Rohith L Shankar, YCM/Mulberry Crop Protection/Paper III

Lesson 1: INTRODUCTION TO PLANT DISEASES AND IMPORTANCE OF PLANT

PROTECTION IN MULBERRY CULTIVATION

Disease is a series of harmful physiological processes in which plant becomes abnormal

by the infection of causal agents or environmental factors, which leads to develop the symptoms.
Disease development depends on the interactions between the pathogen, host plant and the
environment. Disease can be caused by various agents (living or non living) either acting singly
or in combination with another. The microbes which have the capability to cause diseases in the
host plants are known as causal agents or pathogens, while an organism that harbours/supports
the activities of a parasite in known as host. The external and internal alterations visible on the
plants due to disease are symptoms. The presence of pathogen’s parts like
vegetative/reproductive structures, mycelium and spores on a host plants is termed as sign. When
a diseased plant has the signs of a pathogen along with symptoms in infected portions, it is
known as syndrome. The study of symptoms of disease and signs of pathogens for the diagnosis
of plant diseases is called symptomology.

“a series of visible and invisible responses of plant cells and tissues to a pathogenic
microorganism or environmental factors that result in adverse changes in the form
,function , or integrity of the plant and may lead to partial impairment or death of the
plant or its parts”- by AGRIOS (1997)

Disease Complex: When more than one causal agent causes the disease, it is called disease
complex. In a disease complex, different pathogen species cause similar symptoms on a common
host plant species. These pathogens commonly develop simultaneously in a field and can then
infect the same host individuals. Co‐occurring pathogens may affect each other, through
antagonism and/or synergism. An important question is the ecological and pathological
consequences of co‐occurrence of pathogenic species within a disease complex. The presence of
the two pathogens on the same host plant organ limited the disease development and their
reproduction. Damages caused by the two pathogens, however, increased when plants that had
been previously inoculated were inoculated with the other species. The development of one
pathogen species can be affected by a subsequent pathogen inoculation. Co‐occurrence of
pathogens within a disease complex can then limit or favour plant damages and pathogens
reproduction. It would be one of the main forces that shape pathogen community structures and
therefore the dynamics of diseases in field.

Disease development and transmission: Pathogenesis is the stage of disease in which the
pathogen is in intimate association with living host tissue. Three fairly distinct stages are
involved:

1. Inoculation: transfer of the pathogen to the infection court, or area in which invasion of
the plant occurs (the infection court may be the unbroken plant surface, a variety of
wounds, or natural openings—e.g., stomata [microscopic pores in leaf surfaces],

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hydathodes [stomata-like openings that secrete water], or lenticels [small openings in tree
bark])
2. Incubation: the period of time between the arrival of the pathogen in the infection court
and the appearance of symptoms
3. Infection: the appearance of disease symptoms accompanied by the establishment and
spread of the pathogen.

Importance of Plant Protection:

A branch agricultural science that devises ways and means of
controlling diseases, pests, and weeds of crops and trees, as well as a set of measures used in agri
culture and forestry to prevent and eliminate the damage done to plants by harmful organisms.
The goal of plant protection is not only to destroy harmful organisms or limit their activity but al
so to forecast the time they appear and the possible extent to which they might spread, as well as
to prevent especially harmful organisms from moving from some countries and regions to others.
Plant protection is based on the data obtained by several agronomic (agriculture, plant growing,
selection, agricultural chemistry, agricultural physics, agricultural plant pathology, and entomolo
gy), zoological, and botanical (principally taxonomy, anatomy, morphology, ecology, plant and a
nimal geography) disciplines; genetics; biochemistry; and plant and animal biochemistry and phy
siology. Plant protection is closely related to such sciences as meteorology and climatology; che
mistry and physics, which provide the scientific basis of chemical and biophysical control metho
ds; and hygiene and toxicology, which study the direct and indirect effects of pesticides on plants
and animals.
Every year the damage done to crops by pests and diseases, according to data of the Unite
d Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), constitutes approximately 20 to 25% of
thepotential world yield of food crops. Therefore, plant protection plays an extremely important
role in increasing the production of agricultural crops and in protecting them.

Importance of MULBERRY PLANT PROTECTION:

Mulberry sericulture comprises mainly four different activities viz., mulberry cultivation,
silkworm rearing, silk reeling and silk weaving. Of these, mulberry cultivation forms the basis
for the other three and determines the profitability. The number of dfls (disease-free layings)
reared and production of cocoons mainly depend on the quality and quantity of produce
nutritious leaves in large quantity to rear more layings and produce good quality cocoons.

Mulberry which belongs to the genus Morus of the family Moraceae is a fast growing
deciduous and perennial plant. It can be grown under various types of climatic conditions
ranging from temperature to tropics. It is cultivated mainly as bush in tropical and is
middling/dwarf trees in temperate regions. Various species and varieties of mulberry are under
cultivation in India, which differ in their adaptability to various soil types and climates, leaf
yield, resistance to diseases and pests and nutritional value of the leaves. Some of the major
constrains for successful mulberry cultivation and production of quality leaves are insufficient

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rainfall, poor agronomical inputs and the outbreak of pests and diseases. Diseases have always
been a major constraint in mulberry cultivation. The intensity of diseases varies with season,
variety and cultivation practices. Being a perennial crop, the pathogens seem to readily
perpetuate in mulberry gardens throughout the year and quickly spread to cover extensive areas.
Thus, diseases invariably affect the mulberry right from its initial establishment and throughout
growing stages, reducing yield and nutritive value of the leaves. Feeding silkworm larvae with
diseased leaves affects their growth and development and ultimately the cocoon quality. As most
of the farmers in India are marginal and having limited land holding, the loss due to pests and
diseases cannot be underestimated and plant protection measures are to be taken very sincerely to
boost the mulberry foliage production and quality.

General Classification of Plant Diseases: Plant diseases can be classified on the basis of host
plant affected, mode of spread, prevalence and periodicity, plant parts affected, parasitic nature
etc.

i). Based on the host plants affected: On the basis of host plants affected the disease can be
classified into six major groups.
1. Diseases of cereals: Paddy, Ragi etc.
2. Diseases of horticultural crops: Cabbage, Tomato etc.
3. Diseases of plantation crops: Coconut, Palm etc.
4. Diseases of oil seeds crops: Sunflower, Ground nut etc.
5. Diseases of pulses crops: Black gram, Cow pea etc.
6. Diseases of cash crops: Tobacco, Wheat, Rice, Corn etc.

ii). Based on the mode of spread: According to the mode of spread, the diseases can be
categorized into following three groups.
1. Seed borne diseases: the diseases which transmit through the seeds are seed borne
diseases. Ex - Leaf spot of rice and ergot diseases of bajra are the examples of seed
borne diseases.
2. Soil borne diseases: the diseases which spread through the soil. Ex - Soil borne diseases
in Mulberry –root knot, root rot, collar rot and cutting rot.
3. Airborne diseases: This spread through air. Ex - Airborne diseases in mulberry - leaf
spot, powdery mildew, leaf rust etc.
4. Waterborne diseases: spread through water. Ex- all most all the disease causing
organisms in mulberry

iii). Based on the prevalence and periodicity: according to prevalence and periodicity the
disease can be classified into four groups.

1. Epidemic: a widespread occurrence of an infectious disease in a community at a particular

time. The diseases which occurs periodically, causes devastating damage to the crops
and spread very fast from one place to another place is called epidemic diseases. Ex-
leaf rust and root rot diseases in mulberry.

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2. Endemic: When the diseases is constantly present in a locality/species and occurs year
after year, it is known as endemic diseases (restricted to certain regions/area). Ex -
Leaf spot and root knot diseases of mulberry.
3. Sporadic: Which occurs at irregular intervals at different places over a limited area is
called sporadic diseases. Ex – leaf blight and black leaf spot of mulberry.
4. Pandemic: is an epidemic of infectious disease that has spread throughout the world and
causes heavy damage is called pandemic diseases. Ex – root knot and root rot of
mulberry.

iv). Based on plant parts affected: Based on the plant parts affected, the diseases can be
classified into following four groups.

1. Foliar disease: the diseases which appear on above ground parts of plants, especially
foliage are known as foliar diseases. Ex- leaf spot and leaf rust of mulberry.
2. Root diseases: the diseases affecting root system. Ex – root knot and root rot diseases of
mulberry.
3. Vascular diseases: when the pathogens attack vascular tissues (xylem and phloem) and
cause diseases, those are called vascular diseases. Ex – bacterial wilt and root rot
diseases of mulberry.
4. Systemic diseases: the diseases which are caused by the pathogens that spread throughout
the plant system intracellular are called systemic diseases. Ex – dwarf and mosaic
diseases in mulberry.

v). Based on the causal nature: on the basis of causal factors, the plant diseases can broadly be
divided into non-parasitic and parasitic groups.

A. Non-Parasitic diseases (Abiotic factors): the diseases which occur without the
involvement of microbes and are mostly caused due to either deficiency or excess of
nutrients, chemicals injuries, climatic factors, soil moisture. Atmospheric facors etc., are
known as non-parasitic diseases.
B. Parasitic disease (Biotic factors): diseases caused by various types of pathogenic
microbes such as moulds, fungi, bacteria, virus, MLO, nematodes, etc. are known as
parasitic diseases.

General approaches to control disease in plants: Disease control refers to the prevention of
disease, or reducing/preventing the increase in the incidence and/or severity of disease. It is
usually directed at plant populations rather than at individual plants. Satisfactory control of most
diseases requires the adoption of multiple control measures, involving an integrated approach to
manipulate environmental, biological, and chemical factors. A well planned control programme
should be based on knowledge of the characteristics of the pathogen and the host plant, the
cultural and climatic conditions under which the crop is grown, and knowledge of available
disease control procedures including cultural, genetic, chemical, and biological approaches.

Plant disease control involves the application of one or more of the following principles:

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1) Avoidance - by selecting areas where inoculum is ineffective, rare, or absent. Avoidance

should consider the following:
• choice of geographical area
• choice of planting site in a local area
• choice of planting time
• use of disease free stock
• modification of cultural practices
2) Exclusion of inoculum - preventing the introduction of inoculum or the establishment of a
pathogen within an uninvaded area. Pathogens may be excluded by:
• treating planting material
• using certified planting material
• restriction by quarantine
• eliminating vectors
3) Eradication - reducing, inactivating, eliminating, or destroying inoculum at the source, either
from a region or from an individual plant in which it is already established. Complete eradication
is often difficult to achieve but some of the methods are:
• chemical control
• biological control
• crop rotation
• removal and destruction of diseased parts or whole plants
• elimination of alternate hosts and weed hosts
• sanitation
4) Protection - preventing infection by applying a suitable toxic, or other effective barrier,
between the susceptible host and the pathogen. Some of the common methods are:
• chemical
• biological
• controlling insect vectors of pathogen
• modification of the environment
• modification of nutrition
5) Disease resistance - Breeding for resistance or tolerance to a disease can alter the
effectiveness of inoculum through genetically altering either the physiological or structural
characteristics of a susceptible host strain.
6) Therapy - reducing the severity of disease in an already infected plant. This involves one or
more of the following methods:
• Chemotherapy > Heat treatment > Surgery
Control measures are predominantly preventative and should consider the interactions of
host, pathogen and the environment. A plant species can grow under different environmental and
climatic conditions (for example, grapes can grow under warm temperate and cool temperate
climates). Therefore, different control measures must be selected for different environmental
areas because of differences in cultural practices, temperature, humidity, inoculum potentials and
virus-vector populations.
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PRACTICE:
1. What is a disease?
2. What is a pathogen?
3. What is disease complex?
4. What is disease syndrome?
5. What is a host?
6. What is symptomalogy?
7. Describe importance of plant disease.
8. Write a classification of plant diseases based on host plant affected.
9. Write a classification of plant diseases based on periodicity and prevalence.
10. Write a classification of plant diseases based on mode of spread/infection.
11. Write a classification of plant diseases based on host plant affected.
12. Write a classification of plant diseases based on plant parts gets affected.
13. Write a classification of plant diseases based on causal agent.
14. Explain the general approach of disease control.

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Lesson 2: CLASSIFICATION OF MULBERRY DISEASES

As mulberry is grown under a wide range of climatic conditions, it is affected by a large

number of diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, nematodes, mycoplasma and viruses. However, it
is primarily fungi that cause the greater recognizable damage to plant health and crop
productivity in mulberry. The fungal diseases are more predominant and cause 10-15% loss in
leaf yield, besides deteriorating the leaf quality. In India, leaf spot, powdery mildew, leaf rust
and bacterial blight are economically most important foliar diseases occurring in all the major
mulberry growing areas. Mulberry, being a vegetatively propagated plant is raised through stem-
cuttings planted either in nurseries to raise saplings or directly in the main fields. Many soil
borne pathogens like Botryodiplodia theobromae, fusarium solani and phoma species affect the
sprouting of stem-cuttings and growth of saplings. Further, due to recent spurt in mulberry
cultivation, several other diseases which are hitherto considered as minor viz., stem canker, collar
rot, cutting rot and leaf blight have now become more predominant and found to cause
considerable economic loss to mulberry.

A. Fungal diseases in mulberry: Fungal diseases are more serious and prevalent in mulberry.
Most of the diseases occur during rainy and post rainy seasons while some appear during winter
season.

1. Leaf spot = Cercospora moricola

2. Leaf rust = Peridiospora mori
3. Powdery mildew = Phylactinia corylea
4. Leaf blight = Alternaria alternata and Fusarium pallidoroseum
5. Root rot = Fusarium solani and fusarium oxysporum

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B. Viral disease is mulberry: The major virus/viroid diseases associated with mulberry are
described herein for their distribution, symptoms, causal pathogen and prevention/management.
However, so far only two causal viruses that cause mulberry ringspot and mulberry latent
infection have been classified and grouped under viral classification.

1. Mulberry ringspot = Mulberry ringspot virus (MRSV) –Polyhedral or spherical

shaped particle containing single stranded RNA belongs to Nepovirus.
2. Mulberry latent vein = Filamentous particles containing single stranded RNA belongs to
Carlovirus.
3. Mulberry mosaic = Filamentous particle containg single stranded RNA transmitted
by aphid vectors, like Rhopalosporium maidis.
4. Mulberry mosaic dwarf = Caused by viroid transmitted by infected planting material.
5. Mulberry yellow net vein = Not known about virus particle.
C. Bacterial disease in mulberry: Bacterial diseases in mulberry are less or known and have
not received much attention. Bacteria cannot penetrate the cuticularized layer of plant tissues, as
they do not produce germtubes and appressoria. They enter into the host through either wounds,
or non-circularized areas such as root hairs, floral parts and leaf trichomes. Natural openings like
hydathodes, lenticels, stomata, etc.

1. Bacterial leaf blight = Pseudomonas syringae.

2. Bacterial leaf spot = Xanthomonas campestris
3. Bacterial wilt = Pseudomonas solanacearum
4. Bacterial Shoot soft rot = Erwinia carotovora
D. Nematode diseases in mulberry: The disease is more prevalent in sandy soil under irrigated
farming because the nematode moves freely through water film in sandy soil due to more space
between the soil particles. The disease is widespread in occurrence as it has been reported to
affect mulberry plantation in almost all the countries where sericulture is being practiced.
M.incognita has a wide range of host plants and attacks more than 2000 species of plants,
including almost all agricultural, horticultural, oilseed, ornamental, plantation and other crops.
M. incognita is more hazardous to mulberry not only because of causing direct damage to the
crop but also due to its role in predisposing the plants to the attack of other pathogens.

1. Root Knot disease = Meloidogyne incognita

E. Mycoplasm disease: Until 1967 when Japanese scientists, Doi and his colleagues observed
under electron microscope for the first time the pleomorphic mycoplasmal bodies in the phloem
cells of diseased mulberry plants, mycoplasmal diseases were considered to be of viral nature
because of their viral-disease-type symptomatology. Yellows and witches' broom diseases those
characterized by yellowing of leaves (without mosaic symptoms), greening of petals, phyllody of
floral organs, proliferation of axillary buds, stunting of plant growth, seed sterility, or a
combination of such symptoms were called as yellow-type of viral diseases.

1. Mulberry dwarf mycoplasma = caused by Mycoplasma like organism rather than virus
transmitted by insect vector (leafhopper)

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F. Nursery diseases: Although suitable methods have been suggested for the vegetative
propagation of mulberry, its initial establishment is greatly afflicted by many soilborne diseases,
resulting in poor survival, establishment and growth of plants in nurseries as well as in main
fields. Due to infection, the bark of stem-cuttings rots or decays leading to failure of cuttings to
sprout, or the saplings suddenly wither and die. The diseases cause about 30% mortality of
mulberry stem-cuttings and death of saplings, which is, however, still severe (more than 50%) in
case of poor-rooting but otherwise high- yielding mulberry varieties. Since the diseases affect
initial establishment i.e., nursery stages of plantation, they are usually called "nursery diseases".
Nursery diseases associated with mulberry are described here for their symptoms, causal
pathogens and control measures.
1. Stem canker = Botryodiplodia theobromae
2. Cutting rot = Fusarium solani
3. Collar rot = Phoma mororum
4. Die back = Botryodiplodia theobromae

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PRACTICE:

1. Give an account on the classification of mulberry diseases.

2. Give a detail account on the classification of mulberry diseases.

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Lesson 3: INFLUENCE OF BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC FACTORS ON THE INCIDENCE

OF PLANT DISEASES

A. DISEASES CAUSED BY BIOTIC FACTORS (Parasitic/Biological/Living):

Biotic causes of plant diseases are those that are biological in origin. There are five major biotic
causes of plant diseases. These are the fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes and phytoplasmas etc.,
are also known as parasitic diseases. These diseases can be recognized by the presence of
specific symptoms and signs on the host plants. Based on the infection, the symptoms can be
classified in two ways viz., primary and secondary. Primary symptoms appear immediately after
establishment of pathogen while secondary symptoms appear in distant and un-invaded parts of
the plant. Further, the symptoms can be categorized as (i) those that occur on aboveground
(shoot) parts, and (ii) those that occur on ground (root) parts of the host.

[Note: Types of biotic factors (causal organism) is mentioned in classification of mulberry

plant diseases]

SYMPTOMS OF BIOTIC DISEASES: Different pathogens cause specific disease symptoms

within a host. When only one particular pathogen is involved there are often a number of

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symptoms which together form a characteristic symptom-picture or syndrome to which a specific

disease name is given. For example, in downy mildew, initial symptoms on leaves are the ‘oil
spot’, which then develops fluffy sporulation on the underside of the leaf. Later, infected leaves
produce necrotic lesions. Thus, the recognition of disease by symptoms comes largely with
experience. However, symptoms generally can be grouped depending on the process by which
they develop. These are as follows:

➢ Death or Necrosis - Various terms describe the extent and shape of necrotic lesions,
particularly on leaves: stripe for narrow, elongated lesions; scorch, scald, and blotch for
indefinite areas which often become blanched and then brittle; and leaf spot for well defined
lesions of limited extent. Sometimes the dead tissue of a leaf spot falls away and the
symptom is called shot-hole.
➢ Abnormal increase in tissues - Hypertrophy - an increase in the size of cells in the plant
tissues. Hyperplasia - an increase in the number of plant cells. The common symptoms of
these types are leaf curl, witches’ brooms, galls, warts, cankers and scab.
➢ Abnormal decrease in size - Hypoplasia - failure to attain normal size or development. In
some diseases it is common to see an overall dwarfing or stunting of the plant or affected
plant parts. The various hypoplasia symptoms are as follows; (i) Chlorosis (ii) Mosaic (iii)
Dwarfing (iv) Yellow Net- Vein.

➢ Colour change - Yellowing, or chlorosis, is a common symptom of disease often associated

with tissues surrounding a necrotic area. The chlorophyll may be degraded or fail to
develop. Other colour changes may also be seen, such as development of red pigments
(called anthocyanins), and silvering of leaves through the formation of air spaces as
affected tissues break down. Viruses commonly cause these symptoms. Colour changes can
also be caused by non living (abiotic) factors such as nutritional deficiencies and should not
be confused with symptoms caused by pathogens.
➢ Wilting - An interference with the normal movement of water within the plant can cause
wilting symptoms.
➢ Transformation of plant organs or their unusual development - In some plant species,
infected flowers can bear rudimentary stamens. In the case of cereal smuts, the grain will be
filled with fungal spores rather than starch. In brown rot diseases of stone fruit, infected fruit
can be transformed into mummified fruit.
➢ Tissue disintegration - This symptom is mainly associated with fruit infections and is
termed rot (for example, Botrytis bunch rot). It may be accompanied by a release of cell
fluids (leak). In some cases the cells may crumble to a powdery mass (dry rot).
➢ Gummation - Some pathogens can cause excessive gum formation, particularly associated
with tree infections. Bacteria commonly cause this symptom.

Sign on host plants caused by biotic factors: Signs can be seen on infected portion of host
plant by morphological changes as well as with the help of a microscope. A temporary mount of
diseases portion is to be prepared for microscopic examination, which probably confirms the
presence of pathogen on diseases portion. In some cases, when the signs are very difficult to see

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on the host plant, the isolation of pathogen is necessary for confirmation. The signs are divided
into three categories as follows.

i. Vegetative structures: vegetative structure are present with the symptoms on the host plants
in the following forms; (i) Mycelium (ii) Felt (iii) Haustorium (iv) Pathogen cells (v)
Rhizomorph (vi) Sclerotium.

ii. Reproductive structures: The following forms of reproductive structures are usually
associated with the symptoms on host plants (i) Zoosporangium and Zoospores (ii)
Sporangium and Spores (iii) Oospore (iv) Zygospores (v) Ascus and Ascospore (vi)
Ascocarp (Cleistothecium, Pedrithecium, Apothecium) (vii) Basidium and Basidiospore (viii)
Aecium (ix) Uredium (x) Telium (xi) Conidia (xii) Pycnidium (xiii) Acervulus (xiv)
Sporodochium (xv) Chlamydospore (xvi) Worm and Egg Masses.

iii. Disease products: diseases products are in the form of gases and exudation, which are
formed during the symptom appearance or produced by the pathogens during infection (i)
odor (ii) ooze.

B. DISEASES CAUSED BY ABIOTIC FACTORS (Non-parasitic / Non-biological / Non-

living)

These diseases can be caused by a variety of ABIOTIC (non-biological) factors. Often

plant abnormalities caused by abiotic factors are called INJURIES. Common abiotic factors that
can influence plant health include nutritional problems (including nutrient deficiencies or
toxicities), pesticide exposure, environmental pollutants, and adverse weather. The response to
abiotic factors can vary depending on the plant species and their adaptability. Such type of
diseases can be recognized only through symptoms that appear on the plants. These
diseases cannot be transmitted from diseases to healthy plant and therefore are also known
as non–infectious diseases. The following factors are responsible for the development of non-
parasitic diseases.

The following are some of the factors which cause common abiotic disorders:

1) Soil moisture - Low soil moisture can cause the accumulation of toxic ions, such as
manganese and boron, causing tissue damage. Other consequences are reduced photosynthesis
and wilting when atmospheric demand is high. High soil moisture can have several adverse
effects. Low oxygen in the soil can increase anaerobiosis and the build up of toxic products.
These can initially cause root damage and eventually lead to shoot damage.

2) Soil temperature - Low soil temperatures usually stunt plants, while extremely low
temperatures, can cause root death. Moderately low temperatures can prevent root development.
High soil temperatures can also cause root death.

3) Nutrient and mineral deficiencies - Plant abnormalities and growth reduction can occur
when there is a deficiency or imbalance in elements essential for plant growth. The deficiency
symptoms can vary from species to species for a given element or nutrient.

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4) Chilling injury - Some of the common symptoms of chilling injury are surface pitting,
increased susceptibility to attack by weak and aggressive pathogens, and surface and internal
necrosis.

5) Freezing injury - Usually freezing causes tissue damage to the internal cell contents. This can
cause direct cell necrosis and even long cracks in the trunk of vines and trees.

6) High atmospheric temperature - In general, high temperatures (>45°C) increase respiration,

wilting, denaturation and coagulation of proteins, and cause injury and death of tissues in higher
plants. Other possible symptoms are wilting, scorching of leaves and loss of leaves.

7) Unfavourable light intensity - Insufficient light may cause etiolation, stunting, reduced
flowering, premature leaf fall and other abnormalities. High light intensities can scorch or roll
leaves, dry up flowers, and accentuate spray damage.

8) Wind damage - Wind directly affects evapotranspiration, and its action can lead to root injury
and in turn to root diseases. Wind can also carry spores of pathogens. Conversely, stagnant air
can cause major air pollution problems. The symptoms of air pollution are dependant on the type
of pollutant, and may result in plant toxicity leading ultimately to death.

9) Improper use of chemicals - Incorrect use of chemicals can cause serious damage to plants.
These chemicals include fertilisers, fungicides, insecticides, herbicides, stimulants, diluents,
stickers and spreaders, and special action chemicals.

10) Others - Hail, ice and lightning can not only damage plants, but also produce wounds
through which many pathogens may cause infection.

SYMPTOMS OF ABIOTIC DISEASES: Common abiotic factors that can influence plant
health include nutritional problems (including nutrient deficiencies or toxicities), pesticide
exposure, environmental pollutants, and adverse weather.

➢ Nutrient abnormalities - Often nutrient abnormalities show up as DISCOLORATIONS of

foliage. Common discoloration symptoms include YELLOWING or CHLOROSIS, and
REDDENING. Noting the pattern of yellowing or other discoloration can sometimes provide
clues as to the type of abnormality. While yellowing is often a symptom of a nutrient
deficiency, it can also indicate an overabundance of a particular nutrient.
➢ Pesticide exposure – Common symptoms of herbicide exposure include CURLING and
CUPPING. In addition to improper use of herbicides, improper use of fungicides can lead to
plant injury. Example, MARGINAL BURNING on the leaves.
➢ Environmental pollutants - Contaminants in water or the air can also affect plant health.
These pollutants can cause a wide range of symptoms, many of which may look like damage
caused by nutrient abnormalities or even insect damage. Ex. MARGINAL BRONZING,
LESIONS etc.
➢ Adverse weather/climatic conditions - Extremes of weather can also lead to plant injury.
Common weather-related injuries include COLD INJURY. On the other end of the spectrum

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are HEAT INJURIES. Lack of water can also be due to DROUGHT STRESS during periods
when rain is not plentiful. The REDDENING of branches is a typical symptom of drought
stress.

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PRACTICE:

1. Explain the Symptoms of biotic diseases.

2. Explain Signs of host plants due to biotic disease.
3. Write a note on the abiotic factors that cause diseases in plants.
4. Explain the symptoms of abiotic diseases.

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Lesson 4: MINERAL DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS IN MULBERRY

(SOURCE: Wade Berry, UCLA)

Pathways of Symptom Development At first glance, it would appear that the distinction
of deficiency symptoms for the 13 known essential mineral nutrients should be relatively simple.
But such an assumption is incorrect. In fact, the deficiency symptoms are quite complex because
each nutrient has a number of different biological functions and each function may have an
independent set of interactions with a wide range of environmental parameters. In addition, the
expression of these symptoms varies for acute or chronic deficiency conditions. Acute
deficiency occurs when a nutrient is suddenly no longer available to a rapidly growing
plant. Chronic deficiency occurs when there is a limited but continuous supply of a nutrient, at a
rate that is insufficient to meet the growth demands of the plant.

Magnesium: The Mg-deficient leaves show advanced interveinal chlorosis, with necrosis
developing in the highly chlorotic tissue. In its advanced form, magnesium deficiency may
superficially resemble potassium deficiency. In the case of magnesium deficiency the symptoms
generally start with mottled chlorotic areas developing in the interveinal tissue. The interveinal
laminae tissue tends to expand proportionately more than the other leaf tissues, producing a
raised puckered surface, with the top of the puckers progressively going from chlorotic to
necrotic tissue. In some plants such as the Brassica (i.e., the mustard family, which includes
vegetables such as broccoli, brussel sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, collards, kale, kohlrabi,
mustard, rape, rutabaga and turnip), tints of orange, yellow, and purple may also develop.

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Manganese: These leaves show a light interveinal chlorosis developed under a limited supply of
Mn. The early stages of the chlorosis induced by manganese deficiency are somewhat similar to
iron deficiency. They begin with a light chlorosis of the young leaves and netted veins of the
mature leaves especially when they are viewed through transmitted light. As the stress increases,
the leaves take on a gray metallic sheen and develop dark freckled and necrotic areas along the
veins. A purplish luster may also develop on the upper surface of the leaves. Grains such as oats,
wheat, and barley are extremely susceptible to manganese deficiency. They develop a light
chlorosis along with gray specks which elongate and coalesce, and eventually the entire leaf
withers and dies.

Molybdenum: These leaves show some mottled spotting along with some interveinal chlorosis.
An early symptom for molybdenum deficiency is a general overall chlorosis, similar to the
symptom for nitrogen deficiency but generally without the reddish coloration on the undersides
of the leaves. This results from the requirement for molybdenum in the reduction of nitrate,
which needs to be reduced prior to its assimilation by the plant (see textbook Chapter 12). Thus,
the initial symptoms of molybdenum deficiency are in fact those of nitrogen deficiency.
However, molybdenum has other metabolic functions within the plant, and hence there are
deficiency symptoms even when reduced nitrogen is available. In the case of cauliflower, the
lamina of the new leaves fail to develop, resulting in a characteristic whiptail appearance. In
many plants there is an upward cupping of the leaves and mottled spots developing into large
interveinal chlorotic areas under severe deficiency. At high concentrations, molybdenum has a
very distinctive toxicity symptom in that the leaves turn a very brilliant orange.

Nitrogen: The chlorotic symptoms shown by this leaf resulted from nitrogen deficiency. A light
red cast can also be seen on the veins and petioles. Under nitrogen deficiency, the older mature
leaves gradually change from their normal characteristic green appearance to a much paler green.
As the deficiency progresses these older leaves become uniformly yellow (chlorotic). Leaves
approach a yellowish white color under extreme deficiency. The young leaves at the top of the
plant maintain a green but paler color and tend to become smaller in size. Branching is reduced
in nitrogen deficient plants resulting in short, spindly plants. The yellowing in nitrogen
deficiency is uniform over the entire leaf including the veins. However in some instances, an
interveinal necrosis replaces the chlorosis commonly found in many plants. In some plants the
underside of the leaves and/or the petioles and midribs develop traces of a reddish or purple
color. In some plants this coloration can be quite bright. As the deficiency progresses, the older
leaves also show more of a tendency to wilt under mild water stress and become senescent much
earlier than usual. Recovery of deficient plants to applied nitrogen is immediate (days) and
spectacular.

Phosphorus: These phosphorus-deficient leaves show some necrotic spots. As a rule,

phosphorus deficiency symptoms are not very distinct and thus difficult to identify. A major
visual symptom is that the plants are dwarfed or stunted. Phosphorus deficient plants develop
very slowly in relation to other plants growing under similar environmental conditions but
without phosphorus deficiency. Phosphorus deficient plants are often mistaken for unstressed but
much younger plants. Some species such as tomato, lettuce, corn and the brassicas develop a

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distinct purpling of the stem, petiole and the under sides of the leaves. Under severe deficiency
conditions there is also a tendency for leaves to develop a blue-gray luster. In older leaves under
very severe deficiency conditions a brown netted veining of the leaves may develop.

Sulfur: This leaves show a general overall chlorosis while still retaining some green color. The
veins and petioles show a very distinct reddish color. The visual symptoms of sulfur deficiency
are very similar to the chlorosis found in nitrogen deficiency. However, in sulfur deficiency the
yellowing is much more uniform over the entire plant including young leaves. The reddish color
often found on the underside of the leaves and the petioles has a more pinkish tone and is much
less vivid than that found in nitrogen deficiency. With advanced sulfur deficiency brown lesions
and/or necrotic spots often develop along the petiole, and the leaves tend to become more erect
and often twisted and brittle.

Zinc: This leaves show an advanced case of interveinal necrosis. In the early stages of zinc
deficiency the younger leaves become yellow and pitting develops in the interveinal upper
surfaces of the mature leaves. Guttation (see textbook Figure 4.5) is also prevalent. As the
deficiency progress these symptoms develop into an intense interveinal necrosis but the main
veins remain green, as in the symptoms of recovering iron deficiency. In many plants, especially
trees, the leaves become very small and the internodes shorten, producing a rosette like
appearance.

Boron: These boron-deficient leaves show a light general chlorosis. The tolerance of plants to
boron varies greatly, to the extent that the boron concentrations necessary for the growth of
plants having a high boron requirement may be toxic to plants sensitive to boron. Boron is poorly
transported in the phloem of most plants, with the exception of those plants that utilize complex
sugars, such as sorbitol, as transport metabolites. In a recent study, (see Brown et al. 1999)
tobacco plants engineered to synthesize sorbitol were shown to have increased boron mobility,
and to better tolerate boron deficiency in the soil.

Calcium: These calcium-deficient leaves show necrosis around the base of the leaves. The very
low mobility of calcium is a major factor determining the expression of calcium deficiency
symptoms in plants. Classic symptoms of calcium deficiency include blossom-end rot of tomato
(burning of the end part of tomato fruits), tip burn of lettuce, blackheart of celery and death of
the growing regions in many plants. All these symptoms show soft dead necrotic tissue at rapidly
growing areas, which is generally related to poor translocation of calcium to the tissue rather
than a low external supply of calcium. Very slow growing plants with a deficient supply of
calcium may re-translocate sufficient calcium from older leaves to maintain growth with only a
marginal chlorosis of the leaves. This ultimately results in the margins of the leaves growing
more slowly than the rest of the leaf, causing the leaf to cup downward. This symptom often
progresses to the point where the petioles develop but the leaves do not, leaving only a dark bit
of necrotic tissue at the top of each petiole. Plants under chronic calcium deficiency have a much
greater tendency to wilt than non-stressed plants.

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Chloride: These leaves have abnormal shapes, with distinct interveinal chlorosis. Plants require
relatively high chlorine concentration in their tissues. Chlorine is very abundant in soils, and
reaches high concentrations in saline areas, but it can be deficient in highly leached inland areas.
The most common symptoms of chlorine deficiency are chlorosis and wilting of the young
leaves. The chlorosis occurs on smooth flat depressions in the interveinal area of the leaf blade.
In more advanced cases there often appears a characteristic bronzing on the upper side of the
mature leaves. Plants are generally tolerant of chloride, but some species such as avocados, stone
fruits, and grapevines are sensitive to chlorine and can show toxicity even at low chloride
concentrations in the soil.

Copper: These copper-deficient leaves are curled, and their petioles bend downward. Copper
deficiency may be expressed as a light overall chlorosis along with the permanent loss of turgor
in the young leaves. Recently matured leaves show netted, green veining with areas bleaching to
a whitish gray. Some leaves develop sunken necrotic spots and have a tendency to bend
downward. Trees under chronic copper deficiency develop a rosette form of growth. Leaves are
small and chlorotic with spotty necrosis.

Iron: These iron-deficient leaves show strong chlorosis at the base of the leaves with some green
netting. The most common symptom for iron deficiency starts out as an interveinal chlorosis of
the youngest leaves, evolves into an overall chlorosis, and ends as a totally bleached leaf. The
bleached areas often develop necrotic spots. Up until the time the leaves become almost
completely white, they will recover upon application of iron. In the recovery phase the veins are
the first to recover as indicated by their bright green color. This distinct venial re-greening
observed during iron recovery is probably the most recognizable symptom in all of classical
plant nutrition. Because iron has a low mobility, iron deficiency symptoms appear first on the
youngest leaves. Iron deficiency is strongly associated with calcareous soils and anaerobic
conditions, and it is often induced by an excess of heavy metals.

Potassium: Some of these leaves show marginal necrosis (tip burn), others at a more advanced
deficiency status show necrosis in the interveinal spaces between the main veins along with
interveinal chlorosis. This group of symptoms is very characteristic of K deficiency symptoms.

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