SOIL MANUAL Jan 2018

SIMLESA Soil Manual
Simple protocols and resources for rapid

field soil testing in Africa
Caspar W Roxburgh, Stuart Irvine-Brown, Ben
Harms, Joseph X Eyre, and Daniel Rodriguez
Author affiliations
Caspar W Roxburgh, Joseph X Eyre, Daniel Rodriguez
Queensland Alliance for Agriculture & Food Innovation (QAAFI), University of Queensland, St Lucia,
Australia, 4072
Stuart Irvine-Brown
Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries (DAF), Nambour, Australia, 4560
Ben Harms
Queensland Department of Science, Information Technology and Innovation (DSITI), Australia,
Acknowledgements
This manual was developed as part of the Sustainable nitrate analysis (Protocol 3.7) were largely adapted from
Intensification of Maize Legume Farming Systems for Schmidhaldter (2005). Detailed soil information for
Food Security in Eastern and Southern Africa (SIMLESA) SIMLESA trial sites in Ethiopia, Malawi and Mozambique
program funded by ACIAR. The body of this manual (Section 4) were the product of efforts by Mr Irvine-
draws heavily on the work of Neal Dalgliesh, Mike Brown and Mr Ben Harms with assistance from Dr
Foale and the APSIM Initiative (www.apsim.info). The Joseph Eyre as part of the SIMLESA program. We thank
Soil Colour protocol (3.3) was largely adapted from the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center
Moody and Cang (2003). Protocols for estimating (CIMMYT) for their collaboration and contribution
gravimetric water content (Protocol 3.4), as well as for towards the graphics and artistic designs in this manual.
2
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ii
1. Introduction 4
1.1. What does this manual offer? 4
1.2. How to use this manual 5
1.3. What can we learn using rapid field techniques? 5
2. Getting your sampling right – the first step 7
2.1. Introduction to rapid testing 7
2.2. Initial site characterisation 7
2.3. Principles of soil sampling 9
3. Simple field protocols for soil analysis 13
3.1. Soil texture 13
3.2. Soil Colour 16
3.3. Soil Bulk Density 19
3.4. Estimated gravimetric water content 22
3.5. Soil pH 24
3.6. Electronic Conductivity and soil salinity 32
3.7. Soil Mineral Nitrogen 38
4. SIMLESA long-term trial site analysis reports 45
4.1. Ethiopia 45
4.2. Mozambique 46
4.3. Malawi 48
5. Relevant resources for team leaders 49
5.1. List of Supplier details 49
5.2. Further resources on soil testing, characterisation and management 53
Appendix 1: Input Sheets for protocols 54
A1.1. Site Characterisation Input sheet 54
A1.2. Soil Texture Input Sheet 60
A1.3. Soil Colour Input Sheet 62
A1.4. Soil Bulk Density Input Sheet 64
A1.5. Gravimetric Water Content Input Sheet 65
A1.6. Soil pH Input Sheet – Test Kit 67
A1.7. Soil pH Input Sheet – pH Meter 68
A1.8. Soil EC Input Sheet 70
A1.9. Soil Nitrate Input Sheet 72
3
1. Introduction
Soils are one of the main resources required for food now, most soil analysis is performed by research
production. Understanding soils can inform crop institutions, that are limited in resources, and therefore
management, to achieve higher and more sustainable coverage. This means that many sites have had few
crop production, and ultimately higher farmers’ (if any) soil analyses performed. In addition, much of
profits. In Africa, these can lead to reduced levels of the soil analysis data available across Africa remains
malnourishment and undernourishment. unavailable publicly, though recent efforts such as
AfSIS - http://africasoils.net/ - have gone some way to
Unfortunately, regular soil testing is uncommon. rectifying this.
Schmidhalter (2005), showed that only 1% of
agricultural soils globally are annually sampled for Some soil properties vary rather significantly spatially
levels of nitrogen, the most widely limiting plant but also over time. Natural soil variability even within
macronutrient. Soil testing is even less common in sub- a single field can mean an analysis of regional soils
Saharan Africa, where limited research infrastructure offers little in valuable information for farmers trying
and human capacity reduces opportunities and to manage their own fields. There is, therefore, a gap
increases costs of soil analysis. between what conventional research methods can
currently provide, and what practical and actionable
Soil characterisation and interpretation can lead to a knowledge is needed by smallholder farmers. To
better informed agronomy management, crop choice. overcome this, we propose simple rapid field soil tests
In sub-Saharan Africa, soils are particularly relevant as a valuable resource, this manual provides a first
given that many are naturally low in nutrients or have insight on their use and value.
limited physio-chemical capacity that limits available
soil water and nutrients (Bationo et al. 2012). Up until
1.1. What does this manual offer?

This manual offers a scientifically-informed, low- robust instruction for using these techniques. We
tech approach for soil testing in remote areas, with have also attempted to provide contacts for sourcing
specific tailoring to the Eastern and Southern African necessary low-tech equipment in Eastern and Southern
context. The analysis options included in this manual Africa.
are limited to those that can be determined reliably
using simple and rapid field methods. Here, rapid field It should be noted that the techniques in this manual
analysis techniques were included only where peer- are not intended to replace traditional methods for
reviewed literature had demonstrated good agreement soil sampling, sample storage and preparation and
with traditional laboratory results (i.e. R2 values of 0.90 laboratory analysis. Traditional methods should be used
or more). All relevant studies demonstrating good wherever and whenever possible, and (in particular)
reliability and precision of methods are cited in the are necessary for peer-reviewed scientific research.
document. Having said that, there are many circumstances where
this level of precision and accuracy is not a priority nor
Our hope is that this manual may lead to improved is it necessary. This manual provides some resources to
understanding and appreciation of soil properties and help fill that gap in needs and resources.
management recommendations that are evidence-
based. A number of rapid and affordable tests have
been developed, though mostly, remain underutilised.
This manual provides an open-access and scientifically
4
1.2. How to use this manual?
This document provides simple, practical and Individual protocols (Section 3) are written with
achievable standardised methods for determining the intention that they will be taken to the field by
soil attributes in the field with limited resources and extension officers to guide field testing. Each protocol
no laboratory facilities. It is intended for research and in Section 3 includes: i) a brief description of the
extension services, who may use the techniques to characteristic being measured, ii) clear and simple
test farmers’ fields, and provide rapid feedback on a instructions on what is needed and how to complete
number of valuable soil indicators. The introductory the analysis, iii) simple steps for calculating the results
background information (Section 1) and the section (often with pre-programmed excel spreadsheets),
on resources for equipment (Section 5) are suited and iv) a guide to interpreting the results to provide
to guiding team leaders organising the soil testing. immediate feedback to farmers. Section 4 provides
Section 2 provides basic instruction on how to sample results from the SIMLESA project’s soil analyses
soils appropriately for the methods outlined in this completed at five major research stations (in Ethiopia,
manual. We recommend that team leaders study this Mozambique and Malawi) where long-term trials were
section carefully and review it with officers before conducted. These results are included simply as a useful
completing the sampling and analysis. It is important reference for researchers. Finally, Section 5 includes
to note that unlike other soil manuals, this document resources for team managers on where to source
does not provide full instruction on soil sampling, necessary materials for the protocols in this book, as
preparation and storage for laboratory analysis. If this is well as further reading materials on soil analysis.
of interest, there are many existing resources covering
that perspective (e.g. Klute et al. 1986; Bottomley et al.
1994; Sparks et al. 1996; Dane and Top 2002; SSSA 2008;
Rayment and Lyons 2011).
1.3. What can we learn using rapid field

techniques?
Within the scientific, peer-reviewed literature, a number of rapid and low-tech soil tests have been developed to
the point of being able to accurately determining key soil characteristics.
. In this manual, we provide recommended methods for performing a site characterisation and
determining and interpreting eight soil characteristics:
1. 2. 3. 4.
Site Soil texture Soil colour Soil bulk
characterisation density
5. 6. 7. 8.
Soil Soil pH Electrical Soil mineral
gravimetric conductivity nitrogen
water content (EC) (nitrate)
The protocols are presented in order of complexity with of the soil at a particular location and the provision of
the earlier protocols recommended to be completed first. valuable information to guide farmers in how to better
Collectively, adoption of these protocols would be a big manage their fields.
step toward a better understanding and characterisation
5
What can these soil properties tell us?
Soil texture can be used to estimate the water holding to overcome (particularly acidic soils) – Upjohn et
capacity of a soil (Hazelton and Murphy 2007), as al. (2002). Electrical conductivity provides a measure
well as its ability to hold nutrients such as potassium, of soil salinity, which if high enough could disrupt
calcium, mineral nitrogen (nitrate) which are more plant uptake of soil water and nutrients (Hazelton
readily stored in higher clay content soils (USDA and Murphy 2007). High soil salinity can be addressed
1999). Soil bulk density provides an important physical through gypsum (CaSO4) application. Finally, soil
measure of a soil’s porosity (Hazelton and Murphy mineral nitrogen is the primary form of plant-available
2007), affecting water infiltration and rooting depth soil nitrogen, and is mostly present in soils as nitrate-N
(USDA 1999). Soil bulk density is also an important due to rapid nitrification (Norton 2008). As one of the
component in calculating the total nutrient content most important crop macronutrients, soil N is critical
of soils in kg ha-1 (Dalgliesh and Foale 1998). Soil in determining the potential yield of a crop at the
gravimetric water content is crucial when calculating beginning of a season and whether the application of
soil bulk density and its water capacity, as well as the fertiliser is advisable.
mass content of soil nutrients (such as nitrogen).
Each of these soil attributes is discussed in greater detail
Soil pH is an important factor that has the potential to in their relevant section.
affect crop growth and can often be relatively simple
References
Bationo, A., A. Hartemink, O. Lungu, M. Naimi, P. WR Raun). Agronomy Monographs No. 49. (Agronomy
Okoth, E.M.A. Smaling, et al. 2012. Knowing the African Society of America: Madison) pp. 173-199.
soils to improve fertilizer recommendations. In: J.
Kihara, D. Fatondji, J. W. Jones, G. Hoogenboom, R. Rayment and Lyons 2011. Soil Chemical Method:
Tabo and A. Bationo, editors, Improving Soil Fertility Australasia. CSIRO Press: Collingwood.
Recommendations in Africa using the Decision Support Schmidhalter U (2005) Development of a quick on-farm
System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT). (Springer test to determine nitrate levels in soil. Journal of Plant
Science + Business Media, Dordecht). p. 19-42. Nutrition and Soil Science 168, 432-438.
Bottomley PS, Angle JS, Weaver RW (1994) Methods of Sparks, D.L., A.L. Page, P.A. Helmke, and R.H. Loeppert.
Soil Analysis: Part 2—Microbiological and Biochemical 1996. Methods of Soil Analysis Part 3—Chemical
Properties. SSSA Book Ser. 5.2. SSSA, Madison, WI. Methods. SSSA Book Ser. 5.3. SSSA, ASA, Madison, WI.
doi:10.2136/sssabookser5.2 doi:10.2136/sssabookser5.3
Dane JH, and Topp CG (2002) Methods of Soil Analysis: SSSA (2008) Methods of Soil Analysis Part 5—
Part 4 Physical Methods. SSSA Book Series. 5.4. (SSSA, Mineralogical Methods. SSSA Book Ser. 5.5. SSSA,
Madison). Madison, WI. doi:10.2136/sssabookser5.5
Hazelton P, Murphy B (2007) Interpreting soil test Upjohn B, Fenton G, Conyers M (2005) Soil acidity and
results: What do all the numbers mean? (CSIRO liming. Agfact AC.19, 3rd edition. NSW DPI. Available
Publishing: Collingwood). Available at www.publish. at http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_
csiro.au/book/7386/ [Accessed 29 August 2017]. file/0007/167209/soil-acidity-liming.pdf [Accessed 15
Klute, A. 1986. Methods of Soil Analysis: Part 1—Physical August 2017]
and Mineralogical Methods. SSSA Book Ser. 5.1. SSSA, USDA (1999) Soil quality test kit guide. United States
ASA, Madison, WI. doi:10.2136/sssabookser5.1.2ed Department of Agriculture. Available at: https://
Norton JM (2008) Nitrification in agricultural soils. In www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/
‘Nitrogen in agricultural systems’ (Eds JS Schepers and stelprdb1044790.pdf [Accessed 3 August 2017]
6
2. Getting your sampling right – the first step
2.1. Introduction to rapid testing

The purpose of analysing soil in relation to agriculture when sampling for traditional laboratory analysis. What
is to obtain an accurate indication of the attributes follows is a very brief overview of how to approach
that influence crop or pasture productivity and identify soil sampling in the field. This is followed by a series of
soil factors that may be limiting yields. Given the vast protocols for determining the following attributes using
distances to certified laboratories, as well as the large rapid in-field tests:
timeframes between field sampling and lab analysis,
rapid field tests can provide an alternative and the 1. Site characterisation
opportunity to obtain valuable supplementary data. 2. Soil texture
This is particularly so in countries where few accredited
soil laboratories are present. Previous research has 3. Soil colour
demonstrated that rapid low-tech tests may be useful
surrogates for traditional laboratory analyses for a range 4. Soil bulk density
of soil physical and chemical indicators. 5. Soil gravimetric water content
The idea behind rapid field testing is to overcome not 6. pH
only the challenge in scientific infrastructure (both
physical and human) but also to provide more efficient 7. Electrical conductivity (EC)
and affordable soil testing options that can be applied
more widely than traditional methods. The principles 8. Soil mineral nitrogen (nitrate and nitrite)
regarding soil sampling to capture the inherent
diversity of farmers’ soils remains identical to those
2.2. Initial site characterisation

When conducting any kind of field evaluation, it is will take place. These factors will also help determine if
important that a basic site characterisation takes place the site selected is representative of the wider region.
before any sampling or analysis. Initial site description This protocol outlines some important steps that all
must include information about the overall position of researchers or extension officers should complete
the site in the landscape along with a range of other before doing any soil sampling and analysis. It is largely
factors that relate to the soil and its management. based on the protocols of USDA (1999), as well as the
Collecting this basic information will be extremely work by Dalgliesh and Foale (2005).
valuable in the future, especially if field experimentation
2.2.1. Materials (What will I 2.2.2. Method (What do

need?) I do?)
A printed copy of the ‘Site Characterisation The following information should be recorded
Input Sheet’ - see Appendix 1 or find it online at immediately when arriving at a field for soil
https://cloudstor.aarnet.edu.au/plus/index.php/s/ testing. Record the information using a printed
EjR58WERJOundFp ‘Site Characterisation Input Sheet’ (provided in this
manual and online) or input directly into the web-
A smartphone with an altimeter app installed on it based application. If using the printed input data
(see notes in ‘Site Characterisation Input Sheet’ in sheet, you will need to enter your data into the
Appendix 1 for details) corresponding excel characterisation datasheet after
A notebook for recording any additional observations, the field visit. This excel sheet is available online at:
https://cloudstor.aarnet.edu.au/plus/index.php/s/
EE6XdvOzENpHWcQ
7
When arriving at the field, record the following information in
the input sheet:
1 Describer’s name, affiliation and contract details (phone and email)
2 Date – day/month/year
Obtain a GPS reference for the site (i.e. latitude and longitude measurements). This can be
3 completed using:
• A smartphone with 3G or stronger connection (suitable for many areas)
• A dedicated satellite GPS recording device (more suited to areas with no connectivity – see
Section 5 for information on where to purchase this device)
4 Record the village name, county (or administrative post), district, and province or state
5 Record the farmer’s name and phone number
Climate – A description of recent weather is needed to provide context for the results of any
6 analysis that is to take place. This should include asking the farmer about any recent rainfall, any
notable events such as a heatwave or frost.
7 Write down any information about the type of landform – e.g. is the field on a Floodplain,
Terrace, Hill slope, or Valley?
8 Measure the elevation (m) and calculate an estimated slope gradient (%) of the field. This can be
completed using most smartphones – see input sheet in Appendix 1 for details)
9 Describe the surface uniformity of the field, noting any soil colour changes, areas of gravel or
rocks,
10 If the field is on a hillside, note the site aspect (e.g. North-West facing).
Write down any observations on the soil’s capacity for drainage – look for signs of flooding and /
11 or ponding; ask the farmer if there is water ponding during heavy rains.
12 Examine the soil surface to estimate the percentage of cover (use guide in the input sheet in
Appendix 1)
Make a note of any potential signs of erosion (cause by water, wind, or landslide) and the type of
13 erosion (rill, gully, sheet) – see instruction notes in the input sheet found in Appendix 1.
14 Record the type of and state of surrounding vegetation (trees / shrubs / pasture / crops).
Take photographs of the site and any distinguishing features of the soil or crop plants that will
15 complement the site description (e.g. areas of ponding, areas where soil colour or type appear to
change, etc.).
8
2.2.3. How to interpret the results, and What this means for the
farmer?
Details of interpreting aspects of a site characterisation are available in the Site Characterisation Input Sheet
available in Appendix 1.
Further reading:
The FAO’s guidelines for soil description (4th edition)
http://www.fao.org/docrep/019/a0541e/a0541e.pdf
References
FAO (2006) Guidelines for soil description (4th Edition). (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations:
Rome) Available at http://www.fao.org/3/a-a0541e.pdf [Accessed 1 September 2017].
USDA (1999) Soil quality test kit guide. United States Department of Agriculture. Available at: https://www.nrcs.
usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb1044790.pdf [Accessed 3 August 2017]
2.3. Principles of soil sampling

As stated earlier, this manual is not supposed to without including some basic information on soil
replace instruction on best practice when sampling sampling procedures.
soils. However, this manual would be far less valuable
2.3.1. Considering spatial variability

The main factor to consider when sampling soil for 2. Avoid taking samples from areas that might not
analysis is that soils are remarkably variable. Two properly represent the rest of the field
soil samples taken immediately side by side can give
differing results that each suggest the need for distinct 3. Make composite samples (i.e. multiple samples
management practices. This means that sampling and mixed together) to provide more representation
sub-sampling can be a major source of error when within each analysis sample
testing soils. A study by Hunt et al. (1991) comparing 4. Take soil samples in a field along a transect at
error from various sources when comparing two regular intervals to avoid human bias
methods of soil N analysis found that the majority of
error in nitrogen testing (57% of cumulative error) was Sample variability can be controlled by using a strategic
the result of variability between individual soil samples. approach when sampling (Figure 1). This means
In other words, poor sampling will generally lead to deliberately avoiding areas of a field that may give
poor results. a particularly different result (e.g. an area that had a
different crop in the previous season, an area where an
The main methods controlling variability when old cattle kraal used to be located).
sampling are as follows:
1. Take many soil samples
9
Figure 1: A diagram of a field with areas that will not be representative of normal soil characteristics and
therefore should be avoided while sampling. Previous burning, nearby trees and areas where livestock are could
all impact soil fertility results. X symbols represent points where soil samples can be strategically taken.
Most of the time, soil samples are mixed together sample had been tested. Obviously, creating composite
into composite samples (also known as ‘bulking’). For samples will lead to more soil in each bulked sample,
example, if only five samples can be tested from one so taking a sub-sample of each composite after proper
field, take 15 samples and mix three together for each mixing is important. This is typically done by ‘quartering’
test (Figure 2). This will lead to each sample capturing (Figure 3).
the diversity of a wider area of soil than if a single
15 Initial soil samples taken along a transect (see Figure 1)
Soil samples are mixed together into five sets of three before being analysed
Figure 2: Diagram illustrating how to composite soil samples to increase the representation of samples
being analysed
10
Figure 3: After sampling a field for soil and combining several individual samples into composites (i.e.
bulking), you will need to take a sub-sample of the composite. First, make sure that you have mixed the
samples together very carefully. Then, a simple technique for sub-sampling is to lay the soil out flat in a
circle and divide the soil into quarters. Take one quarter as your sample that will be used for the rapid in-field
analysis. In the diagram above the blue X indicates the quarter being used as the sub-sample.
Finally, most soil scientists recommend using a transect of a field to sample (i.e. walking in a straight line from one
corner to another), stopping at regular intervals along the transect (Figure 4). This removes potential human bias in
selecting sites for sampling.
Figure 4: Example of a transect approach to soil sampling in a field. The X symbols represent points where
samples are taken.
11
2.3.2. How to take samples?
Once the sampling strategy (i.e. number of samples, during a season. Having said that, it can be extremely
composites, transect, etc) has been developed, the next difficult to take deep soil samples without mechanised
step is to take individual samples correctly. The first hydraulic sample corers. If these are unavailable, a tailor
point to make here is that soil samples are broken into made manual hammer can be extremely valuable to get
different depths. Different sources of instruction will deep soil samples. The type of soil will also determine
suggest different sampling depth intervals. For example, the ease with which sampling can occur. Sampling
AfSIS recommends two depths (0-20 cm and 20-50 cm) after rain while soils are wet can drastically improve
are taken for basic diagnostics in research trials (Table the ease of sampling. Despite the importance of deeper
1). For measuring soil fertility, it is important to capture sampling, taking shallow samples for rapid analysis can
the amount of mobile nutrients to the depth that plant still be valuable, but it is important to remember that
roots will grow to. This may be up to 180 cm deep in shallow soil (i.e. the top 15 cm) under conservation
the case of maize, though for smaller crops it is much agriculture practices can have much higher fertility than
shallower. This will provide the best picture of how deeper soils so sampling should always go to at least 50
much nutrients are available for the plant to capture cm.
Table 1: Recommended soil sample depth intervals from various sources in Africa
Recommending body Soil depth intervals
AfSIS diagnostic trials 0-20 cm, 20-50 cm
AfSIS soil profiles database 0-5 cm, 5-15 cm, 15-30 cm, 30-60 cm, 60-100 cm, 100-200 cm
SIMLESA soil recommendations 0-15 cm, 15-30 cm, 30-60 cm, 60-90 cm, 90-120 cm, 120-150 cm,
150-180 cm
Figure 5a & b – Residue removed and a soil sample taken from within a CA trial plot. / Measuring out on-farm
CA plot trial site with GPS reference being taken in the background for later use with spatial data analysis
methods.
References
Dalgliesh N, Foale M (1998) Soil Matters: monitoring soil water and nutrients in dryland farming. Agricultural
Production Systems Research Unit. (Cranbrook Press: Toowoomba). Available at https://www.apsim.info/Portals/0/
APSoil/Soil%20matters.pdf. [Accessed 1 September 2017].
12
3. Simple field protocols for soil analysis
3.1. Soil texture
Soil texture can tell us a lot of valuable information and at least 24 hours. Luckily, soil texture can be rapidly
which can help determine which crops to grow and assessed using a simple hand method with nothing
how to grow them. Texture largely affects water but soil and water. This method is relatively reliable
movement and nutrient retention in soil. Texture can providing the person making the assessment has good
also influence a soil’s vulnerability to erosion. The clay experience with the method. The hand method involves
content of soil holds most of its water and nutrients, taking a handful of soil, wetting it with water, noting
however, soils with high clay content are prone to water changes as it is worked into a ball and then squeezed
logging – this is an important consideration in high between your thumb and forefinger. The following
rainfall environments of sub-humid and humid regions. protocol was taken from Dalgliesh and Foale (2005)
which itself was adapted from Chapman and Murphy
Laboratory analysis of soil texture requires a hydrometer (1991).
Materials (What will I need?)
Water (to wet the soil) – rainwater Soil samples (see section A sieve of 2 mm (in
or tap water in a bottle will be fine 2.2 for instructions on how case there is gravel in
but it must not contain any dirt to take soil samples) the soil)
Method (What do I do?)

1. Make sure you have completed a site • Sand: will feel gritty
characterisation (see protocol 2.2).
• Silt: will feel silky
• Enter the unique field code from the Site
Characterisation in the ‘Soil Texture Input • Clay: will feel silky and plastic when wet
Sheet’ 8. Press and slide the ball out between the thumb
2. Record your name and contact details (phone and forefinger to form a ribbon. Note the length
number, email address) and institution of self-supporting ribbon that can be formed in
the ‘Soil Texture Input Sheet’ (see Table 2)
3. Record the date of sampling
9. Use Table 2 to classify the soil
4. If you have not completed a site characterisation,
note the GPS coordinates of the field. a. Remember that soil texture can change
as you go down the soil profile and this
5. Take enough soil to fit into the palm of your variation is described by the following terms:
hand. Remove any large stones, twigs or stubble
• Uniform: the texture is the same
6. Moisten the soil with water, a little at a time, throughout the profile
and knead until the ball of soil just fails to stick
to your fingers. Add more water to get it to this • Duplex: The texture changes significantly
sticky point (this is the soil’s drained upper limit). at a certain depth; there is often about
150mm of loam over a dense clay subsoil
7. Work the soil in this manner for one to two (these are also called texture-contrast
minutes, noting its behaviour (see Table 2). soils)
Inspect the sample to see if sand is visible. If
not, it may still be felt or heard as you work the • Gradational: the texture changes gradually
sample in your hand down the profile. Many soils vary from a
loamy surface to a clay loam and then to
a. A soil with a high proportion of: clay.
13
Table 2: Guide to determining soil texture based on a) whether it will form a ball; b) how many centimetres
that ball can be made into a ribbon; and c) the feel, appearance and durability of the wet soil in the hand.
Adapted from Dalgliesh and Foale (2005).
Ball Ribbon (cm) Feel Texture
Will not form a ball nil Single grains of sand stick Sand (S)
to fingers
Ball just holds together, ~0.5 Feels very sandy, visible Loamy sand (LS)
fragile sand grains
Can be handled 1.5 to 2.5 Sandy, slight stickiness Coarse sandy loam (CSL),
Fine sandy loam (FSL)
Ball holds together 2.5 Spongy, smooth, not gritty Loam (L)
or silky
Ball holds together 2.5 Slightly spongy, fine sand Loamy fine sand (LFS)
can be felt
Ball holds together 2.5 Very smooth to silky Silt loam (SL)
Ball holds together 2.5-4 Sandy to touch, medium Sandy clay loam (SCL)
strongly sand grains visible
Ball holds together 4-5 Plastic, smooth to Clay loam (CL)
manipulate
Ball holds together 5-7.5 Plastic, smooth, slight Light clay (LC)
strongly resistance to shearing
(breaking when squeezed)
between thumb and
forefinger
Ball holds together >7.5 Plastic, smooth, handles Medium clay (MC)
strongly like plasticine, can be
moulded into rods
without fracture, moderate
shearing resistance
Ball holds together >7.5 Plastic and smooth, Heavy clay (HC)
strongly handles like stiff plasticine,
can be moulded into rods
without fracture, very firm
shearing resistance
14
How to interpret the results and What does this mean for the
farmer?
Once you have completed the texture test and have this kind of soil means for their management. Table
estimated which texture type the soil is, you can 3 (below) indicates soil textures and some general
make some general comments to the farmer on what attributes.
Table 3: Estimated water holding capacity, infiltration/erosion and bulk density implications for different soil
textures (Queensland Government 2011; Hazelton and Murphy 2007; USDA 2014).
Texture Estimated water stored per Infiltration Ideal bulk density

10 cm of soil depth (mm)*
(low = higher erosion risk) (see protocol 3.3)
Sand 4 Very rapid < 1.60
Loamy sand 4 Very rapid < 1.60
Fine sandy loam 5 Very rapid < 1.40
Loam 6-7 Moderately rapid to rapid < 1.40
Loamy fine sand 6-7 Moderately rapid to rapid < 1.60
Silt loam 6-7 Moderately rapid to rapid < 1.40
Sandy clay loam 6-7 Very slow to slow < 1.10
Clay loam 8 Extremely slow to < 1.10
moderate
Light clay 10 Very slow to moderate < 1.10
Medium clay 10-12 Very slow to moderate < 1.10
Heavy clay 12 Extremely slow to < 1.10
moderate
*Using the above table, it’s possible to estimate the total capacity is also strongly influenced by soil structure
water storage capacity of the soil from field texture. (with better structured soils holding more water). Also
Simply sum the water storage capacity for each layer/ note that fine sandy soils will hold more water than
horizon of soil to the required depth. Please note coarse sands.
that this will be a crude estimate. The water storage
References
Dalgliesh N, Foale M (1998) Soil Matters: monitoring Queensland Government (2011) Protecting
soil water and nutrients in dryland farming. Agricultural Queensland’s strategic cropping land: Guidelines
Production Systems Research Unit. (Cranbrook Press: for applying the proposed strategic cropping land
Toowoomba). Available at https://www.apsim.info/ criteria. Available at http://www.parliament.qld.gov.au/
Portals/0/APSoil/Soil%20matters.pdf. [Accessed 1 Documents/TableOffice/TabledPapers/2011/5311T5265.
September 2017]. pdf [Accessed 13 October 2017].
Hazelton P, Murphy B (2007) Interpreting soil test USDA (2014) Soil bulk density, In ‘Soil health – guides
results: What do all the numbers mean? (CSIRO for educators’ (USDA: Washington D.C.)
Publishing: Collingwood). Available at www.publish.
csiro.au/book/7386/ [Accessed 29 August 2017].
15
3.2. Soil colour
Soil colour can be an approximation of several as in bleached A2 horizons are indicative of seasonal
important soil properties, including organic matter saturation and intense leaching of organic matter.
content, and drainage characteristics. Soil colour is Strong mottling usually indicates serious problems with
mainly due to the presence of iron oxides and organic soil wetness.
matter. Organic matter consists of darkly coloured
compounds, which tend to mask the colours of iron Soil colour is objectively assessed using a Munsell soil
oxides. The presence of manganese oxides also colour chart. However, a simple method of noting the
darkens the soil. In a few soils, the colour is derived broad soil colour can still tell us something about the
directly form the parent material. Red indicates iron soil properties listed earlier. It is recommended that
compounds in their oxidised form, which reflects good soil colour be assessed in the middle of the day and in
drainage and aeration. In yellow soils, the iron oxides direct sunlight (FAO 2006). Where no single colour is
are present in reduced form, which indicates restricted dominant, the colour is said to be mottled (FAO 2006).
drainage and less aeration, at least at certain times This simple method of assessing and interpreting soil
of the year. Similarly, grey often indicates impeded colour was adapted from Moody and Cong (2008).
drainage. Bleached (near white or white) horizons
The ‘Soil Colour input sheet’ A medium-sized shovel A Munsell colour chart
(see Appendix 1) (recommended for checking (recommended if available to help
deeper layers) interpret soil colour – not essential)
1. Make sure you have completed a site 5. (Recommended) Take the shovel and dig a mini
characterisation (see protocol 2.2). soil pit 40 cm wide, 60 cm long, and 50 cm deep.
a. Enter the unique field code from the Site 6. Examine the soil surface layer (0-20 cm) inside
Characterisation in the ‘Soil Colour Input the mini soil pit. Use the guide in Table 4 to
Sheet’ select a colour that most closely matches what
you see.
2. Record your name and contact details (phone
number, email address) and institution 7. Repeat step 6 for the subsoil layer (20-50 cm).
il
3. Record the date of sampling 8. Note your observations in the ‘Soil Colour Input
Sheet’
4. If you have not completed a site characterisation,
note the GPS coordinates of the field.
16
Table 4: Main soil colour groups, corresponding Munsell chart details, and their characteristics. Adapted
from Moody and Cong (2008).
Soil colour Typical Munsell Hue/value/chroma Soil types and characteristics
Black 5YR/<3/1-2 Peat or organic soils – high in

organic matter
7.5YR/<3/1-2
Soils derived from limestone under
10YR/<3/1-2 reduced conditions
White, pale or bleached -/8/<4 Sandy soils
Red 10R/-/6-8 Well-drained soils with high content

of iron oxides
2.5YR/-/6-8
Yellow or yellow-brown 7.5YR/>6/>6 Imperfectly drained to moderately

well-drained soils with high content
10YR/>6/>6 of iron oxides
2.5Y/>6/>3
5Y/>6/>2
Brown 2.5YR/<7/3-4 Moderate soil organic matter levels,

and some iron oxides
5YR/<6/3-4
7.5YR/<6/3-4
10YR/<6/3-8
2.5YR/<5/2-6
Greyed, grey or blue-grey Gley charts or colour charts -/3-7/1 Near permanent waterlogging;
anaerobic (reduced) conditions
Mottles Orange, yellow, red Intermittent waterlogging;
intermittent anaerobic (reduced)
conditions
R = Red; Y = Yellow; YR = Yellow-Red
17
How to interpret the results, and What does this mean for the
farmer?
The list of major soil colours and their properties are - therefore they should be able to support good crop
given in Table 4 (above). Use the column on the right growth and higher yields. Soils that are sandy will tend
to talk with the farmer about their soil. Key factors to to have lower capacity to hold soil moisture, meaning
discuss are whether the soil is high in organic matter, they are less suited to production unless rainfall is
sandy, and prone to waterlogging. In addition, a high and regular. Sandy soils are also more prone to
further guide to estimating organic matter content of compaction and are higher in bulk density (see protocol
soil based on colour (for wet and dry soil) is available 3.3 for details). Soils with low drainage will become
in Table 5 (below). Soils with more organic matter will waterlogged during high rainfall events. Waterlogging
tend to be higher in fertility and have good structure can damage crops and lead to loss of yield.
Table 5: Estimated values of organic matter content of soils based on their apparent soil colour when wet
and dry. Table adapted from Schlichting et al. (1995) via FAO (2006). S = Sand / L = Loam / Si = Silt / C = Clay
Colour Munsell Moist soil Dry soil

Value
S LS, SL, L SiL, Si SiCL, S LS, SL, L SiL, Si, SiCL,
CL, SCL, SC, CL, SCL, SC,
SiC, C SiC, C
Light grey 7 < 0.3 < 0.5 < 0.6

Light grey 6.5 0.3-0.6 0.5-0.8 0.6-1.2
Grey 6 0.6-1 0.8-1.2 1.2-2
Grey 5.5 < 0.3 1-1.5 1.2-2 2-3
Grey 5 < 0.3 < 0.4 0.3-0.6 1.5-2 2-4 3-4
Dark grey 4.5 0.3-0.6 0.4-0.6 0.6-0.9 2-3 4-6 4-6
Dark grey 4 0.6-0.9 0.6-1 0.9-1.5 3-5 6-9 6-9
Black grey 3.5 0.9-1.5 1-2 1.5-3 5-8 9-15 6-15
Black grey 3 1.5-3 2-4 3-5 5-12 > 15 > 15
Black 2.5 3-6 >4 >5 >12
Black 2 >6
References
FAO (2006) Guidelines for soil description (4th Edition). Monograph No. 130. (Australian Centre for International
(Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Agricultural Research: Canberra). Available at: http://
Nations: Rome) Available at http://www.fao.org/3/a- aciar.gov.au/publication/mn130 [Accessed 14 August
a0541e.pdf [Accessed 1 September 2017]. 2017].
Moody P, Cong PT (2008) Soil constraints and

management package (SCAMP): guidelines for
sustainable management of tropical upland soils. ACIAR
18
3.3. Soil bulk density
Soil bulk density is an extremely important soil Soil bulk density is an indirect measure of the total pore
characteristic. It reflects the level of soil compaction space which is also affected by texture and structure.
and has important implications for root growth, water The bulk density of fine textured mineral soils usually
infiltration, the calculation of soil nutrient content, and ranges from about 1.0 to 1.5 g/cm3, and that of sandy
fertilisation requirements. Bulk density is traditionally soils from 1.3 to 1.7 g/cm3. The bulk density of organic
measured using a wide metal ring being carefully driven soils is usually much less than that of mineral soils and
into the soil and removed to calculate the dry mass of may be as low as 0.4 g/cm3. Bulk density and total pore
a known unit area. While this method does not in itself space are readily altered by tillage operations.
require a laboratory, in some locations this specific
type of soil ring might not be readily sourced. In these The following protocol was developed mostly by
cases, a more low-tech device such as a hand-held drawing on the work of Dalgliesh and Foale (1998),
soil sampling tube can be used instead (Schmidhalter USDA (1999) and Schidhalter (2005). The CSIRO guide
2005). A comparison of these two approached by to physical soil measurement and interpretation
Schmidhalter (2005) found no significant difference recommends measuring 3-5 replicates for bulk density
between their results. (McKenzie et al. 2002).
Knife Solar powered field Small shovel Metal soil sampling

scale (0.1 g precision) cylinder (50-100 mm
length, 1.6 mm gauge
wall, and 75-100 mm in
diameter with both ends
open)
Measuring Hand held Sledge Small pocket Wooden block

tape hammer calculator or
smartphone
Water strong Bulk density input sheet (See

paper bag Appendix 1 or print online
(Traditional version at https://cloudstor.
Method only) aarnet.edu.au/plus/index.
php/s/gbH230EhL0Ltbul)
19
Enter all data records into the Soil Bulk Density Input Sheet (See Appendix 1) and once you have completed the
sampling, record the data into excel using the ‘Bulk Density Data Input’ excel file available at https://cloudstor.
aarnet.edu.au/plus/index.php/s/nvIowYcmWUa03wP.
1. Make sure you have completed a site 13. Use the small shovel to dig out the metal
characterisation (see protocol 2.2). sampling cylinder. Take extra care not to hit
the ring itself and make sure you remove
a. Enter the unique field code from the Site
extra soil underneath the cylinder.
Characterisation in the ‘Bulk Density Input
Sheet’ 14. Once the cylinder is removed from the soil,
use the knife to remove all soil from outside
the ring and to carefully cut off extra soil at
number, email address) and institution
the bottom of the ring.
3. Record the date of sampling
15. Once all the soil outside of the sample
4. If you have not completed a site cylinder is removed, place it on the field scale
characterisation, note the GPS coordinates of and record the weight on the ‘Bulk Density
the field. Input Sheet’
5. Measure the length of the sample cylinder 16. At this stage, the gravimetric water content
being used (Figure 6) and record it in the ‘Bulk is all that is needed to calculate final bulk
Density Input Sheet’ (mm) density. There are two options to calculate
the gravimetric water content of the sample:
6. Measure the diameter of the sample cylinder
being used (Figure 6) record it in the ‘Bulk a. Traditional method:
Density Input Sheet’ (mm)
i. Place the soil cylinder in the wet-
7. Weigh the sample cylinder using the field strength paper bag
scale and record the weight in the ‘Bulk
ii. Weigh the soil cylinder in the wet-
Density Input Sheet’
strength bag
8. Clear soil surface of the sample area (i.e.
iii. Dry the cylinder using an over at 105°
clearing any crop residue)
C for 48 hours
9. Place the soil sampling cylinder on the soil
iv. After drying record the dry weight
with the open ends on the soil and facing up
to the sky b. Rapid method: If the traditional method
is not possible, the gravimetric water
10. Place the wooden block on top of the soil
content can be calculated using the
sampling cylinder
known volume of the cylinder and
11. Use the sledge hammer to carefully hammer assuming a particle density of 2.65 g
in the sampling cylinder into the soil until / cm3. This method is included in a
approximately 3 cm remain above the soil separate protocol in this section (Protocol
surface – take extra care to avoid hammering 3.4).
the cylinder completely into the soil as this
17. Enter all the data recorded during sampling
will lead to soil compaction and inaccurate
into the ‘Bulk Density Data Sheet’ excel file
bulk density calculations
available online at: https://cloudstor.aarnet.
12. Before removing the soil cylinder, use the edu.au/plus/index.php/s/nvIowYcmWUa03wP
measuring tape to measure the distance from
18. It is recommended that 3-5 bulk density
the top of the cylinder to the soil surface.
samples are taken per field at each depth
Do this in at least three separate places and
interval (McKenzie et al. 2008).
record the results of each measurement to
get an accurate result.
farmer?
Soil bulk density (on its own can) be used to provide general rule is that bulk density values above 1.6 g/cm3
clear advice to farmers. Firstly, the ideal bulk density will typically restrict plant root growth. The USDA provides
depend on the texture of the soil (see Table 3 and 6). useful guidelines on which bulk density values will
Bulk density will naturally increase with soil depth and a restrict root growth for different soils (USDA 2014).
20
Table 6: Values of bulk density which will affect root growth for different soil textures. Bulk density values
above those listed as ‘critical’ will severely restrict plant root growth. Adapted from USDA (1999).
Soil texture Ideal bulk density Bulk density that may Critical Bulk Density
affect root growth
------------------------------(g/cm3)------------------------------
Sands, loamy sands < 1.60 1.69 > 1.80
Sandy loams, loams < 1.40 1.63 > 1.80
Sandy clay loams, loams, < 1.40 1.60 > 1.75
clay loams
Silts, silt loams < 1.30 1.60 > 1.75
Silt loams, silty clay loams < 1.40 1.55 > 1.65
Sandy clays, silty clays, < 1.10 1.49 > 1.58
some clay loams (35-45%
clay)
Clays < 1.10 1.39 > 1.47
(> 45% clay)
For soils with bulk density greater than critical values layers over time (VRO 2009).
(Table 6), it can be beneficial to grow crops with thicker
taproots that can penetrate denser soil (Materechera Other management practices that affect soil bulk
et al. 1991; 1992). This means recommending farmers density relate to tillage and residue management.
grow crops such as safflower, beans or cowpea. If the Research in maize cropping has shown that
farmer wishes to grow cereals for staple food supply, conservation agriculture management (i.e. zero tillage,
maize and sorghum will cope better in high bulk increased residues and crop rotations) can have variable
density soils than wheat or barley. If the subsoil layer effects on bulk density. These effects range from no
(i.e. below 50 cm deep) is severely compacted, all changes (Logsdon and Karlen 2004), increases (Dam
cereal crops will struggle to grow through the soil and et al. 2005) or decreases in bulk density (Thierfelder et
will have restricted access to subsoil water. In these al. 2012; 2015). Bulk density decreases in shallow soil
situations, another option is for the farmer to grow a under CA due to the accumulation of organic matter at
perennial crop which may be able to penetrate deeper these depths (Thierfelder et al. 2012).
References
Dalgliesh N, Foale M (1998) Soil Matters: monitoring physical measurement and interpretation for land
soil water and nutrients in dryland farming. Agricultural evaluation. (CSIRO Publishing: Collingwood). Available
Production Systems Research Unit. (Cranbrook Press: at http://www.publish.csiro.au/book/3147/.
Toowoomba). Available at https://www.apsim.info/ Thierfelder C, Cheesman S, Rusinamhodzi L (2012)
Portals/0/APSoil/Soil%20matters.pdf. [Accessed 1 A comparative analysis of conservation agriculture
September 2017]. systems: benefits and challenges of rotations and
Dam RF, Mehdi BB, Burgess MSE, Madramootoo CA, intercropping in Zimbabwe. Field Crops Research 137,
Mehuys GR, Callum IR (2005) Soil bulk density and 237-250
crop yield under eleven consecutive years of corn with Thierfelder C, Rusinamhodzi L, Ngwira AR, Mupangwa
different tillage and residue practices in a sandy loam W, Nyagumbo I, Kassie GT, Cairns JE (2015)
soil in central Canada. Soil and Tillage Research 84, 41- Conservation agriculture in Southern Africa: advances
53. in knowledge. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems
Logsdon SD, Karlen DL (2004) Bulk density as a soil 30 (4), 328-348.
quality indicator during conversion to no-tillage. Soil USDA (1999) Soil quality test kit guide. (USDA:
and Tillage Research 78, 143-149. Washington D.C.). Available at: https://www.nrcs.usda.
Materechera SA, Dexter AR & Alston AM (1991) gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb1044790.pdf
Penetration of very strong soils by seedling roots of USDA (2014) Soil bulk density, In ‘Soil health – guides for
different plant species, Plant and Soil 135, 31–34 educators’ (USDA: Washington D.C.).
Materechera SA, Alston AM, Kirby JM & Dexter AR VRO (2009) Physical constraints to root growth. In
(1992) Influence of root diameter on the penetration of ‘Subsoils Manual’ Birchip Cropping Group: Available
seminal roots into compacted subsoil Plant and Soil 144, at http://vro.agriculture.vic.gov.au/dpi/vro/vrosite.nsf/
297–303. pages/soil_mgmt_subsoil_pdf/$FILE/BCG_subsoils_09_
McKenzie N, Coughlan K, Cresswell H (2002) Soil ch05.pdf [Accessed 11 August 2017]
21
3.4. Estimating gravimetric water content
Gravimetric water content is typically measured not always available. However, Schimdhalter (2005)
through drying soil samples in an oven (105°C for 48 showed that an estimate of gravimetric water content
hours), a microwave (30-40 minutes on high power), can be calculated without drying soils through using an
or in the sun (2 days) (Dalgliesh and Foale 1998). While assumed soil particle density of 2.65 g / cm3.
these drying techniques are not exactly ‘high tech’, they
have several drawbacks. Firstly, they cannot typically be This estimation method allows for gravimetric water
performed in the field, and therefore require additional content to be calculated very quickly, allowing other
time especially when drying locations are far from the soil parameters (e.g. Bulk Density- see protocol 3.3)
field. A second issue is that when testing many soil to be calculated rapidly and feedback to be given to
samples, large storage areas are needed and these are farmers immediately.
Background
The theory of this protocol is based on two equations. Where Wd is the dry weight of the soil sample, Wi is the
This first equation represents the standard method for initial weight of the soil sample, Ww is the weight of
calculating gravimetric water content based on the water in the sample, PDS is the particle density of the
difference between the wet and dry weights of soil: soil sample (assumed to be 2.65 g / cm3), and PDW is
the particle density of water (assumed to be 1 g / cm3).
GWC=(Wi- Wd) / Wd
In other words, if we record the field-moist weight of
Where GWC is the gravimetric water content (in g / g), the soil sample in a known volume (e.g. soil sample core
Wi¬ ¬is the initial weight of the soil sample, and Wd¬ volume), and then add a known volume of water, we
is the dry weight of the soil sample. The dry weight of can use these two calculations to estimate gravimetric
the soil sample can be calculated using this following water content.
equation:
(Wi- Ww )
Wd= PDS x
(PDS- PDW)
Materials (What do I need?)

Note that this protocol is not needed to estimate
gravimetric water content when testing for soil
‘Soil Gravimetric Water
nitrate via the protocol in this manual. The required
Input Sheet’ – see
measurements are taken during that procedure in
appendix 1
Protocol 3.7.2.
Bucket or plastic Timer (regular A soil sample A 500 ml graduated

tub for mixing phone stopwatch (see section 2 measuring cylinder with
the bulked soil will do) for details on lid (see Section 5 for list of
samples principals of soil suppliers)
sampling)
1.5 l bottle of Field balance (to 0.1 g A small A measuring cup with
water accuracy) teaspoon ml markings
22
1. Make sure you have completed a site 10. Add 100 mL of soil into the cylinder (use the
characterisation (see protocol 2.2). teaspoon) and record the weight (with lid
on) to the nearest 1 g in the ‘Soil Gravimetric
a. Enter the unique field code from the Site Water Input Sheet’
Characterisation in the ‘Soil Gravimetric
Water Input Sheet’ 11. Make sure the cylinder is properly sealed,
start the timer for 3 minutes and then shake
2. Record your name and contact details the mixture until the timer is done.
(phone number, email address) and
institution 12. Record the final volume of the soil-water
solution (mL) in the cylinder on the ‘Soil
3. Record the date of sampling Gravimetric Water Input Sheet’
4. If you have not completed a site a. The solution should have reduced in
characterisation, note the GPS coordinates of volume after shaking due to trapped air
the field. in the soil releasing.
5. Take a representative soil sample (see section 13. Wash the soil and water out from the
2.3) and mix it together in the bucket/tub cylinder before reusing
a. You will need at least 100 ml of soil for 14. Perform steps 9-13 for all soil samples that
each sample being tested require testing for gravimetric water content
b. You will need to test each sample a. NOTE: each sample measured for
analysed for other attributes that requires bulk density (Protocol 3.3) will need its
gravimetric water content – e.g. Bulk gravimetric water content estimated
Density separately.
6. Measure the height of the graduated 15. Once all samples have been tested, enter
measuring cylinder and record it on the ‘Soil the recorded data for each sample into a
Gravimetric Water Input Sheet’ separate row in the ‘Soil Gravimetric Water
7. Measure the diameter of the graduated Content Data Input’ excel file. This will
measuring cylinder and record it on the ‘Soil automatically calculate the final estimate
Gravimetric Water Input Sheet’ of soil gravimetric water content using the
equations outlined in the beginning of this
8. Weigh the graduated measuring cylinder protocol.
(with the lid on) using the field balance and
record weight to the closest 1g on the ‘Soil a. The excel file is available at: https://
Gravimetric Water Input Sheet’ cloudstor.aarnet.edu.au/plus/index.php/s/
rA76zpP0P2CTwfn
9. Add 250 mL of water to the cylinder and
weigh (with lid) – record the weight to the
nearest 1 g in the ‘Soil Gravimetric Water
Input Sheet’
References
Dalgliesh N, Foale M (1998) Soil Matters: Monitoring soil water and nutrients in dryland farming. Agricultural
Production Systems Research Unit. (Cranbrook Press: Toowoomba). Available at https://www.apsim.info/Portals/0/
APSoil/Soil%20matters.pdf. [Accessed 1 September 2017].
Schmidhalter U (2005) Development of a quick on-farm test to determine nitrate levels in soil. Journal of Plant
Nutrition and Soil Science 168, 432-438.
23
3.5. Soil pH
Soil pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of the 6.0 and 8.0 as this provides the greatest availability of
soil. High or low pH values can indicate a soil status nutrients from the soil profile. Generally hot humid
that disrupts the uptake of soil nutrients by plants. climates tend towards forming acidic soils due to the
The pH range normally found in soils varies from 3 higher rainfall in these areas (Juo and Franzluebbers
to 9. Various categories of soil pH may be arbitrarily 2003). In addition, some farm management practices
described as follows: can decrease soil pH over time (i.e. acidify the soils). For
instance, applying large amounts of nitrogen fertilisers
• Strongly acid (pH < 5.0) or high levels of organic matter can lead to acidification
• Moderately to slightly acid (5.0-6.5) of soils (Upjohn et al. 2005). Conversely, soils of drier
areas such as the semi-arid tropics are generally
• Neutral (6.5-7.5) alkaline (i.e. above pH 7.0) due to lack of rainfall and as
a result of the presence of Calcium carbonate (Juo and
• Moderately alkaline (7.5-8.5), and Franzluebbers 2003). Calcium carbonate will visibly
• Strongly alkaline (> 8.5) effervesce (fizz) when a few drops of strong acids (such
as vinegar) are added to the soil.
The significance of soil pH lies in its influence on:
For testing pH, the most common procedure uses a pH
• Availability of soil nutrients, meter to measure a solution of soil and deionized water
or a 1M CaCl2 solution. However, low-tech options such
• Solubility of toxic nutrient elements in the soil as field test kits are available and provide robust results
(which can be a problem in strongly acid soils) that correlate well with laboratory methods as long the
• Physical breakdown of root cells, reagents used (Universal indicator solution and Barium
Sulphate powder) are within date and not regularly
• CEC in soils whose colloids (clay/humus) are pH- exposed to extremes of temperature (>40°C).
dependent, and
In this manual, we describe methods for using a) field
• Soil biological activity. test kits to test field moist soil, b) a soil pH meter, and c)
a test for strong acidity or alkalinity without specialised
At high pH values, availability of phosphorous (P), and equipment. Field test kits are typically available for
most micronutrients tends to decrease. The exceptions purchase from nurseries, while pH meters can be
are boron (B) and Molybdenum (Mo) which do not purchased online. Finally, the simple test uses items
decrease at high pH. Soils of Eastern and Southern commonly found at supermarkets. A list of providers
Africa (including those for on-station and on-farm trial for the specialised equipment (e.g. pH meters) in each
sites for SIMLESA) will have a wide range of pH values SIMLESA country is provided in Section 5.
and therefore a wide range of nutrient availabilities.
Cropping soils should ideally have pH values between
3.5.1. Testing pH with a field test kit
Flat white surface for soil Timer (a mobile Mixing bucket or tub The ‘Soil pH Input Sheet’
testing (e.g. white tile, white phone will do) (any large container will (see Appendix 1)
dinner plate, etc) do)
A soil sample (see section A teaspoon Bottle of water

2.3 for details )
24
One of the following:
Soil pH meter or ‘pH and An alternative method

Colorimetric field test kit without need for either
EC meter’ + Whatman filter
(see Section 5 for list of test kit is provided but not
paper (see Section 5 for list of
suppliers) recommended
suppliers)

The exact method will depend on the type of test kit b. We recommend bulking 5-15 cores into
you are using. Therefore, you will need to follow the each composite sample for testing to ensure
instructions provided in the manual. a representative sample (see section 2 for
details).
1. Make sure you have completed a site
characterisation (see protocol 2.2). c. Test to 180 cm depth (if possible) separating
as recommended in Table 1, Section 2.3.2
Characterisation in the ‘Soil pH Input Sheet’ 6. Take a handful of soil from the sample bucked/
tub and place it on the white surface (i.e. tile or
2. Record your name and contact details (phone plate)
7. Open the test kit and follow the instruction
3. Record the date of sampling provided
4. If you have not completed a site characterisation, 8. Compare the results to the indicator colours
note the GPS coordinates of the field. provided and note the pH value you estimate in
5. Take a representative soil sample (see section the ‘Soil pH Input Sheet – test kit’
2.3) and mix it together in the bucket/tub
a. You will need at least one handful of soil for

each sample being tested
Sample method for test kits

1. Take a representative field moist soil sample of the observe colour change occurring. Stop sprinkling
depth to be examined. (Approximately ¼ the size of once a sufficient colour reaction has occurred.
your palm). Break up the aggregates between finger
and thumb and place on mix plate. 4. Match the colour appearing on the soil sample
with the pH calibrated colour card. This is an
2. Place 4-5 drops of Phenol-thiolate (universal approximate guide but gives instant detectable
indicator) on the soil sample. Mix soil with indicator results (to 0.5 pH range) to quickly assess soil pH.
to obtain good contact with total soil sample.
(Beware it stains!) Technical remark – ensure mix plate is cleaned well
with DI water after each pH measurement. Not suitable
3. Sprinkle enough barium sulphate over where for people who are colour blind.
universal indicator has wet the soil sample and
3.5.2. Method for use with pH meter or pH and EC meter

• Soil pH meters are specialised equipment for • If your team is planning on doing many pH tests
rapidly testing soil acidity/alkalinity. it will be cheaper in the long run to purchase a
pH meter (rather than test kits).
• They are increasingly affordable and can often
be purchased as a dual pH and EC meter (see
protocol 3.6). With this in mind, we provide a
second protocol for testing soil pH using a pH
meter instead of a pH test kit.
25
Pair of scissors A teaspoon

Small stapler 1.5 L Deionized water
500 mL Graduated Whatman filter Mixing bucket Soil ‘pH meter’ or

cylinder with lid – paper (No.1) – see or tub (any large ‘pH and EC meter’
see Section 5 for Section 5 for listed container will do) – see Section 5 for
listed suppliers suppliers listed suppliers
Timer (a mobile A soil sample (see Standard calibration The ‘Soil pH Input
phone will do) section 2.3 for details ) solutions Sheet – pH meter’ (see
Appendix 1)
1. Make sure you have completed a site as recommended in Table 1, Section 2.3.2
characterisation (see protocol 2.2).
6. Weigh the measuring/mixing cylinder (lid on)
a. Enter the unique field code from the Site and record in the ‘Soil pH Input Sheet’
Characterisation in the ‘Soil pH Input Sheet’
7. Add 250 mL of water to the cylinder, weigh the
2. Record your name and contact details (phone cylinder with water (lid on) and record in the
number, email address) and institution ‘Soil pH Input Sheet’
3. Record the date of sampling 8. Add 50 mL of the soil sample (until the volume
of soil and water in the cylinder reaches 300
4. If you have not completed a site mL).
characterisation, note the GPS coordinates of
the field. 9. Weight the soil-water mixture in the cylinder
(with lid on) and record the weight in the ‘Soil
5. Take a representative soil sample (see section pH Input Sheet’
2.3) and mix it together in the bucket/tub
10. Mix the solution well in an ‘end over end’ fashion
a. You will need at least 50 mL of soil for each for a minimum of 3 minutes per sample (use
sample being tested timer).
b. We recommend bulking 5-15 cores into 11. Take out a piece of the Whatman filter paper
each composite sample for testing to ensure and cut a radial line (i.e. from edge of the circle
a representative sample (see section 2 for to the centre point)
details).
12. Curl the filter paper into a cone shape and staple
c. Test to 180 cm depth (if possible) separating together near the edge of the paper
26
13. Place filter paper in the solution pointed side in first seconds, which-ever is first.
and allow to stand for 3 minutes while you calibrate
the pH meter. 17. Record the pH value in the ‘Soil pH Input Sheet’
14. Prepare timer for 30 seconds 18. Remove the pH meter from the suspension, and
rinse the glass electrode tip thoroughly with DI
15. Put the pH meter in the soil-water suspension that water in a separate beaker/cup,
has filtered through the paper (about 3 cm deep).
• Carefully dry excess water off by dabbing with
16. Take the reading after 30 seconds with one decimal a tissue before resting the pH meter or taking
or upon the pH meter settling for more than 3 another measurement.
a) b)
Figure 7: Images of a) Whatman filter paper being rolled into a cone shape (Step 12) and b)
being placed in a soil-water shaken extract (Step 13). Adapted from USDA (1999).
Technical Remarks
• Make sure that the pH meter is calibrated effectively • The determination of pH of field moist samples
using the appropriate buffer solutions. can present two limitations: taking a representative
sample is difficult especially as soil moisture content
• Recommendation is for SIMLESA soil samples pH varies; and biological activity can affect pH due to N
to be measured in a 1:5 (soil:water) suspension. For mineralisation during storage of soils in their natural
other purposes and knowledge of methodology, pH field moist state.
can be measured using either a 1:1 or 1:2.5 solution
with water or using a salt solution as mentioned, or • Presence of clay may slow the pH meter electrode
even in a saturated soil paste if needed. Yet values response. To avoid this, thoroughly clean electrode
will differ with methods used across sites. When between samples.
reporting always use the standard 1:5 (soil/water)
first. • Suspended colloids influence pH through the
junction potential effect. In the presence if
• The main advantage of the measurement of soil negatively charged colloids (e.g., clay particles or
pH in salt solution is the tendency to eliminate organic matter), pH measured in the suspension
interference from suspension effects and from will usually be lower than measurement in the
variable salt contents, such as fertiliser residues. supernatant liquid. This is the suspension effect.
Therefore, place the pH meter the same distance
• Air-dry soils may be stored several months in closed above the surface of the soil for each reading to
containers without affecting the pH measurement. maintain uniformity in pH reading and be consistent
• Soil at pH ≤4.0 means presence of sulphides and pH with timing and temperature.
≥ 8.5 have significant quantities of Na.
27
3.5.3. Alternative simple method (if no pH kits/meters available)
A rudimentary method of testing can be performed if no pH kit is available. This will not give you a pH value but
just an indication of whether the soil is acidic, alkaline or neutral.
‘Soil pH Data 1 litre water Baking soda Testing container White vinegar
Sheet’ (1/2 cup) (e.g. bucket) (500 ml)
1. Make sure you have completed a site c. Test to 180cm depth (if possible) separating
characterisation (see protocol 2.2). as recommended in Table 1, Section 2.3.2
a. Enter the unique field code from the Site 6. Using the teaspoon, take a scoop of the mixed
Characterisation in the ‘Soil pH Input Sheet’ soil and place it into the testing container
2. Record your name and contact details (phone 7. Add ½ cup of vinegar to the soil
8. Record whether or not the soil begins to
3. Record the date of sampling effervesce (fizz and bubble) in the ‘Soil pH Input
Sheet’
4. If you have not completed a site
characterisation, note the GPS coordinates of 9. If the soil did not effervesce, clean the
the field. container and add another teaspoon of soil to it
5. Take a representative soil sample (see section 10. Add ½ cup of water to the soil or until it
2.3) and mix it together in the bucket/tub becomes muddy
a. You will need at least 1 teaspoon of soil for 11. Add ½ cup of baking soda to the muddy wet
each sample being tested soil
b. We recommend bulking 5-15 cores into 12. Note whether or not the soil begins to
each composite sample for testing to effervesce after adding the baking powder
ensure a representative sample (see section
2 for details).
28
How to interpret results, and What does this mean for the farmer?
What is a good pH value?
As stated earlier, pH values between 5.5 and 8 are plants, including maize, cowpea, pigeon pea and coffee
considered acceptable for plant growth, with values are able to be cultivated successfully on more acidic
between 6-7 considered optimal. Outside of these (pH < 6.5) soils (Juo and Franzluebbers, 2003). For most
values, the ability of plants to take up nutrients from the others, soil acidity will restrict plant growth. Table 8 lists
soil will be constrained. You can use Table 7 (below) to common crops and vegetables grown in Africa and
make a quick interpretation of soil pH readings. Some their optimal pH ranges.
Table 7: A guide to soil conditions associated with various soil pH readings. Adapted from Estefan et al.
(2013).
Soil pH Indications Associated conditions
<5.5 Soil is deficient in Ca and/or Mg and Poor crop growth due to low cation
should be limed exchange capacity and possible
aluminium toxicity and expected P
deficiency
5.5-6.5 Soil is lime-free and should be Satisfactory for most crops
closely monitored to detect
acidifying trends
6.5-7.5 Ideal range for most crops Soil cation exchange capacity is
near 100% base saturation
7.5-8.4 Free lime exists in soil Usually excellent filtration and
percolation of water due to
high Ca content on clays. P and
micronutrients are less available
>8.4 Invariably indicates sodic soil* Poor physical conditions of soil.
Water infiltration and percolation
are slow. Possible root deterioration.
* but not all sodic soils are alkaline
Table 8: Optimal pH ranges of different crop species commonly grown in Eastern and Southern Africa.
Adapted from Hazelton and Murphy (2007).
Crop type Crop ECe value causing 50% yield loss
Legumes Beans 5.5-6.5

Cowpea (forage) 5.5-7
Soybean 5.5-7
Grain crops Maize 5.5-7
Rice 5-6.5
Sorghum 5.5-7
Wheat 5.5-7
Barley 6.25-7.75
Oil seed crops Sunflower 5.5-6

Vegetable crops Onion 6-6.5
Carrot 5.5-7
Lettuce 6-7
Potatoes 5-5.5
Cabbage 5.5-7
Spinach 6-7
Tomato 5.5-6.75
29
What if my pH is high?
For most soils in the semi-arid tropics, pH value will the availability of key nutrients in the soil - e.g. calcium,
tend to be more alkaline (i.e. with pH above 8) due to magnesium, iron, manganese, copper and zinc (DPI
lower rainfall (Juo and Franzluebbers 2003). If the pH NSW 2002). Soil pH can be lowered by adding organic
value of the tested soil is above 8, it can begin to lower materials such as crop residues.
What if my pH is low?
For fields that have a pH value below 5.5 in the shallow over two seasons, depending on soil type, application
(i.e. 0-60 cm) soil, it is recommended that the farmer rate and method (Kiplagat et al. 2014). Broadcast
apply lime to the soil to increase the pH (Upjohn et applications of lime (Figure 8) were most effective,
al. 2002). For subsoil acidity, subsoil liming or surface though this requires more labour than spot-application
application of gypsum can help to increase pH, making it more expensive (Kiplagat et al. 2014). The total
reduce Al and increase Ca2+ concentration (Juo and cost of lime application in Western Kenya was KSh 4707
Franzluebbers 2003). Lime should be ground up finely per hectare for broadcast and KSh 2624 for banding.
before being added to soils and care should be taken
to only apply what is needed (see Table 9). In tropical Some cities will have lime available for purchase at
regions, lime is less readily available and most major nurseries though for more rural areas lime can be found
crops have some tolerance for acidic soils meaning lime in the form of a lime wash (also known as whitewash)
application should aim to raise pH to 5.3-5.5 (Juo and used as white paint or coating when building houses.
Franzluebbers 2003). Studies on acid soils in Western Look for it at stores selling construction supplies.
Kenya have shown that 4 to 6 t ha-1 of lime increased Another option for increasing pH is through chicken
soil pH from approximately 5.5 to between 6 and 6.5 manure.
Table 7: A guide to soil conditions associated with various soil pH readings. Adapted from Estefan et al.
(2013).
Lime required (t / ha) to lift pH of surface soil to 5.2
Soil test pH level 4 4.3 4.7 5.2 (to 5.5)
CEC = 1** 1.6 0.8 0.3 0.2
CEC = 5** 4.7 2.5 1.1 0.7
CEC = 10** 8.7 4.6 2.8 1.3
CEC = 15** 12.5 6.7 2.8 1.9
* assumes lime 95% purity or above.
** amount varies with soil cation exchange capacity (range given from 1 – 15)
30
References
Estefan G, Sommer R, Ryan J (2013) Methods of soil, and opportunities for agricultural intensification of
plant, and water analysis: a manual for the West Asia the humid highland systems of sub-Saharan Africa’
and North Africa region. Third Edition. (International (Eds B Vanlauwe, P van Ansten, G Blomme). (Springer:
Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas: Switzerland) p187-199.
Beirut).
NSW DPI (2002) ‘Understanding soil pH’. Leaflet No. 2.
Hazelton P, Murphy B (2007) Interpreting soil test Available at http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/
results: What do all the numbers mean? (CSIRO press: pdf_file/0003/167187/soil-ph.pdf [Accessed 15 August
Collingwood). Available at http://www.publish.csiro.au/ 2017]
book/7386/ [Accessed 29 August 2017].
Upjohn B, Fenton G, Conyers M (2005) Soil acidity and
Juo ASR, Franzluebbers K (2003) Tropical soils: liming. Agfact AC.19, 3rd edition. NSW DPI. Available
properties and management for sustainable agriculture. at http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_
Topics in Sustainable Agronomy. (Oxford University file/0007/167209/soil-acidity-liming.pdf [Accessed 15
Press: Oxford). August 2017]
Kiplagat JK, Okalebo JR, Serrem CK, Mbakaya DS, USDA (1999) Soil quality test kit guide. United States
Jama B (2014) Determination of appropriate rate and Department of Agriculture. Available at: https://
mode of lime application on acid soils of Western www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/
Kenya: Targeting small scale farmers. In ‘Challenges stelprdb1044790.pdf [Accessed 3 August 2017]
The remaining soil tests detailed in this section will require specialised equipment, but are still able to be
performed without a dedicated soil laboratory. For these protocols, team leaders will need to consult Section 5 and
ensure they have the necessary equipment prior to completing the analysis.
31
3.6. Electrical conductivity and soil salinity
Electrical conductivity (EC) is the measure of a soil’s can also accumulate salts in the profile as a result of
salinity (or more specifically the salts in the soil management practices (e.g. involving heavy use of
solution). All soils contain some salts, which are fertiliser). It is largely a concern in irrigated areas and in
essential for plant growth. However, excess salts regions with saline soils, and is less important in rain-
will hinder plant growth by affecting the soil-water fed agriculture. But with increasing use of irrigation
balance. Soils containing excess salts occur naturally where water may have salt concentrations, there will be
in arid or semi-arid areas where reduced rainfall greater emphasis on EC measurement in the future.
allows accumulation of the salts in the profile. Soils
Measuring Electrical Conductivity

An EC measurement detects the amount of cations or have significant deviations due to temperature. Most
anions (salts) in solution. The greater the amount of EC meters adjust for deviations from 25ºC within a
anions or cations, the greater the electrical conductivity specific temperature range. Therefore, conductivity
reading. Ions generally associated with salinity are measurements must be taken within this temperature
Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Na+, H+ (cations), or NO3-, SO4-, Cl-, range (Refer to instructions packaged with the EC
HCO3-, OH- (anions). EC is normally expressed in deci- meter you are using) to avoid under- or overestimating
Siemens per meter (dS mˉ¹) relative to the soil water the electrical conductivity
mixture it is determined from (usually a 1:5 ratio). As
with pH, it is one measure of the ease by which plants The basic methodology and principles of EC
may uptake water and nutrients from soil solution. measurement is given in USDA Handbook 60 (Richards,
1954). Here we provide a protocol for measuring EC
Measurement of EC though soil water extracts are using tap water (instead of distilled or deionized water
rapid, and can be completed using an ‘EC meter’. The as with most published methods). When distilled
total salt content of a soil can then be estimated from water is not available, tap or rain water can be used
this measurement, as well as a soil’s cation exchange and corrected for in the final calculations. It is highly
capacity. Generally, the electrical conductivity of recommended that soil pH is also measured on the
a solution increases with temperature at a rate of same day as soil EC as the processes are similar.
approximately 1.9% per 1°C increase (Rhoades, 1993).
Most conductivities are measured at between 20-25ºC Measure the conductivity of the water source, and
and many general recommendations are standardized subtract the water source EC value from the sample EC
in this temperature range. SIMLESA sites may therefore value. The relationship between electrical conductivity
and salt concentration is only approximate.
‘Soil EC Input Sheet’ – Electrical conductivity Whatman filter

see appendix 1 meter (see Section 5 paper (No.1)
for details on where to
purchase)
Measuring cylinder (a Field balance (with 50 mL falcon tube (or

small measuring cup for 0.1g accuracy) container with lid for
cooking will do) mixing soil and water)
32
Timer (mobile Box of tissues Deionized Water (500 mL
phone stopwatch or more, you will need 35
will do) mL per sample and extra for
rinsing the probe)
1. Make sure you have completed a site 11. Add the 35 mL of water and carefully seal the
characterisation (see protocol 2.2). tube/container with a lid
a. Enter the unique field code from the Site 12. Setup the stopwatch or phone to time for 3
Characterisation in the ‘Soil EC Input Sheet’ minutes.
2. Record your name and contact details (phone • Mix the solution well by shaking it with your
number, email address) and institution hands in an end-over-end fashion.
3. Record the date of sampling 13. Time of mixing is important. Mix for a minimum
of 3 minutes per sample.
4. If you have not completed a site
characterisation, note the GPS coordinates of 14. After mixing, note the final volume of the soil-
the field. water mixture (it should have reduced during
mixing) in the ‘Soil EC Input Sheet’
5. Collect a representative soil sample
15. Take a circular piece of Whatman filter paper
a. You will need at least 7 g of soil for each and cut a line through from edge to the middle.
sample being tested Shape the filter paper into a cone and place
b. We recommend bulking 5-15 cores into pointed end of the cone onto the surface of the
each composite sample for testing to soil-water mixed solution.
ensure a representative sample (see section 16. Allow to stand for a minimum of 3 minutes (use
2 for details). timer again)
c. Test to 180 cm depth (if possible) separating 17. Prepare the timer for 30 seconds
as recommended in Table 1, Section 2.3.2
18. Put the EC meter in the filtered soil-water
6. Calibrate the EC meter according to the mixture that appears above the filter paper
instructions from the manufacturer (about 3 cm deep). Record the value to one
7. Weigh the falcon tube with lid on and record decimal place (in the input sheet) after 30
weight in the ‘Soil EC Input Sheet’ seconds, or when the EC meter value is the
same for more than 10 seconds.
8. Add 35 mL of water to the measuring cup
19. Remove the EC meter from the soil-water
9. Place the EC meter 3 cm into the water to mixture and rinse the glass electrode tip
record the EC value of the tap/bore water in the thoroughly with tap water
‘Soil EC Input Sheet’.
20. Carefully dry excess water off by dabbing with
10. Weigh 7g of the field moist soil sample (record a tissue before resting the EC meter or taking
exact weight in the input sheet) and place into another measurement.
a 50 mL falcon tube (or container with lid).
21. Repeat steps 7-19 for all samples to be tested
33
Notes
• Readings are recorded in deci-Siemens per meter cleaning. This needs to be completed using an
(dS/m). acid dichromate cleaning solution or Nochromix
detergent (see Section 5 for suppliers) overnight
• The EC should be measured as soon as the extracts and rinsing with deionized water.
are prepared
• If the EC reading on the meter becomes erratic

and does not settle then the EC meter may need
farmer?
Salinity affects plants at all stages of development and affect yields of maize but may potentially affect legume
for some crops sensitivity varies from one growth stage yields, while values from 0.34-1.8 dS/m can correspond
to another. Its effect is also dependent on the depth to high salinity that is detrimental to productivity of
in the soil profile, with salinity in shallow soil more all maize and legume varieties (Hazelton and Murphy
detrimental to plant growth than in subsoils (Hazelton 2007). Table 10 below provides values for categorising
and Murphy 2007). In general, on the basis of an EC salinity specific to each soil texture (use Protocol 3.1 to
measurement in a 1:5 soil-to-water extract, values of determine soil texture).
≤ 0.07 dS/m are safe for all crops in all soil types (Table
10). Readings from 0.07-0.15 dS/m will affect only
sensitive crops. Values between 0.15-0.45 dS/m will not
Table 10: Soil salinity classification for soils of varying textures. Adapted from Hazelton and Murphy (2007),
Source: Shaw 1999)
Soil texture Degree of salinity (Electrical Conductivity)*ǂ

Very low Low Medium High Very High Extreme
-----------------------------------dS/m-----------------------------------
Coarse sand, <0.07 0.07-0.15 0.15-0.34 0.34-0.63 0.63-0.93 >0.93
loamy sand,
sandy loam
(0-20% clay)
Sandy loam <0.09 0.09-0.19 0.19-0.45 0.45-0.76 0.76-1.21 >1.21
or Sandy clay
loam
(20-40% clay)
Sandy clay, <0.12 0.12-0.24 0.24-0.56 0.56-0.96 0.96-1.53 >1.53
sandy clay
loam, Loam
(40-60% clay)
Loam, Silt <0.15 0.15-0.30 0.30-0.70 0.70-1.18 1.18-1.87 >1.87
loam, Clay
loam, Clay
(60-80% Clay)
* EC measurement values based on a 1:5 soil-water extract
ǂ ‘Very low’: no effect; ‘Low’: moderately sensitive crops affected; ‘Medium’: moderately tolerant crops affected;
‘High’: tolerant crops affected; ‘Very High’: very tolerant crops affected; ‘Extreme’: too saline for crop production
34
Universal measurements for soil salinity
As you can see, understanding how EC values from ECe value = 0.089 dS/m x 9.5 = 0. 8455 dS/m.
meter readings relates to soil salinity is difficult due to
the effect of soil texture. A universal measurement called
Electrical Conductivity from a Saturated Extract (ECe) Once you have an ECe estimate, you can quickly assess
can be used to more easily interpret a wide range of the salinity of a soil using Table 12. According to Table
soils. Table 11 below provides multiplication factors (for 11 our estimated ECe value for Sussundenga Research
different soil textures) to convert your 1:5 EC readings Station indicates the soil is non-saline soil because it
to an estimate Electrical Conductivity from a Saturated is less than 2. If a soil is saline, information in Table 13
Extract (ECe). Use these to calculate estimated ECe provides suggestions on which crops may be more
values from your EC meter reading. suited to the field.
Example: The EC reading at Sussundenga Research
Station in Mozambique was 0.089 dS/m (Table 19,
Section 4). The soil is a fine sandy clay loam (Table 18,
Section 4). According to Table 11 (below), the multiplying
factor for this soil texture is 9.5. So therefore:
Table 11: Conversion factors for estimating ECe from EC values (Hazelton and Murphy 2007)
Soil texture Multiplying factor (EC to ECe)

Sand, Loamy sand, Clayey sand 23
Sandy loam, fine sandy loam, light sandy clay loam 14
Loam, fine sandy loam, silty loam, sandy clay loam 9.5
Clay loam, silty clay loam, fine sandy clay loam, sandy 8.6
clay, silty clay, light clay
Light medium clay 8.6
Medium clay 7.5
Heavy clay 5.8
Table 12: Threshold ECe values for classifying salinity level of soil and their associated effect on plant growth
(adapted from Hazelton and Murphy 2007)
Rating ECe (dS/m) Effect on plants

Non-saline <2 Mostly negligible
Slightly saline 2-4 Yields of sensitive crops affected
Moderately saline 4-8 Yields of many crops affected
Highly saline 8-16 Only tolerant crops can be grown
Extremely saline > 16 Only very tolerant crops can be
grown
35
Table 13: Salt tolerance of different crop species commonly grown in Eastern and Southern Africa. Adapted
from Estefan et al. (2013) and Hazelton and Murphy (2007). Sources: Ayers (1977); California Fertilizer
Association (1980); Ayers and Westcot (1985).
Crop type Crop Maximum ECe value ECe value causing 50%
causing no yield loss yield loss
-------------------dS/m------------------
Legumes Beans 1.0
Groundnut - 4.9
Cowpea (forage) - 7.0
Soybean 5.0 8.0
Cowpea (grain) 1.3 9.1
Grain crops Maize 1.7 6.0

Rice 3.0 -
Sorghum 4.0 10.0
Wheat 6.0 13.0
Barley 8.0 18.0
Oil seed crops Safflower 5.3 12.0

Sunflower - 14.0
Vegetable crops Onion 1.3 4.0

Carrot - 4.5
Lettuce 1.0 5.0
Capsicum (bell pepper) - 5.0
Potato / Sweet potato 1.7 6.0
Cabbage 1.8 7.0
Spinach 2.0 8.0
Tomato 2.5 8.0
36
Inferring other soil properties from EC readings
Finally, another way to use EC readings is to infer other Where NO3 is the predominant ion in the soil solution,
soil attributes using general relationships that have a very useful relationship has been established between
been established. Rhoades (1996) outlined the following the EC (in 1:1 soil to water mixture) readings and soil
relationships: nitrate (NO3-) concentrations (Smith and Doran, 1996).
1. Total cation (or anion) concentration (meq/L) ≈ 10 x EC (dS/m) x 140 ≈ mg NO3-N / kg of soil
EC (dS/m).
This relationship assumes the complete extractability of
2. Total dissolved solids (mg/L) ≈ 640 x EC (dS/m). NO3 - in water and that NO3- is the major anion in the
soil solution.
3. Osmotic pressure (kPa at 25EC) ≈ 0.36 x EC (dS/m).
Useful Unit Conversions for Electrical Conductivity

1 dS/m (decisiemens per meter) = 1 mmhos/cm (millimhos per centimeter)
1 dS/m (decisiemens per meter) = 1000 µS/cm (microsiemens per centimeter)
1000 µS/cm (microsiemens per centimeter) = 1 mS/cm (millisiemens per centimeter)
References
Ayers RS (1977) Quality of water for irrigation. Journal No. 60. (United States Department of Agriculture:
of Irrigation and Drainage Division, Proceedings of the Washington D.C). Available at https://www.ars.usda.gov/
American Society of Civil Engineers 103, 135-154. ARSUserFiles/20360500/hb60_pdf/hb60complete.pdf
[Accessed 31 August 2017].
Ayers RS, Westcot DW (1985) Water quality for
agriculture. FAO Irrigation Drainage Paper No. 29 (Food Rhoades JD (1996) Salinity: Electrical conductivity and
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: total dissolved solids. In DL Sparks (Ed) ‘Methods of soil
Rome). analysis: Part. 3 – chemical methods’. Book Series no. 5.
(SSSA and ASA: Madison) pp 417-435.
California Fertilizer Association, Soil Improvement
Committee (1980) Western Fertilizer Handbook. 6th Shaw RJ (1999) Soil salinity – electrical conductivity and
edition (Interstate Printers and Publishers: Danville). chloride. In ‘Soil analysis: an interpretation manual’. (Eds
KI Peverill, LA Sparrow, DJ Reuter) pp 128-144 (CSIRO
Estefan G, Sommer R, Ryan J (2013) Methods of soil, Press: Melbourne).
plant, and water analysis: a manual for the West Asia
and North Africa region. Third Edition. (International Smith JL, Doran JW (1996) Measurement and use of pH
Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas: and electrical conductivity for soil quality analysis. In
Beirut). JW Doran and AJ Joes (eds) ‘Methods for assessing soil
quality’. Special Publication 49. (SSSA: Madison). pp169-
Hazelton P, Murphy B (2007) Interpreting soil test 185.
results: What do all the numbers mean? (CSIRO press:
Collingwood). Available at http://www.publish.csiro.au/ USDA (1999) Soil quality test kit guide. United States
book/7386/ [Accessed 29 August 2017]. Department of Agriculture. Available at: https://
www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/
Richards LA (1954) Diagnosis and improvement stelprdb1044790.pdf [Accessed 3 August 2017]
of saline and alkali soils. Agricultural Handbook
37
3.7. Soil mineral nitrogen
Soil mineral nitrogen is of great importance to (i.e. inorganic, nitrate, ammonium) prior to each season.
crop production. Nitrogen (N) is an essential plant This ensures proper assessment of N fertiliser needs,
macronutrient. It contributes to development of avoiding over-application and subsequent economic
plant protein and chlorophyll. As a result, the use of losses and environmental pollution (Mosier et al. 2004).
N fertilisers (e.g. urea) to supplement soil N supply Despite the importance of N management and proper
remains a key practice in high yielding crop production soil testing being known for more than half a century
(Smil, 1999). Soil N is dynamic in nature, rapidly (Keeney and Bremner 1966), few farmers test their soils
changing forms as it cycles within the soil. This makes every season even in high intensity cropping regions
it difficult to measure and estimate any change in soil (Schmidhalter 2005).
mineral N supply to a crop over time without retesting.
However, it is critical to test soils for plant-available N
Why is soil N testing so rare?

In many parts of sub-Saharan Africa, access to analysis is not possible for most farmers.
laboratories for timely testing of soil samples is
extremely rare. According to traditional methodology, Yet N deficiency is regarded as a major constraint to
soil testing for inorganic N must take place within at much of African crop production (Fischer et al. 2014).
most 4 days of field sampling (Rayment and Lyons, Investment in N fertilisers remains a major risk in
2011). Samples should also be extracted and kept below variable environments where African smallholders are
4°C until they are analysed (Rayment and Lyons, 2011). without proper support and thus vulnerable (Rodriguez
Outside of South Africa, Zimbabwe and Kenya (www. et al. 2017). To help overcome this constraint, it is
sgs.co.za, www.sgs.co.ke, http://www.cropnuts.com/, important that extension officers can recommend
http://www.zimlabs.co.zw/), pre-season soil N testing in fertiliser use where it is most appropriate, and offer
Eastern and Southern Africa is unavailable in a practical alternative management strategies for those who
sense. High temperatures and large distances to labs act cannot afford them but have low N soils.
as barriers to accurate testing even in countries where
laboratories do exist. Finally, high costs mean traditional
Rapid N testing
Since the 1980s, scientists have explored the possibility et al. 1998; Schmidhaldter 2005). Therefore, the first
of using rapid nitrate colorimetric test strips in protocol we have included is one that gives instruction
conjunction with a reflectometer as a quick and on how to prepare nitrate standard solutions of known
low-cost alternative method for testing soil for plant- concentrations. This should be done by national
available N (Schaefer 1996; Jemison and Fox 1988). This research organisations with laboratory facilities.
research continued throughout the 1990s and refined Extension officers should be able to take subsamples
protocols, identifying factors affecting accuracy of the of solutions to the field when needed in order to build
results (Hunt et al. 1991; Liebig et al. 1996; Westelaar relevant calibrations for their tests.
et al. 1998). The result of this research indicates that
with a proper protocol, colorimetric nitrate strips in The second protocol instructs on soil extraction,
conjunction with a reflectometer can measure soil filtration and testing, as well as testing of tap water
nitrate levels to an accuracy comparable to traditional used in this process and (optional) nitrate standards.
methods. This is extremely valuable for the African While this protocol is the longest and most detailed of
context where laboratories are scarce and N is so often all in this manual, it is not overly complex and can be
limiting crop production. performed easily with the necessary equipment.
The following protocols were prepared with the For soil nitrate measurements to be meaningful, the
intention of allowing extension officers to better identify soil gravimetric moisture content must be known.
nitrogen deficiencies in farmers’ fields. In order to be The necessary measurements for this estimation
easily performed, it follows the Quick Test Method B are included in this protocol and calculations are
outlined by Schmidhalter (2005). This uses large soil embedded into the accompanying excel spreadsheet.
sample volumes (suited to lower N soils), uses tap water In addition, soil nitrate readings using test strips are
(instead of deionised water) along with a correction temperature sensitive. They are most accurate at 20
factor for water nitrate levels, and allows the estimation °C. If temperatures are higher or lower you will need
of sample gravimetric water content (instead of drying to measure a series of solutions with known nitrate N
samples in a laboratory). However, soil nitrate testing concentrations to develop a correction. This is included
with quick test strips has been consistently shown to as a final part of the protocol.
vary with temperature above or below 20°C (Westelaar
38
3.7.1. Preparing nitrate standards for temperature correction
These solutions will need to be prepared by national case you wish to make different solutions to those in
research institutions. We recommend that they store the protocol.
large supplies of these solutions which be made
available to local extension officers when nitrate testing • Total final nitrate solution volume = 2 L
in very cold or warm weather (i.e. more than 5°C above • Desired nitrate ppm concentration = 15
20°C). It is best to prepare these solutions in larger
quantities and simply take subsamples to the field. • 15 ppm of nitrate = 15 mg/L, x 2 L = 30 mg of nitrate
needed
Nitrate is most commonly purchased in a solid form for
making solutions as KNO3, or potassium nitrate (see • KNO3 is only 61.33% nitrate
Section 5 for where to purchase). The compound is
61.33% nitrate and 39.67% potassium. Parts per million • How many times does 61.33 need to be multiplied
(the measurement unit of nitrate) are equivalent to to equal 100 (i.e. to get 100% of the nitrate needed)?
mg/L. For a 1 L solution that is 1 ppm nitrate, you need • 61.33/100 = 1.6305
1mg of nitrate added to 1 L of distilled or deionized
water. To calculate the mass in mg of potassium nitrate • Multiply 30 ppm x 1.6305 (correction for KNO3) =
needed in a 1 L solution for a desired ppm, multiply 48.915 mg of KNO3 per 2 L of water
by the final nitrate ppm value you want by 1.6305 (this
corrects for the fact that KNO3 is 39.67% potassium). • So 48.915 mg of KNO3 needs to be added to 2L of
The following protocol gives you the amount of KNO3 distilled/deionized water to make 2 L of 15 ppm
in mg needed to make the standard solutions of nitrate. nitrate solution.
We have also included one example of calculating the
amount of KNO3 needed for a nitrate solution below in
10 g of KNO3 12 L of distilled A laboratory White masking A black 6 large sealable glass

or deionized balance tape marker bottles (for preparing
water accurate to 0.1 and storing the
mg solutions)
You will be making six solutions. c. ‘20 ppm nitrate’, add 65.2 mg KNO3
1. Take out the five large bottles and label them d. ‘50 ppm nitrate’, add 163.1 mg KNO3
‘distilled/deionized water’, ‘5 ppm nitrate’, ‘10 ppm
nitrate’, ‘20 ppm nitrate’, ‘50 ppm nitrate’, ‘100 ppm e. ‘100 ppm nitrate’ add 326.1 mg KNO3
nitrate’ using the marker and white masking tape 4. Add 2 L of distilled/deionized water to each bottle.
2. For the bottle labelled ‘distilled/deionized water’, 5. Store the bottles in a dark cupboard at a stable
pour 2 L of deionized or distilled water into it temperature (e.g. 20-24°C) making sure they are
3. Weight the following amounts of KNO3 pellets and properly sealed
add to the relevant bottle listed 6. Prior to going to the field for testing, provide 6 x
a. ‘5 ppm nitrate’, add 16.3 mg of KNO3 500 mL bottles, label them using the same six labels
from step 3, subsample of 200 mL of each relevant
b. ‘10 ppm nitrate’, add 32.6 mg KNO3 nitrate solution (or DI water).
39
3.7.2. Field testing soil for nitrate levels
This protocol is suited for extension officers or advisors wishing to test farmers’ fields for nitrate
concentrations. If the temperature in the field is more than 5°C above or below 20°C then protocol 3.7.3.
must also be completed to correct for temperature effects.
‘Soil Nitrate Input Sheet’ – Small stapler A pair of scissors 1 x measuring cup
see Appendix 1
(For standard testing to

correct for temperature
(recommended)
Field balance (with Soil samples Filter paper (Whatman 1 x 500 mL graduated
0.1g accuracy) (see protocol No. 42 ash less cylinder (50mm
2.2) recommended) – see diameter) with lid – see
Section 5 for where to section 5 on where to
purchase purchase
A calibrated test Full bottle of 6 x 500 mL bottles labelled Nitrate colorimetric

strip reflectometer water (at least and filled with relevant 250 strip tests (Merck
(see instructions 1.5 Litres) mL standards (See protocol recommended) –
for how to 3.7.1): see Section 5 on
calibrate machine) where to purchase
• 0‘5 ppm nitrate’
– see Section 5 for
where to purchase • ‘10 ppm nitrate’
• ‘20 ppm nitrate’
40
1. Make sure you have completed a site 14. Add scoops of soil (use teaspoon) into the
characterisation (see protocol 2.2). cylinder with water until volume of the mixture
reaches 350 mL (i.e. add 100 mL of soil)
Characterisation in the ‘Soil Nitrate Input 15. Weigh the sealable container (lid on) with water
Sheet’ and soil and record weight to closest 1 g on the
‘Soil Nitrate Input Sheet’
number, email address) and institution 16. Prepare time for 3 minutes (do not start timing)
3. Record the date of sampling 17. Start timer and shake sample for 3 minutes (5
minutes for clayey soils, see protocol 3.1 for how
4. If you have not completed a site to measure soil texture)
characterisation, note the GPS coordinates of
the field. 18. After shaking, place soil-water extract down,
record the volume of the shaken solution in the
5. Collect a representative soil sample. ‘Soil Nitrate Input Sheet’ (it should have reduced
1. You will need at least 300 mL of soil volume slightly from 350 mL)
for each sample being tested. 19. Use the scissors to cut a radius line (from edge
2. We recommend bulking 5-15 cores into to the centre) into a piece of Whatman filter
each composite sample for testing to ensure paper.
a representative sample (see section 2 for 20. Roll the filter paper into a cone shape, staple it
details). together near the outer edge to hold the cone
3. Test to 180 cm depth (if possible) separating shape
as recommended in Table 1, Section 2.3.2. 21. Open the measuring cylinder lid and dip the
6. Measure the height of the measuring cylinder pointed end into the soil-water extract in the
and record it in the ‘Soil Nitrate Input Sheet’ in container.
mm Preparing the reflectometer and testing water for
7. Measure the diameter of the measuring cylinder nitrate-N (Do this once per batch of tap water)
and record it in the ‘Soil Nitrate Input Sheet’ in 22. Take out the reflectometer, and:
mm
1. Turn it on
8. Weigh your graduated cylinder (with lid) and
record the weight in the ‘Soil Nitrate Input Sheet’ 2. Press the TEST button until the arrow
in grams indicates the desired test method memory
(from earlier calibration)
Preparing the sample (do this for each soil sample
position / depth to be tested) 3. Ensure that the reference number is the
same as the reference number on the
9. Give your sample a number and record it in the nitrate test strips package (see instructions
‘Soil Nitrate Input Sheet’ (start at 1 and number for details)
upwards for all tests on the same date)
23. Pour a 50 mL of water into the measuring cup.
10. Record the soil depth interval being tested (e.g.
0-15 cm, 15-30 cm, etc.) 24. Press the START button on the reflectometer
(reaction time will be shown on the screen)
11. Record the number of individual soil cores
that were bulked into this sample being tested 25. Take a nitrate test strip from the packet. Dip it
(it recommended to bulk and mix at least 3 into the water (from step 22) and immediately
samples per field to capture variability – do this press the START button on the reflectometer to
mixing separately for each depth being tested) activate the reaction timer
12. Add 250 mL of tap water to the measuring 26. Allow any excess water to drip off the nitrate
cylinder with soil. strip.
13. Weigh sealable measuring cylinder and water 27. When the reflectometer timer reaches 5
(lid on) and record weight to closest 1 g on the seconds remaining, it will make a sound. Place
‘Soil Nitrate Input Sheet’ the nitrate strip into the reflectometer when you
hear it or when 5 seconds is remaining.
41
28. Record the reading displayed at the end of the content and the soil nitrate in ppm using the
timer (after 60 seconds) in the ‘Soil Nitrate Input excel spreadsheet available here at: https://
Sheet’. cloudstor.aarnet.edu.au/plus/index.php/s/
u8hwzbCZJV9rpQX
29. Repeat steps 24-28 for two more nitrate strips so
that you have a total of three measurements of 37. Empty the measuring cylinder and wash out all
the water nitrate levels soil with tap water before beginning to test the
next sample.
Testing the soil sample extract
Testing nitrate standard solutions in the field
30. Once some of the extract has filtered through (temperature calibration)
the paper, ensure the reaction timer is displayed
on the reflectometer (if not, press the START If the temperature is below 15°C or above 25°C
button) when you are testing soils, you will also need
to test standard nitrate solutions at a range of
31. Take a nitrate test strip from the packet. Dip it concentrations. This will allow you to correct for the
into the filtered extract and press the START effect of temperature on the nitrate strips. Details
button again on the reflectometer to start the on preparing the nitrate solutions are included in
reaction timer. protocol 3.7.1.
32. Allow the excess solution to drip off the nitrate 38. Repeat steps 24-29 for each standard solution
test strip while timing the reaction. (including distilled/deionized water) collected
33. When the reflectometer timer reaches 5 from the national research team (see protocol
seconds remaining, it will make a sound. When 3.7.1)
this happens, place the nitrate strip into the • Be sure to record all measurements in the
reflectometer. relevant part of the ‘Soil Nitrate Input Sheet’
34. Record the reading displayed at the end of the
timer in the ‘Soil Nitrate Input Sheet’.
35. Repeat steps 30-34 for two more nitrate strips so

that you have a total of three measurements per
soil sample
36. Once you have the three measurements you

can calculate an average nitrate-N value for
the soil water extract, the gravimetric water
Technical notes
The equation used in the associated excel spreadsheet liquid (i.e. water) [mg L-1], Wi = the initial moist weight
to correct final soil nitrate-N concentrations for nitrate of the soil sample [kg], and θg = the gravimetric soil
contamination via tap water was: water content [g g-1]. VSW is equivalent to the weight
of water contained in the soil sample (by assuming
M_S×0.226×(V_e+V_SW )-(M_e×0.226×V_e))×(1+θ_g)/ a density for water of 1 kg L-1). It is calculated as Wi
W_i (weight of initial moist soil sample) – Wd (weight of dry
Where Ms = measured nitrate value of soil sample/ soil sample).
extract mixture [mg L-1], 0.226 = factor to convert NO3- Final calculation of the amount of nitrogen in the form
into NO3-N. Ve = volume of extract liquid [L], VSW¬¬ of soil nitrate on a weight per soil area basis (i.e. kg ha-1)
= volume of water contained in the soil sample [L], Me can only be completed with the soil bulk density (see
= measured nitrate value of nitrate containing extract protocol 3.3).
42
famer?
Using the results from these protocols, you will be the type of crop and the target yield (itself dependent
able to calculate the ppm measurement of soil nitrate on rainfall and soil moisture). It is possible to estimate
N in the farmer’s field at each depth you have tested. the amount of nitrogen needed for the farmer’s yield
The easiest way to calculate these final values is to target and to use this to help inform fertiliser decisions.
enter the data recorded on the ‘Soil Nitrate Input Ask the farmer what they consider to be a good yield
Sheet’ into the associated excel spreadsheet which has (use a previous yield they nominate as desirable) and
been pre-programmed to calculate the final nitrate-N compare this yield with those listed in Table 14 to see a
values for your samples. As a general rule of thumb, rough estimate of total N needed.
soil nitrate-N concentrations below 20 ppm are
considered low and crop growth will most likely be Remember that the crop will require adequate rainfall
limited without N fertiliser (NSW DPI 2004). Nitrate to reach a higher yield. It is handy to know whether
levels below 11 ppm are considered to be very low the season is likely to be above or below average
(Estefan et al. 2013). Soil nitrate-N levels below 50 kg in rainfall. That can help you and the farmer plan to
N / ha are also considered low and crops are likely to manage for a drier, wetter or normal season. In East
respond favourably to N fertilisers assuming agronomic and Southern Africa, seasons are usually drier during El
management is adequate (Cox and Strong 2009). It is Niño years (when the ENSO index is negative down to
important to point out that this assumes no other issues -10) and wetter in La Niña years (when the ENSO index
limit crop growth – a big assumption especially in is positive up to 10) (Nicholson and Kim 1997). ENSO
smallholder farms of East and Southern Africa.! index values of close to 0 indicate a neutral year. You
can check the current prediction for ENSO at the Earth
As stated earlier, you will need to know the bulk density Institute website located at: http://iri.columbia.edu/our-
of the soil to be able to calculate the plant available expertise/climate/forecasts/enso/current/.
soil nitrogen (in the form of nitrate) in kg per hectare
(the same values used for fertiliser recommendations). When nitrate levels are below the threshold values
You can perform a quick bulk density measurement by provided in table 14, crops are likely to suffer N
following protocol 3.3 in this manual. According to AfSIS deficiency. In such cases, farmers may manage this
data, most soils in East and Southern Africa have bulk deficiency through N fertilisers or through adjusting
density values between 1.3 and 1.6 g cm3 in shallow soil their agronomic management to reduce plant
and up to 1.7 g cm3 in subsoil (Hengl et al. 2017). competition for limited soil N (Keating et al. 1988; Dimes
et al. 2014; Roxburgh and Rodriguez 2016).
The amount of nitrate-N needed to grow a crop
depends on many factors. Most important of these are
Table 14: Estimated maize crop demand for nitrogen when targeting various yields. Values assume a maize
grain protein content of 9.5%, total crop N content is 1.7 times the final protein content in grain, and a
fraction of N in maize protein equal to (10/6.25). Compare the average yield of the farmer in previous years
to the values here and you can estimate the need for N. Compare this with the amount of soil N you have
measured and you will have a rough idea how much fertiliser is needed. Adapted from Cox and Strong
(2009).
Seasonal outlook guide Target yield Estimated total crop N demand
(ENSO forecast) (kg ha-1) (kg ha-1)

El Niño (ENSO negative) 1000 26
La Niña (ENSO positive) 3000 78
43
References
Cox H, Strong W (2009) The Nitrogen Book: Principles Keeney DR, Bremner JM (1966) Comparison and
of soil nitrogen fertility management in southern evaluation of laboratory methods of obtaining an index
Queensland and northern New South Wales farming of soil nitrogen availability. Agronomy Journal 58, 498-
systems. The department of employment, economic 503.
development, and innovation.
Mosier, AR, Syers JK, Freney JR (2004) Agriculture and
Dalgliesh N, Foale M (1998) Soil Matters: monitoring the nitrogen cycle: assessing the impacts of fertilizer
soil water and nutrients in dryland farming. Agricultural use on food production and the environment. SCOPE
Production Systems Research Unit. (Cranbrook Press: 65. (Island Press: Washington D.C.).
Toowoomba). Available at https://www.apsim.info/
Portals/0/APSoil/Soil%20matters.pdf. [Accessed 1 Nicholson SE, Kim J (1997) The relationship of the
September 2017]. El-Niño Southern Oscillation to African rainfall.
International Journal of Climatology 17, 117-135.
Dimes J, Rodriguez D, Potgieter A (2015) Raising
productivity of maize-based cropping systems in NSW DPI (2004) Result Interpretation. New South Wales
Eastern and Southern Africa: step-wise intensification Department of Primary Industry. Available at http://
options. In ‘Crop physiology (Second Edition): www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/about-us/services/laboratory-
applications for genetic improvement and agronomy’ services/soil-testing/interpret [Accessed 23 August
(Eds VO Sadras, DF Calderini). (Academic Press: San 2017].
Diego) pp 93-110. Rodriguez D, Roxburgh C, Farnsworth C, Ferrante A,
Estefan G, Sommer R, Ryan J (2013) Methods of soil, Eyre J, Irivne-Brown S, McLean J, Bielich M (2017)
plant, and water analysis: a manual for the West Asia Climate risk management in maize cropping systems.
and North Africa region. Third Edition. International In ‘Achieving sustainable maize production Volume 2:
Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas Cultivation techniques, pest and disease control’ (Ed D
(ICARDA). Beirut, Lebanon. Watson) pp 227-245.
Fischer T, Byerlee D, Edmeades G (2014) Crop yield and Roxburgh CW, Rodriguez D (2016) Ex-ante analysis
global food security: will yield increase continue to of opportunities for the sustainable intensification of
feed the world? ACIAR Monograph No. 158. Australian maize production in Mozambique. Agricultural Systems
Centre for International Agricultural Research: Canberra. 142, 9-22.
Available at: http://aciar.gov.au/files/mn158_web_5_0. Schmidhalter U (2005) Development of a quick on-farm
pdf [Accessed 17 August 2017]. test to determine nitrate levels in soil. Journal of Plant
Hengl, T., Mendes de Jesus, J., Heuvelink, G. B.M., Nutrition and Soil Science 168, 432-438.
Ruiperez Gonzalez, M., Kilibarda, M. et al. (2017) Smil V (1999) Nitrogen in crop production: an account
SoilGrids250m: global gridded soil information based of global flows. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 13 (2),
on Machine Learning. PLoS ONE 12(2): e0169748. 647-662.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0169748.
USDA (1999) Soil quality test kit guide. United States
Keating BA, Wafula BM, McCown RL (1988) Simulation Department of Agriculture. Available at: https://
of plant density effects on maize yield as influenced www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/
by water and nitrogen limitations. Proceedings of the stelprdb1044790.pdf [accessed 3 August 2017]
international congress of plant physiology, New Delhi,
India. February 15-20, 1988. pp547-559.
44
4. SIMLESA long-term trial site analysis reports
During the SIMLESA project, long-term agronomic stations. Please note that the sampling and analysis
trials were undertaken in each of the five core undertaken for these soils were all performed by
countries. Research staff on the project took soil experienced soil scientists using the highest quality
samples from some of these sites in Ethiopia, Malawi laboratory facilities and techniques. Protocols in this
and Mozambique. As a reference, we have included manual will not be able to provide the same level of
these data in this section. They may be used when detail about the soils.
conducting future experimental work at these research
4.1. Ethiopia
In Ethiopia, two research stations were characterised system). The Melkassa Agricultural Research Station
and sampled and analysed for soil attributes. These was established in 1969 in the semi-arid region of
were located in Bako and Melkassa. The Bako Ethiopia. The soil type of the research station is an
Agricultural Research Station was established in 1964 alkaline volcanic Andosol (EIAR 2017b). Both the Bako
and is one of the oldest research stations in Ethiopia and Melkassa research stations are located in the
(EIAR 2017a). It is located in a sub-humid zone and is Oromoia region.
broadly said to be on a Nitosol soil (FAO classification
Table 15: Wet Chemistry results from soil sample analysis of SIMLESA long-term trial site at Bako
Agricultural Research Station, Ethiopia. Samples collected by Stuart Irvine-Brown in 2016
Depth pH EC P K Ca Mg Mn S Cu B Zn Al Na Fe CEC
(cm) (H2O) (µS/cm) ---------------------------------------ppm------------------------------ (cmol(+)/
-- kg)
0-15 7.18 55 43.5 985 3340 397 252 5.18 1.43 0.44 5.06 837 69.9 91.6 23.8
15-30 7.81 59 9.89 902 3680 454 209 4.45 1.39 0.47 2.9 835 224 80 26.4
30-60 7.96 70 25.9 1030 3020 442 190 8.03 1.52 0.29 3.12 801 448 94.2 24.2
60-90 - - 9.47 1320 2620 519 172 2.63 1.79 0.44 8.71 - 998 79 -
Table 16: Wet Chemistry results from soil sample analysis of SIMLESA long-term trial site at Melkassa
Agricultural Research Station, Ethiopia. Samples collected by Stuart Irvine-Brown in 2016
(cm) (H2O) (µS/cm) ---------------------------------------ppm-------------------------------- (cmol(+)/
kg)
0-15 - - - 6.3 1110 255 172 19 2.66 0.23 3.03 - 25.9 56.3 -
15-30 5.43 35 0.63 2.27 1070 243 131 22.9 2.7 0.25 0.61 1290 33.1 69.1 12.6
30-60 5.45 50 0.5 0.41 1070 248 76.3 14 2.14 0.12 0.53 1330 41.1 53.6 12.5
60-90 4.75 65 1.49 <0.2 811 186 74.7 19.2 2.13 0.15 0.48 1590 73.6 43.4 14.6
45
4.2. Mozambique
Two sites in Mozambique were characterised, sampled clay loam surface overlying a permeable neutral to acid
and analysed for soil attributes during the SIMLESA subsoil. It is referred to as a Chromosol in the Australian
project. These were both located in the Manica soil classification system. The information provided in
province in Central Mozambique. The Instituto Superior this section is the result of work by Stuart Irvine-Brown
Politecnico de Manica is a higher education institution and Ben Harms.
located close to the provincial capital of Chimoio. It
hosted numerous SIMLESA-associated trials including Table 17 provides basic site characterisation information
research by Nyagumbo et al. (2016; 2017) and PhD for the soil at SRS, comparable to some of the
work by Dr Nascimento Nhantumbo and Dr Caspar information which can be collected using Protocol 2.3.
Roxburgh. Table 18 provides information on soil texture and colour
at SRS which can be determined using Protocols 3.1 and
The Sussundenga Research Station (SRS) has a 3.2 in this manual.
documented history of agricultural experiments going
back to the 1960s (Curtin and Smith 1968). It has
previously been characterised in detail by Wijnhoud
(1997) and later Famba (2011). The soils at SRS are
Rhodic Ferralic Abruptic Lixisols (World Reference Base
soil classification). It is a red, texture-contrast soil with
Table 17: Site description of Sussundenga Research Station
Site characteristic Estimate for Sussundenga

Slope 2-3%
Landform Gently undulating rises
Geology (parent material) Granite
Land use Rainfed cropping
Surface condition Loose, soft
Surface coarse fragments None
Runoff Moderately rapid
Permeability Moderately permeable
Drainage Moderately well-drained
Location GPS coordinates -19.31523 S, 33.23970 E
Elevation 630 m
Table 18: Soil texture and colour measurements for Sussundenga Research
Station
Soil depth (cm) Soil texture Soil colour
(Munsell Chart code)

0-15 Clay loam, fine sandy Dark brown (5YR 3/3)
15-30 Clay loam, fine sandy Dark brown (7YR 3/3)
30-60 Light medium clay Reddish brown (5YR 4/4)
60-140 Medium clay Yellowish red (5YR 4/6)
46
Table 19: Wet Chemistry results from soil sample analysis of SIMLESA long-term trial site at
ISPM, Vanduzi district, Manica, Mozambique. Samples collected by Stuart Irvine-Brown in 2016
(cm) (H2O) (µS/cm) ---------------------------------------ppm-------------------------------- (cmol(+)/kg)
0-15 6.07 89 28.1 348 643 108 207 9.45 4.64 0.26 1.58 950 13.9 71.5 6.27
15-30 - - 6.45 224 561 94.9 128 6.23 4.54 0.42 2.82 - 23.4 62.6 -
30-60 5.91 53 2.83 162 394 86.4 103 10.7 3.34 0.32 0.9 907 41.5 58 4.28
60-90 5.83 42 2.22 182 362 95.3 91.9 11.3 2.85 0.36 0.91 924 53 48.7 4.45
90-120 - - 10.5 258 463 90.5 65.6 10.9 2.6 0.5 3.22 - 42 43.3 -
Table 20: Wet Chemistry results from soil sample analysis of SIMLESA long-term trial site at
Sussundenga Research Station. Samples collected by Stuart Irvine-Brown in 2016.
Depth pH EC P K Ca Mg Mn S Cu B Zn Al Na Fe
(cm) (H2O) (µS/cm) ---------------------------------------ppm--------------------------------
0-15 5.31 49 30.1 189 289 58.1 208 11.6 2.42 0.1 1.57 945 31.4 93.3
15-30 - - 8.79 106 363 69.9 168 15.4 2.54 0.2 2.82 - 24.8 78.8
30-60 5.83 23 1.98 88.8 366 87.4 94.1 25.5 1.92 0.13 0.49 1090 22.6 59.8
60-90 - - 1.8 71.6 375 92.2 65.6 17.7 1.27 0.31 3.29 - 27.7 36.2
90-120 - - 1.39 59.8 302 109 54 7.28 0.98 0.37 4.3 - 20.6 43.8
120-150 5.23 27 0.35 27.8 199 125 39.6 6.83 1.05 0.31 0.63 997 27.6 34.9
150-180 - - 0.43 35.5 234 112 39.1 1.83 1.13 0.4 2.96 - 31.9 28.1
Table 21: Physical and chemical properties of soils in three fields at the Sussundenga Research Station.
Analysis work undertaken by Ben Harms on samples taken November 2016.
Site Depth pH (H2O) Texture* OC (%) Ca Mg Na K CEC

(cm) (cmol(+)/
kg)
Field 1 30-40 5.8 LMC - 1.28 0.61 0.08 0.226 2.86
(photos)
90-100 6.0 MC - 1.74 0.44 0.10 0.081 2.01
Field 2 0-20 6.1 SL 1.57 7.90 1.50 - 0.50 7.2

20-50 5.3 SCL 0.79 4.00 0.70 - 0.30 6.0
50-60 5.2 SC 0.52 2.80 0.40 - 0.20 4.3
60-90 5.2 SC 0.44 2.70 0.50 - 0.20 5.0
Field 3 0-20 6.3 SL 0.99 5.40 0.90 0.30 1.10 4.0

50-60 5.1 C 0.52 3.90 0.40 0.40 0.30 7.4
60-90 4.9 C 0.23 2.90 0.50 0.50 0.30 7.1
*LMC = Light medium clay; MC = Medium clay; SL = Sandy loam; SCL = Sandy clay loam; SC = Sandy clay; C =
Clay
47
4.3. Malawi
In Malawi, the SIMLESA long term trials were located at the Chitala Research Station. It is located in the Salima
district of Central Malawi.
Table 22: Wet Chemistry results from soil sample analysis of SIMLESA long-term trial site at Chitala Research Station,
Malawi. Samples collected by Stuart Irvine-Brown in 2016.
Depth pH EC P K Ca Mg Mn S Cu B Zn Al Na Fe
(cm) (H2O) (µS/cm) ---------------------------------------ppm--------------------------------
0-15 5.7 76 6.07 200 1930 390 127 8.05 3.87 0.089 1.77 880 35.3 136
15-30 - - 2.65 95.1 1900 379 88.9 6.65 4.01 0.16 3.55 - 21.8 151
30-60 6.22 30 <0.20 75.3 2030 465 53.3 8.24 3.51 0.053 1.05 841 27.9 69.6
60-90 - - 0.28 78.8 1990 514 47.5 5.01 4.01 0.16 3.55 - 29.3 59.1
90-120 6.7 28 <0.20 90.3 1990 597 39.6 5.96 2.85 <0.02 0.54 728 60.7 66.7
120-150 6.83 22 0.41 99.2 2120 663 52.7 4.55 3.11 <0.02 0.73 724 43.4 96.2
150-180 - - <0.20 99.8 2280 627 125 2.11 2.53 0.095 1.79 - 29 96.7
0-15 5.53 78 7.06 100 960 146 174 8.83 2.3 0.068 2.97 533 26.3 79.6
15-30 - - 1.7 93.3 1490 286 117 7.67 3.31 0.15 3.72 - 31.3 111
30-60 - - 0.97 71.1 1350 341 91.2 11.2 3.04 0.13 2.51 - 37.3 71.1
60-90 - - <0.20 67.2 1210 359 107 18.2 2.43 0.13 3.42 - 35.5 56.9
90-120 - - 0.35 70.4 1250 387 110 23.5 2.67 0.11 3.22 - 37.3 70.2
120-150 - - <0.20 69.5 1380 416 134 38.8 2.44 0.1 3.42 - 57.2 94.6
150-180 - - 0.33 70.2 1320 405 145 24.7 1.86 0.089 3.36 - 46.9 69.5
References
Curtin PD, Smith D, (1968) Notes and Letters. African Famba SI (2011) The challenges of conservation
Studies Bulletin 11, 238-241. agriculture to increase maize yield in vulnerable
production systems in central Mozambique. PhD Thesis.
EIAR (2017a) Bako Agricultural Research Station. Available at http://www.iiam.gov.mz/documentos/isfm/
Ethiopian Institute for Agricultural Research. Available CA_Thesis_Famba.pdf [Accessed 25 August 2017].
at: http://www.eiar.gov.et/index.php/bako-national-
maize-research-center [Accessed 28 August 2017]. Wijnhoud JD (1997) Solos e outros recursos naturais de
Estação Agrária de Sussundenga [Soils and other natural
EIAR (2017b) Melassa Agricultural Research Station. resources of the Sussundenga Research Station]. Earth
Ethiopian Institute for Agricultural Research. Available and Water series of the National Institute for agronomic
at: http://www.eiar.gov.et/index.php/melkassa- investigation. Communication No.93. Available at
agricultural-research-center [Accessed 28 August 2017]. http://library.wur.nl/isric/fulltext/isricu_i26532_001.pdf.
[Accessed 25 August 2017].
48
5. Relevant resources for team leaders
5.1. List of suppliers details

Please note that all of the following information was accurate at the time of publication. Suppliers are likely to
change in the future and we advise teams do their own research to find the most suitable and affordable suppliers
of equipment.
5.1.1. General supplier local distributor lists

Lab equipment and chemical reagent supplier
Sigma Aldrich (now owned by Merck) is an international scientific chemical supplier. It has local distributors
responsible for each SIMLESA country. They are listed in Table X below.
Table 23: List of local distributors for Sigma Aldrich in each SIMLESA country.
Country Supplier details

Ethiopia Afro German Chemicals Est. PLC. Country Supplier details
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Malawi Sigma-Aldrich Chemie Gmbh
Phone: 251 11 1550200
Munich, Germany
Fax: 251 11 1551057
Phone: 49 89 6513 1807
Email: [email protected]
Fax: 49 89 6513 1877
Website: Export Sales and Service
Kenya Kobian Kenya Limited
Nairobi, Kenya
Phone: 254 20 21 61 265 Mozambique Sigma-Aldrich Chemie Gmbh
Fax: 254 20 21 61 265 Munich, Germany
Email: [email protected] Phone: 49 89 6513 1807
Website: www.kobianscientific.com Fax: 49 89 6513 1877
Tanzania Harel Mallac Tanzania Ltd.
15, Kigogo Road, Ubungo
Industrial Area
PO Box 9474
Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania
Phone: 255222451940
Fax: 2550222451939
Sigma-Aldrich Chemie Gmbh

Munich, Germany
Phone: 49 89 6513 1807
Fax: 49 89 6513 1877
49
Lab equipment supplier
Hach is a scientific materials supplier based in the United States. It has local distributors in most SIMLESA countries
(Malawi is serviced by their South African office). You can see each relevant supplier in the table below.
Table 24: List of local Hach distributors for SIMLESA countries
Country Distributor Address Email Phone

Ethiopia Ageca (Ethiopia) Gobena Abba Teggu [email protected] (251)(1)
Company Street, P.O.Box 477, 1551044/1551306
Addis Ababa
Kenya Aquatreat Solutions MKI House, 1st Floor, injenga@aquatreat. (254) 20 2317314
LTD Dar Es Salaam Road, co.ke
Industrial Area,
Nairobi
Nesvax Innovations 2nd Floor, Odyessey [email protected] (254) 020 6552096
Limited Plaza, Mukoma Road,
South B, Nairobi
Tanzania Mainland Agencies Regent House, Plot [email protected] or (255) 22 215 3296 &
LTD 964 Olympio Street, [email protected] 215 3298
Upanga, PO Box
10311, Dar Es Salaam
Malawi Hach South Africa n/a [email protected] 27 11 708 3705
and Rbollea@hach.
com
Mozambique Aquarel LDA Rua DA Juventude [email protected] (258) 82 7179450
N180 Matola
Soil sampling equipment suppliers Soil sampling tubes

Cole Parmer is a US-based company that sells Tubes for taking soil cores. A range of options with cost
scientific sampling equipment such as soil samplers. at time of publication between US $122 - $268.
It ships worldwide.
https://www.coleparmer.com/p/sampling-tubes/5437
Cole Parmer, US Office
Hand held soil sampling cores
Telephone: +1 847-549-7600
For hand held soil sampling devices which take intact
Fax: +1 847-549-1700 cores (suitable for Bulk Density measurements. Cost at
Website: https://www.coleparmer.com/ time of publication was US $58.50.
Email: [email protected] https://www.coleparmer.com/i/lamotte-1055-

ep-handheld-soil-sampler-10-length-1-core-
diameter/9902700
5.1.2. Soil sampling 5.1.3. Balances (field and lab)
equipment Field balances are sold by many suppliers and shopping
around can save you money. We have listed several
Soil Augurs suppliers below. Note that Hach also supplies lots
For augers 3-inch diameter. Cost at time of of other lab equipment and has local distributors in
publication was US $2220. each SIMLESA country except for Malawi. The details
of these distributors is included in the section on soil
http://www.coleparmer.com/Product/Soil_Auger_ nitrate testing equipment (page 72). At the time of
Kit_with_Carrying_Case_for_3_Diameter_Samples/ publication, the BR ML-T field balance from Hach (via
EW-99026-40 local distributor in Nairobi - Sciencescope) was quoted
at 532,500 KSh.
https://www.hach.com/instruments/balances/
family?productCategoryId=35547105112
50
5.1.4. Soil pH test kits Alibaba
Alibaba is a Chinese online marketplace offering a wide
A pH test strip kit available for online purchase in Kenya. range of vendors with delivery options to Africa varying
This kit has enough colour strips to test 1600 samples with individual sellers. You can browse their filter paper
indicating a pH value between 1-14. Price at time of sellers at the URL below
publication was KSh 530.
https://www.alibaba.com/showroom/whatman-filter-
http://www.kilimall.co.ke/item-489950-20pcs-1-14- paper.html
acid-alkaline-paper-ph-indicator-test-strips-litmus-lab-
tester-1600-as-picture.html
5.1.6. Soil pH and EC meters +
5.1.5. Whatman filter paper buffer / cleaning solutions
GE Life Sciences pH meter only
GE Life Sciences reportedly supplies to Africa via local pH Meter Cost at time of publication was US $45
distributors. GE supply the full range of Whatman filter
paper. You need to look at the size of your sample tube http://hannainst.com/hi98115-hydroponics-ph-tester.
to select the appropriate filter paper diameter (filter html
paper should be greater in diameter than your sealable
sample tubes where soil and water is being mixed Pocket pH tester:
together). The site below includes a tool to help you https://www.hach.com/pocket-pro-
find the right filter product for your work. ph-tester-with-replaceable-sensor/
http://www.gelifesciences.com/webapp/wcs/stores/ product?id=17990686211&callback=pf
servlet/catalog/en/GELifeSciences/service-and-support/ Portable pH tester
whatman-filter-selector
https://www.hach.com/hq11d-portable-ph-
The No. 42 ashless paper used for soil nitrate testing in meter-with-gel-ph-electrode-1-m-cable/
Protocol 3.7 is available via GE Health here: product?id=7640489893&callback=chem
http://www.gelifesciences.com/webapp/wcs/
stores/servlet/catalog/en/GELifeSciences/products/ Two in one pH and EC meters
AlternativeProductStructure_16163/28418038
This pH and EC meter includes a temperature
It is also possible to use syringe filters instead of correction and is calibrated very easily. The cost at time
Whatman paper itself. This is recommended as being of publication was US $159.
the easiest filtration system by Westelaar et al. (1998).
http://hannainst.com/hi98131-ph-ec-tds-groline-tester.
The product details as sold by GE Life Sciences are
html
available here:
Portable pH tester from Hach:
http://www.gelifesciences.com/webapp/wcs/
stores/servlet/catalog/en/GELifeSciences/products/ https://www.hach.com/hq40d-portable-ph-and-
AlternativeProductStructure_27164/29189079 conductivity-tds-meter-field-kit-for-environmental-
monitoring-with-gel-ph-electrode-and-conductivity-
Local distributors for GE Life Sciences can be found by
cell-1-m-cable/product?id=7640501641&callback=chem
selecting your country in the menu on this site:
Soil EC meters only
http://www.gelifesciences.com/webapp/wcs/stores/
servlet/catalog/en/GELifeSciences/about-us/distributors/ Cost at time of publication was US $89
Lab Equipment Supplies – Southern http://hannainst.com/hi98331-soil-testtm-direct-soil-

ec-tester.html
Africa
A South African company ‘Lab Equipment Supplies’ sells
pH buffer kit
Whatman filter paper (along with other lab supplies). Hach:
You can view their website and Whatman range here:
https://www.hach.com/ph-buffer-solution-kit-color-
http://www.labequip.co.za/pg3/2961/filter-paper coded-ph-4-01-ph-7-00-and-ph-10-01-500-ml-each/
product?id=7640205069&callback=chem
Glass Electrode Nochromix detergent

https://www.hach.com/detergent-nochromix-
cleaning-reagent-for-cleaning-glass-10-packet-bx/
product?id=7640231040&callback=qs
51
5.1.7. Soil nitrate
Merck Millipore (recommended)
for using with test strips to determine soil nitrate
Two types of nitrate test strips are available from accurately and rapidly. The alternative is the RQFlex®
Merck Millipore (www.merckmillipore.com). One Plus Reflectoquant®.
type measures a range of 3 – 90 mg/L (Catalogue ID:
1169950001) while the other tests the range 5-225 mg/L Unfortunately, Merck Millipore does not provide clear
(Catalogue ID: 1169710001). We recommend using the price information on their website. You will need to go
3-90mg/L range as this is more suited to low N soils to their site, select your country and send an inquiry to
expected for East and Southern Africa. Merck is also a sales representative about the product(s) you wish to
the most well-known manufacturer of reflectometers. order. During the drafting of this manual, we contacted
These are designed to work with the nitrate strips listed Merck to ask for prices of both nitrate strip types as well
above. There are two reflectometer models on the as their reflectometers (see below). Prices were only
market. The basic RQFlex® Reflectoquant® is suitable given for Australia.
Table 25: Prices for nitrate testing equipment from Merck Millipore specific to each country
Country Item Price at time of publication
Australia Nitrate strips 3 – 90 mg/L (ID: 1169950001) AU $
Nitrate strips 5 – 225 mg/L (ID: 1169710001) AU $
RQ Flex Reflectometer (Reflectoquant) (ID: 116970) AU $1458
RQ Flex Plus Reflectometer (Reflectoquant) (ID: AU $

116955)
Hach 5.1.8. Measuring cylinders

An alternative supplier to Merck Millipore for nitrate test and solution bottles
equipment is Hach. Although it is a US-based company,
it has numerous distributors in Africa. You can see a https://www.hach.com/glassware-plasticware/cylinders/
full list at https://www.hach.com/global-distributor- family?productCategoryId=35547009750
support#africa.
https://www.hach.com/glassware-plasticware/bottles/
The full Hach catalogue of various test strips is available family?productCategoryId=35547009747
here: https://www.hach.com/test-strips/test-strips/
family?productCategoryId=35547009709
Hach nitrate test strips are developed for measurements

between 0 – 50 mg/L which are suited to low N soils
expected in most of Africa. You can view this product
at https://www.hach.com/nitrate-and-nitrite-test-
strips/product?id=7640211606&callback=pf. Hach sells
colorimeter reflectometers for use with their nitrate test
strips. You can view the product information at https://
www.hach.com/pocket-colorimeter-ii-nitrogen-nitrate/
product?id=7640442955&callback=pf.
52
5.2. Further resources on soil testing, characterisation and
management
Open Access Publications

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) https://www.apsim.info/Portals/0/APSoil/Soil%20matters.
has developed many useful resources for understanding pdf.
soil attributes and guides for testing. Their soil health
for educators is particularly useful for training staff in The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
soil testing skills. You can find these materials (including Nations (FAO) has also compiled comprehensive
factsheets and YouTube videos) at the website below. information on the science of soil testing for key
characteristics. Their 4th edition of ‘Guidelines for Soil
https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/ Description’ was released in 2006 and is freely available
soils/health/assessment/?cid=nrcs142p2_053870 online at http://www.fao.org/docrep/019/a0541e/
a0541e.pdf.
Scientists at the Agricultural Production Simulation

Research Unit (APSRU) developed a guide to soil The Australian Centre for International Agricultural
testing for the most critical components needed Research (ACIAR) supports international research
in crop simulation modelling. The unit is based in projects that build understanding and capacity for
Toowoomba, Queensland, Australia and the guide agricultural research in developing countries. ACIAR
(titled Soil Matters) is tailored to the soils found in south has a series of Monographs detailing important project
eastern Queensland – particularly in the Darling Downs. findings and these are available for free online. In
Nonetheless, it provides a practical guide to sampling, particular, Monograph No. 130 by Moody and Cong
testing and interpreting key soil components such as (2008) provides a guide for upland tropical soils. It
bulk density, water holding capacity and nitrogen. Many is particularly relevant as a guide to soil testing and
of the protocols in the SIMLESA Soil Manual were based interpretation for the developing world. You can access
on this work and readers may find their tips for ‘when this document for free at http://aciar.gov.au/publication/
things go wrong’ particularly helpful. You can find the mn130.
guide online for free at:
Paid publications
The AfSIS project has led to a range of publications on Another useful but unfortunately paid publication is Juo
soils in Africa. While most of these require payment to and Fanzluebbers (2003) Tropical Soils: properties and
read from academic journals, the abstracts are freely management for sustainable agriculture. This covers
available to read and can nonetheless provide some a full range of soil topics for tropical regions at a level
information on many soil properties. A list of these suited to soil researchers. It can be purchased online
publications can be found at http://africasoils.net/ from Amazon, Google, and other online book sellers.
publications/
J R Landon’s ‘Booker Tropical Soil Manual: A Handbook
The Commonwealth Scientific Industrial and Research for Soil Survey and Agricultural Land Evaluation in the
Organisation (CSIRO) is Australia’s national scientific Tropics and Subtropics’ is a valuable further reading
research body. It has published several valuable books resource. It is suited for those looking for a more
on soil measurement methods. These are usually more comprehensive handbook that goes beyond the low-
suited to research scientists looking for more detailed a tech options provided for in the SIMLESA Soil Manual,
technical information on soil testing and interpretation. covering the full range of possible analyses needed in
In particular, we recommend Rayment and Lyons (2011) soil surveying and evaluation. The 1991 edition of the
for soil chemical analysis (http://www.publish.csiro. handbook was republished in 2013 by Routledge. The
au/book/6418) and McKenzie et al. (2002) for physical use of this publication is unfortunately limited by its
analysis (http://www.publish.csiro.au/book/3147/). unavailability online in an open access format. It can
be purchased online through ‘Book Depository’ (www.
The CSIRO also published an extremely useful bookdepository.com) and ‘Amazon’ (www.amazon.com)
handbook by Hazelton and Murphy (2007) called and was priced at $101 at the time of publication.
Interpreting soil test results: what do all the numbers
mean? This publication is strongly recommended
for practical guides in turning soil information into
actionable knowledge for farm management. It can be
found online here: www.publish.csiro.au/book/7386/.
53
Appendix 1: Input sheets for protocols
A1.1. Site characterisation input sheet

Before going to the field for soil testing, the investigator and their supervisor should review this sheet together. Be
sure to note that a by taking a smartphone into the field (even without internet access), more valuable data can be
collected. If you are taking a smartphone into the field, be sure to download a free GPS / altimeter app beforehand
so you can record GPS, elevation and calculate slope gradients.
1a Name of soil surveyor Name Family Name
1b Contact information Phone number Email address Institution
2. Date Day Month Year
3. Field GPS coordinates Latitude Longitude
4. Climate Information Was there recent rainfall? If yes, how many days How many days of rain?
since the rainfall?
Was there a recent heat If yes, how many days How many days of heat?
event? since heat?
Was there a recent frost If yes, how many days How many days of frost?
event? since frost?
5. Landform Is the field located Is the field located Is the field located Is the field located
on a floodplain? on a slope? on a terrace? in a valley?
6a. Elevation (optional – Measure and record the elevation of the field you are characterising (you can use a
requires smartphone) smartphone to do this - see notes at the end of this document for instructions)
6b. Estimated Slope Does the field have a slope (i.e. is it on a hillside)?
Please note if the slope is slight, medium or steep.
If there is a slope, you can measure its gradient using your smartphone (use the
instructions notes at the end of this document to fill out the information below).
54
6c. Measuring slope Elevations at top of slope Elevation at bottom of Distance between top and
gradient (m above sea level) slope (m above sea level) bottom of slope (m)
NOTE: You will need

a smartphone and
specialised app for this.
See notes at the end of
this document for details
and advice.
7. Uniformity Are there any changes Are there any notable Are there areas with many
in soil colour within the areas of gravel? rocks?
field?
8. Aspect If the field is on a hillslope, mark which direction it is facing
(e.g north, south, northwest, etc)
9. Drainage Are there signs of Are there signs of Does the farmer agree
flooding? ponding? that the field is prone to
ponding during rains?
10. Soil surface cover / Examine the soil surface. Using the pictures provided in the notes section (at the
ground cover end of this document) estimate the percentage of soil cover.
11. Erosion Is there evidence of sheet Is there evidence of rill Is there evidence of gully
erosion? erosion? erosion?
See notes at the end
of this document on
identifying different types
of erosion.
12. Surrounding Make a note of any major Make a note of the types Make a note of which
vegetation grass species growing of trees growing near the crops have been grown
near the field field. on this field (for the past 3
seasons)
13. Photos Take out your smartphone or camera and photograph any important areas of the
field (e.g. signs of erosion, soil colour changes, plant species growing, etc.)
An excel spreadsheet for entering the data collected on this input sheet is available at:
https://cloudstor.aarnet.edu.au/plus/index.php/s/EE6XdvOzENpHWcQ
55
Notes
Calculating the slope of a field
NOTE: If you do not have a smartphone, you will not be • If you have an Android phone we recommend
able to calculate an estimated slope gradient. In these downloading the free ‘Accurate altimeter’ app
cases, just note if the field has a slope and mark if it is a from here: https://play.google.com/store/apps/
slight, medium or steep slope. details?id=com.arlabsmobile.altimeterfree&hl=en
Calculating an estimated slope of a field (% gradient) • If you use an Apple smartphone, we recommend
is easy if you have a smartphone. All you need to do downloading the free ‘Travel Altimeter Lite’ app
is measure the elevation at the top and bottom of the from here: https://itunes.apple.com/au/app/
slope and then estimate the distance between the two travel-altimeter-lite-gps-altitude-map-elevation/
points. You can get a free on your smartphone that can id486556174?mt=8
measure elevation.
The picture below demonstrates how to measure elevations and distance and use these to calculate the % slope
of the gradient.
56
Estimating the percentage of soil surface cover
An estimation of the amount of soil surface cover can be easy made using photos as a guide.
Below are photos of maize, soybean and sorghum stubble at four different ground cover levels (Shelton and Ajas
1995). Use these as a guide with the farmer to estimate the percentage of ground cover in the field on the day of
sampling.
Percentage
cover Maize Soybean Sorghum
25%
50%
75%
90%
57
Identifying the different types of erosion
Sheet erosion
Sheet erosion is the type of erosion that occurs across • Are there areas where subsoil or stony soils can
the entire field surface. It is very hard to observe be seen?
evidence of sheet erosion. Key questions:
• Is there any build up of soil between the on the
• Are there any areas of the field that are bare (i.e. hillside and objects in the field that might obstruct
without soil cover)? erosion (e.g. large rocks, trees, etc.)?
• Are there areas of the field where tree or grass • Can the farmer identify parts of the field that
roots are exposed? become puddles as soon as there is rainfall?
Rill erosion
Rill erosion is a kind of erosion usually caused by
water/rainfall. It occurs when rainfall water runs
off down the field slope in small channels. Rills
are defined as shallow channels in the soil (less
than 0.3 metres deep) where erosion occurs. If
the channels are deeper than 0.3 metres this is
referred to as ‘Gully erosion’.
Figure A1: An example of shallow channels that

suggest rill erosion has occurred in a field. (DEHP
2015 - https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/land/
soil/erosion/types)
Gully erosion
Gully erosion occurs when water flows enough to
displace soil and develop deep trenches (i.e. > 0.3
metres). These often occur with small waterfalls,
meaning greater force upon impact. Gully erosion can
even erode the subsoil and will eventually cease at
the point of the bedrock or parent materials beneath
the subsoil – usually at 10 metres. Gullies occur in
areas of water flow, and in farmers’ fields they can
develop if rill erosion is allowed to continue and
advance. Gully erosion is especially damaging for
both farming activities and nearby infrastructure.
Gully erosion can be caused by a number of different

factors. Some soils are simply more erodible and
therefore prone to erosion if poorly managed (for
grazing or cropping).. Maintaining adequate surface
Figure A2: Example of advanced gully erosion in
cover (grasses, mulches or other residues) is the best
unconsolidated sediments, southern Africa. This kind
protection against developing erosion.
of erosion can reach up to 10 metres depth and is very
damaging.
58
Further reading
Read more about gully erosion at: https://www.qld.gov.au/dsiti/assets/soil/gully-erosion.pdf
Read more about different types of erosion at:
https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/land/soil/erosion/types http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_
file/0003/255153/fact-sheet-1-types-of-erosion.pdf
Find more resources on identifying, understanding and managing soil erosion at: http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/
agriculture/soils/erosion/soil-erosion-factsheets
References
DEHP (2015) Types of erosion. Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage Protection. The State of
Queensland. Available at: https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/land/soil/erosion/types. Accessed 1 August 2017.
NSW DPI () http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/255153/fact-sheet-1-types-of-erosion.pdf
Shelton DP, Jasa PJ (1995) G95-1134 Estimating percent residue cover using the photo-comparison method.
Historical materials from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension. Paper 782. Available at: http://
digitalcommons.unl.edu/extensionhist/782 Accessed 3 August 2017.
59
A1.2. Soil texture input sheet
Before going to the field for soil testing, the investigator and their supervisor should review this sheet together. This
input sheet has space for recording the texture of five soil samples. If you are going to test more samples, print out
multiple copies of this sheet document.
Be sure to check over all the materials you will need to complete this analysis (see Protocol 3.1). It is highly
recommended that a site characterisation is completed (see Protocol 2.2). If this is not completed, bring a
smartphone and record the GPS coordinates of the field.
1a Unique Field Code
(from site characterisation)

(To be completed only

in the absence of site
characterisation)
7-8. Assessing soil texture What is the ‘feel’ of the Will the soil form a ball? How many cm long is the
(Write sample number and wet soil? ‘ribbon’ before it breaks?
depth in this box) (no, only just forms, ball
(Sandy/gritty, silky) holds together, ball holds
Sample number: together strongly)
Sample depth:
Sample depth:
Sample depth:
Sample depth:
https://cloudstor.aarnet.edu.au/plus/index.php/s/qhuilKxP9YMjnfJ
60
Notes
You can classify the soil texture using the information you noted about the soil with the table below.
Table 1: Guide to determining soil texture based on a) whether it will form a ball; b) how many centimetres that
ball can be made into a ribbon; and c) the feel, appearance and durability of the wet soil in the hand. Adapted from
Dalgliesh and Foale (2005).
Ball Ribbon (cm) Feel Texture

Will not form a ball 0.5 Single grains of sand stick Sand (S)
to fingers
Ball just holds together 1.3-2.5 Feels very sandy, visible Loamy sand (LS)
sand grains
Ball holds together 2.5 Fine sand can be felt Fine sandy loam (FSL)
Ball holds together 2.5 Spongy, smooth, not gritty Loam (L)
or silky
Ball holds together 2.5 Slightly spongy, fine sand Loamy fine sand (LFS)
can be felt
Ball holds together 2.5-4 Very smooth to silky Silt loam (SL)
Ball holds together 4-5 Samdy to touch, medium Sandy clay loam (SCL)
strongly sand grains visible
Ball holds together 5-7.5 Plastic, smooth to Clay loam (CL)
manipulate
Ball holds together >7.5 Plastic, smooth, slight Light clay (LC)
strongly resistance to shearing
(breaking when squeezed)
between thumb and
forefinger
Ball holds together >7.5 Plastic, smooth, handles Medium clay (MC)
strongly like plasticine, can be
moulded into rods
without fracture, moderate
shearing resistance
Ball holds together Plastic and smooth, Heavy clay (HC)
strongly handles like stiff plasticine,
can be moulded into rods
without fracture, very firm
shearing resistance
Further reading
FAO (2006) Guidelines for soil description, 4th Edition. (FAO: Rome). Available at http://www.fao.org/docrep/019/
a0541e/a0541e.pdf [Accessed 3 August 2017].
Dalgliesh N, Foale M (1998) Soil matters: monitoring soil water and nutrients in dryland farming. Agricultural
Production Systems Research Unit, Cranbrook Press: Toowoomba).
USDA (1999) Soil quality test kit guide. United States Department of Agriculture. (USDA: Washington D.C.). Available
at: https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb1044790.pdf [Accessed 3 August 2017]
61
A1.3. Soil colour input sheet
Before going to the field for soil testing, the investigator Be sure to check over all the materials you will need
and their supervisor should review this sheet together. to complete this analysis (see Protocol 3.2). It is highly
This input sheet has space for recording the colour of recommended that a site characterisation is completed
five soil samples. If you are going to test more samples, (see Protocol 2.2). If this is not completed, bring a
print out multiple copies of this sheet document. smartphone and record the GPS coordinates of the
field.


characterisation)
6-7. Assessing soil colour Overall Colour (Black, Is there another colour Does the soil show
White, Red, Yellow, Yellow- that could describe this mottling?
(Write sample number and Brown, Grey/blue-grey, soil? (Black, White, Red,
depth in this box) Mottled) Yellow, Yellow-Brown, (yes/no)
Sample number: Grey/blue-grey, Mottled)
Sample depth:
Sample depth:
Sample depth:
Sample depth:
https://cloudstor.aarnet.edu.au/plus/index.php/s/wOoVI8MpZdlAeQv
62
Notes
You can determine some likely soil attributes based on the soil colour using the information in the table below.
Table 1: Main soil colour groups, corresponding Munsell chart details, and their characteristics. Adapted from
Moody and Cong (2008).
Soil colour Typical Munsell Hue/ Soil types and

value/chroma characteristics
Black 5YR/<3/1-2 Peat or organic soils –
high in organic matter
7.5YR/<3/1-2
Soils derived from
10YR/<3/1-2 limestone under reduced
conditions
White, pale or bleached -/8/<4 Sandy soils
Red
10R/-/6-8 Well-drained soils with
high content of iron
2.5YR/-/6-8 oxides
Yellow or yellow-brown 7.5YR/>6/>6 Imperfectly drained to
moderately well-drained
10YR/>6/>6 soils with high content of
2.5Y/>6/>3 iron oxides
5Y/>6/>2
Brown 2.5YR/<7/3-4 Moderate soil organic
matter levels, and some
5YR/<6/3-4 iron oxides
7.5YR/<6/3-4
10YR/<6/3-8
2.5YR/<5/2-6
Greyed, grey or blue-grey Gley charts or colour Near permanent

charts -/3-7/1 waterlogging; anaerobic
(reduced) conditions
Mottles Orange, yellow, red Intermittent waterlogging;
intermittent anaerobic
(reduced) conditions
R = Red; Y = Yellow; YR = Yellow-Red
Further reading
Moody P, Cong PT (2008) Soil constraints and management package (SCAMP): guidelines for sustainable
management of tropical upland soils. ACIAR Monograph No. 130. (Australian Centre for International Agricultural
Research: Canberra). Available at: http://aciar.gov.au/publication/mn130 [Accessed 14 August 2017].
63
A1.4. Soil bulk density input sheet
In order to calculate final bulk density, you will either recommended that a site characterisation is completed
need to i) complete a traditional analysis by drying the (see Protocol 2.2). If this is not completed, bring a
sample and collecting a final dry weight, or ii) estimate smartphone and record the GPS coordinates of the field.
gravimetric water content using Protocol 3.3 on the
same sample day.


characterisation)
5-7. Sample cylinder Length of sample cylinder Diameter of sample Weight of sample cylinder
volume (mm) cylinder (mm) (g)
12. Distance from top of Measurement 1 (mm) Measurement 2 (mm) Measurement 3 (mm)
cylinder to soil surface
15. Weight of cylinder and Weight of cylinder and field moist soil (g)
moist soil
16a ii Weight of cylinder in Weight of cylinder in wet-strength paper bag and wet soil (g)
wet-strength paper bag
(Traditional Method)
16a iv Weight of cylinder Weight of cylinder in wet-strength paper bag and dry soil (g)
and dry soil
(Traditional Method)
https://cloudstor.aarnet.edu.au/plus/index.php/s/EE6XdvOzENpHWcQ
Notes
If the traditional drying method is not being performed, an estimated calculation of gravimetric water content is
needed to determine the final bulk density. This can be performed using protocol 3.3.
Further Reading
Schmidhalter (2005) Development of a quick on-farm test to determine nitrate levels in soil. Journal of Plant
Nutrition and Soil Sciences 168, 432-438.
Dalgliesh N, Foale M (1998) Soil matters: monitoring soil water and nutrients in dryland farming. Agricultural
Production Systems Research Unit, Cranbrook Press: Toowoomba).
64
A1.5. Gravimetric water content input sheet
This sheet contains space for recording the data for 5 recommended that a site characterisation is completed
samples. If more are needed, print multiple copies of (see Protocol 2.2). If this is not completed, bring a
the sheet. smartphone and record the GPS coordinates of the
field.


characterisation)
6-8. Measuring cylinder height of cylinder (mm) Diameter of cylinder (mm) Weight of cylinder (with
volume lid) (g)
9-12. Soil and water Weight of cylinder (with Weight of cylinder (with Final volume of soil and
weight and volume lid) + 250mL water (g) lid) + 250mL water + water mixture after 3
100mL soil (g) minutes shaking (mL)
(record sample number
and depth)
Sample number:
Sample Depth:
and depth)
Sample number:
Sample Depth:
65
and depth)
Sample number:
Sample Depth:
and depth)
Sample number:
Sample Depth:
and depth)
Sample number:
Sample Depth:
https://cloudstor.aarnet.edu.au/plus/index.php/s/rA76zpP0P2CTwfn
Further reading
66
A1.6. Soil pH input sheet – Test kit
Before going to the field for soil testing, the investigator Be sure to check over all the materials you will need to
and their supervisor should review this sheet together. complete this analysis (see Protocol 3.5.1). It is highly
This sheet is for protocol 3.5.1 which uses a pH soil recommended that a site characterisation is completed
test kit. It contains space for recording the data for 5 (see Protocol 2.2). If this is not completed, bring a
samples. If more are needed, print multiple copies of smartphone and record the GPS coordinates of the field.
the sheet.

(To be completed only in the

absence of site characterisation)
7. Soil pH readings Sample number Sample depth (cm) Soil pH reading
Sample number:
Sample depth:
Sample number:
Sample depth:
Sample number:
Sample depth:
Sample number:
Sample depth:
Sample number:
Sample depth:
Sample number:
Sample depth:
https://cloudstor.aarnet.edu.au/plus/index.php/s/kVWBwCRaZRp6cvj
67
A1.7. Soil pH input sheet – pH meter
Before going to the field for soil testing, the investigator Be sure to check over all the materials you will need to
and their supervisor should review this sheet together. complete this analysis (see Protocol 3.5.2). It is highly
This sheet is for protocol 3.5.2 which uses an electronic recommended that a site characterisation is completed
pH meter. This protocol also requires deionized water (see Protocol 2.2). If this is not completed, bring a
and a pH buffer solution. It contains space for recording smartphone and record the GPS coordinates of the field.
the data for 5 samples. If more are needed, print
multiple copies of the sheet.


characterisation)
6-9. Soil and water weight Weight of cylinder (with Weight of cylinder (with Weight of cylinder (with
and volume lid) (g) lid) + 250mL water (g) lid) + 250mL water +
50mL soil (g)
and depth)
Sample number:
Sample Depth:
16. Soil pH readings Sample number Sample depth (cm) pH meter reading
Sample number:
Sample depth:
50mL soil (g)
and depth)
Sample number:
Sample Depth:
Sample number:
Sample depth:
68
50mL soil (g)
and depth)
Sample number:
Sample Depth:
Sample number:
Sample depth:
50mL soil (g)
and depth)
Sample number:
Sample Depth:
Sample number:
Sample depth:
50mL soil (g)
and depth)
Sample number:
Sample Depth:
Sample number:
Sample depth:
https://cloudstor.aarnet.edu.au/plus/index.php/s/kVWBwCRaZRp6cvj
69
A1.8. Soil EC input sheet
This sheet is for protocol 3.6 which uses an electronic recommended that a site characterisation is completed
EC meter. The protocol also requires you use deionized (see Protocol 2.2). If this is not completed, bring a
water. It contains space for recording the data for 5 smartphone and record the GPS coordinates of the field.
samples. If more are needed, print multiple copies of the
sheet.


characterisation)
6-8. Tube and water Weight of falcon tube (with lid) (g) EC meter reading of 35mL of water
weight, water EC value

and depth)
Sample number:
Sample Depth:
9-17. Soil weight, mixture Weight of soil sample (g) Final soil-water solution EC meter reading of soil-
volume and EC readings volume after mixing (mL) water mixture
Sample number:
Sample depth:

and depth)
Sample number:
Sample Depth:
Sample number:
Sample depth:
70

and depth)
Sample number:
Sample Depth:
Sample number:
Sample depth:

and depth)
Sample number:
Sample Depth:
Sample number:
Sample depth:

and depth)
Sample number:
Sample Depth:
Sample number:
Sample depth:
https://cloudstor.aarnet.edu.au/plus/index.php/s/YZp3Ubz5LGBcTRR
71
A1.9. Soil nitrate input sheet
Before going to the field for soil testing, the investigator samples. If more are needed, print multiple copies of
and their supervisor should review this sheet together. the sheet.
This sheet is for recording data when completing nitrate
analysis using protocol 3.7.2. Note that it is advised Be sure to check over all the materials you will need to
researchers test standard solutions of known nitrate complete this analysis (see Protocol 3.7.2). It is highly
concentrations to control for temperature effects recommended that a site characterisation is completed
in conditions below 15°C or above 25°C. Standard (see Protocol 2.2). If this is not completed, bring a
solutions can be prepared using Protocol 3.7.1. This smartphone and record the GPS coordinates of the field.
document contains space for recording the data for 5


characterisation)
6-8. Measuring cylinder height of cylinder (mm) Diameter of cylinder (mm) Weight of cylinder (with
volume lid) (g)
9-18 & 30-34. Soil and Weight of cylinder (with Weight of cylinder (with Final volume of soil
water weight and volume lid) + 250 mL water (g) lid) + 250 mL water + 100 and water mixture after
mL soil (g) shaking (mL)
and depth)
Sample number:
Nitrate strip test reading 1: Nitrate strip test reading 2: Nitrate strip test reading 3:
Sample Depth:
Number of bulked cores in

sample:
24-28. Tap water nitrate Nitrate strip test reading 1 Nitrate strip test reading 2 Nitrate strip test reading 3
measurements
72
and depth)
Sample number:
Sample Depth:
sample:
and depth)
Sample number:
Sample Depth: Nitrate strip test reading 1: Nitrate strip test reading 2: Nitrate strip test reading 3:

sample:
and depth)
Sample number:
Sample Depth: Nitrate strip test reading 1: Nitrate strip test reading 2: Nitrate strip test reading 3:

sample:
and depth)
Sample number:
Sample Depth:

sample:
73
Testing nitrate standard solutions in the field (temperature
calibration) – highly recommended!
38. Testing Standard Nitrate strip test reading 1: Nitrate strip test reading 2: Nitrate strip test reading 3:
concentration:
0 ppm nitrate (Deionized

water)
concentration:
5 ppm nitrate
concentration:
10 ppm nitrate
concentration:
20 ppm nitrate
concentration:
50 ppm nitrate
concentration:
100 ppm nitrate
https://cloudstor.aarnet.edu.au/plus/index.php/s/u8hwzbCZJV9rpQX
Further reading
74

SOIL MANUAL Jan 2018

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SOIL MANUAL Jan 2018

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

SOIL MANUAL Jan 2018

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SIMLESA Soil Manual

Simple protocols and resources for rapid

Caspar W Roxburgh, Joseph X Eyre, Daniel Rodriguez

Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries (DAF), Nambour, Australia, 4560

Queensland Department of Science, Information Technology and Innovation (DSITI), Australia,

1.1. What does this manual offer? 4

1.2. How to use this manual 5

1.3. What can we learn using rapid field techniques? 5

2. Getting your sampling right – the first step 7

2.1. Introduction to rapid testing 7

2.2. Initial site characterisation 7

2.3. Principles of soil sampling 9

3. Simple field protocols for soil analysis 13

3.1. Soil texture 13

3.2. Soil Colour 16

3.3. Soil Bulk Density 19

3.4. Estimated gravimetric water content 22

3.6. Electronic Conductivity and soil salinity 32

3.7. Soil Mineral Nitrogen 38

4. SIMLESA long-term trial site analysis reports 45

5. Relevant resources for team leaders 49

5.1. List of Supplier details 49

5.2. Further resources on soil testing, characterisation and management 53

Appendix 1: Input Sheets for protocols 54

A1.1. Site Characterisation Input sheet 54

A1.2. Soil Texture Input Sheet 60

A1.3. Soil Colour Input Sheet 62

A1.4. Soil Bulk Density Input Sheet 64

A1.5. Gravimetric Water Content Input Sheet 65

A1.6. Soil pH Input Sheet – Test Kit 67

A1.7. Soil pH Input Sheet – pH Meter 68

A1.8. Soil EC Input Sheet 70

A1.9. Soil Nitrate Input Sheet 72

1.1. What does this manual offer?

1.3. What can we learn using rapid field

2.1. Introduction to rapid testing

2.2. Initial site characterisation

2.2.1. Materials (What will I 2.2.2. Method (What do

1 Describer’s name, affiliation and contract details (phone and email)

• A smartphone with 3G or stronger connection (suitable for many areas)

5 Record the farmer’s name and phone number

2.3. Principles of soil sampling

2.3.1. Considering spatial variability

1. Take many soil samples

15 Initial soil samples taken along a transect (see Figure 1)

Recommending body Soil depth intervals

AfSIS diagnostic trials 0-20 cm, 20-50 cm

Materials (What will I need?)

Method (What do I do?)

Ball Ribbon (cm) Feel Texture

Texture Estimated water stored per Infiltration Ideal bulk density

Materials (What will I need?)

Method (What do I do?)

Soil colour Typical Munsell Hue/value/chroma Soil types and characteristics

Black 5YR/<3/1-2 Peat or organic soils – high in

White, pale or bleached -/8/<4 Sandy soils

Red 10R/-/6-8 Well-drained soils with high content

Yellow or yellow-brown 7.5YR/>6/>6 Imperfectly drained to moderately

Brown 2.5YR/<7/3-4 Moderate soil organic matter levels,