 2
= π d 3 4 M +2 1+ m T ( )
 √
1
= 32 2
M +
( 1+ )
m
T 2
3
πd 2

32
= π d3
√ M 2+ 0.62T 2

32
d3 = π σ t
√ M 2+0.62 T 2

32 ×10 3
6√
2 2
7.5 + 0.62×10
= π ×160 ×10

d = 0.0885 m = 88.5 mm
d = 88.5 mm.

4. Shear strain energy theory:

This theory is also called ‘distorsion energy theory’ or Mises-henkey theory’.

According to this theory the elastic failure occurs where the shear strain
energy per unit volume in the stressed material reaches a value equal to the
shear strain energy per unit volume at the elastic limit point in the simple
tension test.
σ 1 , σ 2∧σ 3
Shear strain energy due to the principal stresses per unit volume
of the material,
1
= 12 C [ ( σ 1−σ 2 ) + ( σ 2−σ 3 ) + ( σ 3−σ 1 ) ]
2 2 2
Us

But for the single tension test at the elastic limit point where there is only one
σ et
principal stress, i.e., we have the shear strain energy per unit volume which
is given by
1
U s' = 12 C [ ( σ et −0 )2 + ( 0−0 )2 + ( 0−σ et )2 ]

Equating the two energies, we get

 2 2 2
( σ 1 −σ 2 ) + ( σ 2−σ 3 ) + ( σ 3−σ 1) = 2 σ et 2

σ et
In actual design in the above equation is replaced by safe equivalent stress
σt
in simple tension.

The above theory has been found to give best results for ductile materials for
σ et σ ec σ1 σ2
which = approximately. It may be noted that order of ,
σ3
and is immaterial.

Worth noting points:

i. The theory doesn’t agree with the experimental results for the material
σ σ
for which et is quite different from ec .
ii. This theory is regarded as one to which conform most of the ductile
materials under the action of various types of loading.

Some more problems:

1. A bolt is under an axial thrust of 9.6 kN together with a transverse

force of 4.8 kN. Calculate its diameter according to:
(i). Maximum principal stress theory
(ii). Maximum shear stress theory, and
(iii). Strain energy theory.
Given factor of safety = 3, yield strength of material of bolt = 270
N/mm2 and Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.

Solution:

Let d= diameter of the bolt, mm

π
Area of cross section, A = 4 d2, mm2.

P= 9.6 kN.
P 9600
σ
Axial compressive stress on bolt, = A = A N/mm2

Transverse shear force = 4.8 kN

 4800
τ
Shear stress on the bolt, = A N/mm2

Principal stress,
σ 1,2
σ
= 2 ±
√( ) σ 2 2
2
+τ

√( 4800 2 4800 2
4800
= A
±
A )(
+
A )
4800 6788.2
±
= A A

11588.2
∴ σ1
Maximum principal stress, = A N/mm2

−1988.2
σ2
Minimum principal stress, = A N/mm2

Yield strength = 270 N/mm2

F.S. = 3
270
∴ σ et
Allowable stress, = 3 = 90 N/mm2

σ 1 ≤ σ et
(i) According to maximum principal stress theory,
11588.2
≤ 90
A

∴ A = 128.76

π 2
d = 128.76
4

d= 12.8 mm

(ii) According to maximum shear stress theory,

σ 1 - σ 2 = σ et
 11588.2
A - ( −1988.2
A ) = 90
13576.4
A = 90
A=150.8
π 2
d = 150.8
4
d=13.8 mm .

(iii) According to strain energy theory,

[ σ 12+σ 22−
2
(σ σ )
m 1 2 ] = σ et
2

2 2
11588.2 11588.2 1988.2
( A ) + ( −1988.2
A ) (
+ 2 ×0.3 × A × A =90 ) 2

18773 = A2
A = 137.015
π 2
d = 137.015
4
d=13.208 mm

Hence maximum shear stress theory governs the design. Use atleast 13.8 mm
diameter bolt. The principal size is 14 mm.

2. A solid circular shaft is subjected to a bending moment of 60 kNm

and a torque of 6 kNm. Design the diameter of the shaft according to
(i) Maximum principal stress theory
(ii) Maximum shear stress theory
(iii) Maximum strain energy theory

Take μ=0.25, stress at elastic limit 250 N/mm2 and factor of safety =
2.5.

Solution: Let ‘d’ be the diameter of the shaft.

M= 60 kNm, T= 6 kNm.
 M M
× y= d 32 M
σb × =
Bending stress, = I π 4
d 2 π d3
64

T d
T × 16 T
τ= ×R π 4 2
Torsional stress, IP = d = π d3
32

The principal stresses given by,

σ 1,2 =
σb
2
±
√( σb 2 2
2 )
+τ

16
σ 1,2
= π d3
[ M ± √( M ) + ( T ) ]
2 2

16
σ 1,2 = 3
[ √ 2
( 60× 106 ) ± ( 60 ×10 6 ) + ( 6 ×106 )
2
]
πd

16 × 106 ( ) ( )2 ( )2
= [ 60 ± √ 60 + 6 ]
π d3

612.68 ×106
σ 1=
d3

−1.524 ×106
σ 2=
d3

(i) According to maximum principal stress theory,

σ 1=σ et

612.68 × 106 250

=
d3 2.5

d = 182.983 mm.

(ii) According to maximum shear stress theory,

σ 1 - σ 2 = σ et
 6 6
612.68 × 10 −(−1.524 × 10 ) 250
d3 = 2.5

d= 183.164 mm.

(iii). According to strain energy theory,

[ σ 12+σ 22−
2
(σ σ )
m 1 2 ] = σ et
2
( σ 3 =0 ¿

2 2
612.68× 106 −1.52 ×106 612.68× 106 1.52 ×106 2

( d3 ) +( d3 ) +( 2 ×0. 25 ×
d 3
×
d 3
= )( )
250
2.5

6 12
d = 37.54 ×10

d = 182.9 mm.

The largest size required is 183.164 mm from maximum shear stress theory.

3. A thick steel cylinder with an internal diameter 200 mm has to

withstand an internal fluid pressure of 30 N/mm 2, calculate the
thickness of the metal by using,
(i) Maximum principal stress theory
(ii) Maximum shear stress theory

The tensile stress at yield point is 250 N/mm 2 use factor of safety of
2.5.
b
fx +a
Solution: From Lame’s equation, we have hoop stress, = x2

b
px −a
and radial pressure, = x2
 d 200
The boundary conditions available are, at x= i = =100 mm ,
2 2

px =30 N /mm 2 .

b
∴ −a
30 = 100 2 -------------(1)

σ 1=σ et
(i). According to maximum principal stress theory,

Hoop tension at inner radius is nothing but the maximum principal stress.
250 b
+a
Hence the design condition is, 2.5 = 100 2

b
+a
100 = 100 2 -------------(2)

From equations (1) and (2), we get

b−10000 a
30 = 1002

b+10000 a
100 = 1002

4 4
30 ×10 = b−10 a
4 4
100 ×10 =b+ 10 a

2b = 1300000

b = 650000

a= 35
x=r 0
At outer edge, , pressure is zero.

b
0 = r 02 – a
 b 650000
r 02 = = =18571.43
a 35

r 0=136.27 mm

r 0−r i=¿
Thickness, 136.27-100 = 36.27 mm

(ii). According to maximum shear stress theory,

σ 1=Maximum hoop stress

b
+a
= 100
2

σ 2= pressure at internal radius=−30 (since σ 2 is compressive)

σ 3 =0
Let us assume,

b
+a+ 30
σ 1−σ 2 100 2
Maximum shear stress = =
2 2

According to maximum shear stress theory, the design condition is

b 250
+a+30
100 2 = 2.5

b
+a=70
100 2

4 4
b+ 10 a=70 ×10 -------(1)

Already we have the relation,

b
2
−a=30
100

4 4
b - 10 a=30 ×10 ----------(2)
By adding equations (1) and (2),
4 4
b+ 10 a=70 ×10 -------(1)
4 4
b - 10 a=30 ×10 ----------(2)
4
2b = 100 ×10
4
b = 50 ×10
4 4 4
50 ×10 −10 a=30 ×10

a = 20
r0
At outer radius , radial pressure = 0

b
−a=0
i.e., r 02

50 ×10 4
r 02 = 20

r0 = 158.11 mm

∴ Thickness, r 0−r i
= 158.11-100 = 58.11 mm.

Hence, the minimum thickness of metal required is 58.11 mm.

Therefore, provide 60 mm thickness.

4. In a steel member, at a point, the major principal stress is

compressive. If the tensile yield point of the steel is 235 MN/m 2; find
the value of the minor principal stress at which yielding will
commence, according to each of the following criteria of failure.
(i) Maximum shear stress
(ii) Maximum total strain energy
(iii) Maximum shear strain energy. Take μ = 0.26.
 σ1 σ2 σ et
Solution: = 200 MN/m2, = ?, = 235 MN/m2

(i) Maximum shear stress criterion:

σ 1 - σ 2 = σ et

200−σ 2 = 235
σ2 = -35 MN/m2 (comp.)

(ii) Maximum total strain energy criterion:

[ σ 12+ σ 2 2+ σ 3 2 −
2
(σ σ + σ σ + σ σ )
m 1 2 2 3 3 1 ] = σe
2

σ3
Since = 0,
2
σ 12 +σ 22− ( σ 1 σ 2) =σ e2
m

2002 +σ 22−104 σ 2=σ e2

2 2
200 +σ 2 −104 σ 2−55225=0

σ 22−104 σ 2−15225=0

σ2 104 ± √ 1042 + 4 ×15225

= 2
104−267
σ 2= =81.89 N/mm2 (Comp.)
2

(iii). Maximum shear strain energy criterion:

2 2 2
( σ 1 −σ 2 ) + ( σ 2−σ 3 ) + ( σ 3−σ 1) = 2 σ et 2

σ3
Since = 0,

σ 12 +σ 22−2 σ 1 σ 2 + σ 22+ σ 12 = 2 σ et 2

σ 12 +σ 22−σ 1 σ 2 2
= σ et
2 2 2
200 +σ 2 −200 σ 2 = 235

σ 22−200 σ 2 -15225 = 0
 σ2 200 ± √ 2002+ 4 × 1× 15225
= 2 = -58.82 MN/m2

σ2 = 58.82 MN/m2 (Comp.)

5. In a material the principal stresses are 50 N/mm 2, 40 N/mm2 and -30

N/mm2. Calculate the total strain energy, volumetric strain energy,
shear strain energy and a factor of safety on the total strain energy
criterion if the material yields at 100 N/mm2.

Solution:
σ1 σ2 σ3 σ et
= 50 N/mm2, = 40 N/mm2, = - 30 N/mm2 = 100
N/mm2
5
and assume E = 2 ×10 N/mm2, μ=0.3 .

(i) Total strain energy per unit volume,

1 2
[ 2 2 2
U= 2 E σ 1 +σ 2 +σ 3 − m ( σ 1 σ 2+ σ 2 σ 3 +σ 3 σ 1 ) ]
=
1
5{
50 + 40 + (−30 ) −2× 0 .3 × [ ( 50× 40 ) + ( 40 × (−30 ) ) + ( (−30)×50 ) ]}
2 2 2

2 ×2 ×10
 1
= 5
{ 5000−0.6× [ 2000−1200−1500 ] }
4 ×10

= 0.01355 N-mm/Unit volume.

(ii) Volumetric strain energy per unit volume

=
1
3
( [
σ 1+ σ 2 +σ 3 )2
1−2 μ
(
2E )]
1
= 3 [
( 50+ 40−30 )2
1−2 ×0.3
2 ×2 ×105 ( )] 1
= 3 [ 3600 ×10 ]
−6

−3
= 1.2 ×10 N-mm/mm3

(iii) Shear strain energy per unit volume,

1
12 C [ 1 2
( σ −σ ) + ( σ 2−σ 3 ) + ( σ 3−σ 1 ) ]
2 2 2
Us
=

We know the relation, E = 2C ( 1+ μ ) ,

E 2 ×105
∴ =76923
C= 2 ( 1+ μ ) = 2 ( 1+0.3 ) N/mm2

1
= 12 ×76923 [ ( 50−40 ) +( 40−(−30 ) ) +(−30−50 ) ]
2 2 2
∴ Us

= 0.0123 N-mm/mm3.

(iv) Factor of safety (F.S.):

σ e2
Strain energy per unit volume for uniaxial loading = 2E =

100 2
2 ×2 ×10
5 = 0.025.
0.025
F.S. = 0.01355 = 1.845.

6. A steel shaft is subjected to an end thrust producing a stress of 90

MPa and the maximum shearing stress on the surface arising from
 torsion is 60MPa. The yield point of the material in simple tension
was found to be 300 MPa. Calculate the factor of safety of the shaft
according to (i) Maximum shear stress theory, (ii) Maximum
distortion energy theory.

Solution:
σ1 σ2 σ3 σ et
= ?, = 0, = - 90 MPa, qmax = 60 MPa, = 300 MPa

σ 1−σ 3
qmax = 2
σ 1−(−90 )
60 = 2
σ1
= 30 MPa
(i) Maximum shear stress theory,
σ et
σ1 σ3
- = F .S.

300
∴ F . S .= = 2.5
120