CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

Chapter 1 Review of Vector Algebra

1.1. Vector
1.1.1 Definition of a Vector
Definition: A vector is a quantity that posses both magnitude and direction, and obeys the
parallelogram law of addition. 
A
   
    B C  A B
Commutative: A B  B  A 
   B

C  A B A
     
D  A B D  A B 
 B
A
Unit vector: eˆ A  
A

1.1.2 Scalar Product (Dot Product)

   
A  B  A B cos  
B
   
Where A , B are the magnitude of the vectors A and B . 
 
 ( 0     ) is the angle between the vectors A and B when 
A
they are arranged “tail to tail”.
  
 B cos  is the projection of vector B to vector A .
   
 If    / 2 , A and B are orthogonal to each other, and A  B  0
   
 Commutative: A B  B  A

Example: F
  
Work done by a force F during an infinitesimal displacement S 
S

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1.1.3. Vector Product (Cross Product)

   
A  B  A B sin  eˆn

 
Where ên is the unit vector normal to the plane containing A and B . Direction is determined
according to the “right-hand” rule. 0    

 
A  B  Area of the parallelogram ên 
B



If the two vectors are parallel, that is if   0 or A
  
   , then A  B  0 .

       
 Vector product is not commutative. i.e., A  B  B  A . However, A  B  B  A

Application example:
  
Moment about O: M O  R  F

F

O

R

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1.1.4. Scalar Triple Product:

        
A  ( B  C )  C  ( A  B)  B  (C  A)

is the volume of the parallelepiped formed by 

   
the non-coplanar vectors A , B and C . C
B


A

1.1.5. Vector Triple Product:

        
A  ( B  C )  ( A  C ) B  ( A  B)C
 
 mB  nC

Where m, n are scalar parameters.

     
 A  ( B  C )  ( A  B)  C

Proof:
     
( A  B)  C  C  ( A  B)
     
 [(C  B) A  (C  A) B]
     
 (C  A) B  (C  B) A
    
Thus, vector ( A  B)  C is inside the plane of vectors A and B , while the vector
    
A  ( B  C ) is inside the plane of vectors B and C .
     
Therefore: A  ( B  C )  ( A  B)  C

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1.2 Vector Calculus

    
If A and B are differentiable vector functions of a scalar q, and U  A  B , then,

  
dU dA dB
 
dq dq dq
 
d (U ) d  dU
 U  ;  , q are scalars.
dq dq dq
   
d ( A  B) dA   dB
  B  A
dq dq dq

   
d ( A  B) dA   dB
  B  A
dq dq dq
     
d [ A  ( B  C ] dA    dB   dC
  (B  C)  A  [  C  B  ]
dq dq dq dq
     
d [ A  ( B  C )] dA    dB   dC
  (B  C)  A  [  C  B  ]
dq dq dq dq

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1.3 Partial Derivatives of Vectors

 
If A and B are two vectors depending on more than one scalar variable, say q1 , q 2 and q 3 for
example, then,

A A(q1  q1 , q 2 , q3 )  A(q1 , q 2 , q3 )
 lim
q1 q  0 q1
   
 ( A  B ) A   B
  B  A
q1 q1 q1
   
 ( A  B ) A   B
  B  A
q1 q1 q1
   
 2 ( A  B)  ( A  B)
 { }
q1q 2 q1 q 2
 
 A   B
 {  B  A }
q1 q 2 q 2
     
2 A  A B A B   2 B
 B     A
q1q 2 q 2 q1 q1 q 2 q1q 2

 
2 A 2 A 
  if A has continuous partial derivatives of the second order at least.
q1q 2 q 2 q1

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1.4 Vector Space and Bases

A set of S n of all n-tuples [ A1 , A2 , An ] of real/complex numbers is called a linear vector space,
and its elements are called vectors.

We denote [ A1 , A2 , An ] by the symbol A and the numbers of A1 , A2 , An are called

components of A .

The vector spaces S 1 , S 2 and S 3 have simple geometric interpretations.


To picture S 3 , for instance, we represent the vector A by [ A1 , A2 , A3 ] by the line segment in
space having its initial point at the origin and its end point at the point with coordinate
(q1 , q2 , q3 ) . (q1 , q2 , q3 ) needs not necessarily possess the dimension of length.

There is a distinction between the triple [ A1 , A2 , A3 ] , which we call a vector, and the triple
(q1 , q2 , q3 ) , which represents a point. We do different things with them.

 We can add two triples [ A1 , A2 , A3 ] and [ B1 , B2 , B3 ] together for instance, but we

certainly do not add two points together.

 On the other hand, we speak of the distance between two points, but not the distance
between two vectors.

1.4.1. Linearly Independence, Bases and Dimension

  
A set of vectors A1 , A2 , AP in S n is linearly independent if and only if the only linear
combination of
   
C1 A1  C2 A2    C P Ap  0

is true when C1  C2    C P  0 .

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 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

1.4.2. Linear Dependence

  
A set of vectors A1 , A2 , AP in S n is linearly dependent if there exist scalars C j , not all zero, to
satisfy the equation of
   
C1 A1  C2 A2    C P AP  0 .

If they are linearly dependent, then, at least one of the A j s can be expressed as a linear
combination of the others. For instance, Suppose C 2  0 , then, it follows that

 C  C  C 
A2  [( 1 ) A1  ( 3 ) A2    ( P ) AP ]
C2 C2 C2

We say that a vector space S is n-dimensional if it contains a set of n linearly independent vectors,
but not n+ 1 linearly independent vectors.

1.4.3. Basis
  
A basis for a given vector space S n is a set of linearly independent vectors e1 , e2 ,en . Any

vector A in S n can be “expanded in terms of them” – expressed as a linear combination of them.
   
A  C1 e1  C2 e2    Cn en (1)
or

A  [C1 , C2 Cn ]

1.4.4. Uniqueness

Question: Is the expression of A  [C1 , C2 Cn ] unique ?


Proof : If A also have another representation in the from of

   
A  d1 e1  d 2 e2    d n en (2)

Subtracting (2) from (1), we have

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 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

   
(c1  d1 ) e1  (c2  d 2 ) e2    (cn  d n ) en  0 .

  
Since e1 , e2 ,en are linear independent, we can say,

(c1  d1 )  (c2  d 2 )  (cn  d n )  0

Therefore, the expression is unique.

1.4.5. Orthogonal and orthonormal

    
Definition: The bases e1 , e2 ,en are orthogonal if ei  e j  0 for i  j .

  
Definition: The bases e1 , e2 ,en are orthonormal
   
if ei  e j  0 for i  j and ei  ei  1 for i  j .

Example:
  
e1  (1, 0, 0) , e2  (1, 1, 0) , e3  (1, 1, 1) ,

  
Consider the vector sets e1 , e2 , e3 .

1 (1, 0, 0)   2 (1, 1, 0)   3 (1, 1, 1)  (0, 0, 0)

Then

1   2   3  0 ; 1   2  0 ; 3  0
  
Therefore, vector set e1 , e2 , e3 is linear independent, are they can be used as a set of base vectors.

     
However, since e1  e2  0 , e1  e3  0 , e2  e3  0 , thus, they are not orthogonal.


n e2 1 1 
Normalized the vector: unit vector e 2    ( , , 0) in the direction of e2
e2 2 2

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 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

1.5. Curvilinear Coordinates

1.5.1. Cartesian Coordinate System

Rectangular coordinate system X, Y, Z coordinates and the corresponding unit base vector
iˆ, ˆj, kˆ which are orthonormal. z

iˆ  ˆj  iˆ  kˆ  ˆj  kˆ  0

iˆ  iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  1

k̂
iˆ  ˆj  kˆ; ˆj  kˆ  iˆ; kˆ  iˆ  ˆj
y
ĵ

A  Ax iˆ  AY ˆj  Az kˆ
iˆ,
  
Where Ax  A  iˆ; Ay  A  ˆj ; Az  A  kˆ .
x
In other words, Ax , Ay , Az are the components of
 
vector A , and there are the projections of A on X, Y,
Z axes respectively.

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 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

1.5.2 Curvilinear Coordinates

In vector space S 3 (three-dimensional space), we defined a vector, analytically, as an ordered set

of three numbers that are unique respect to a chosen base, i.e., A  [ A1 , A2 , A 3 ] .

Let coordinate q1 , q2 , q3 are known as the general coordinates of a point (they need not
necessarily to posses the dimension of length). In other words, they are not necessary the
component of the position vector describing the point.

Consider a Cartesian coordinate space X , Y , Z , consider three function defined by

q1  q1 ( x, y, z )  const  C1
q 2  q 2 ( x, y, z )  const  C 2
q3  q3 ( x, y, z )  const  C3

If these functions are single valued and can be solved uniquely for x, y, z by relations

x  x(q1 , q2 , q3 ); y  y(q1 , q2 , q3 ); z  z(q1 , q2 , q3 ) ,

and also if these functions have continuous derivatives,

then, q1 , q2 , q3 can be a curvilinear q1  q1 ( x, y, z )  C1

coordinate of P  P( x, y, z ) .
q3 axis q2 axis
z
The surfaces:
q3  q3 ( x, y, z )  C3
q1  q1 ( x, y, z)  C1
q1 axis
q2  q2 ( x, y, z)  C2
q3  q3 ( x, y, z )  C3

are coordinate surfaces, and each pair y

x
of these surfaces interact in curves
called coordinate curves or lines.

If the coordinate surfaces interact at right angles, then the curvilinear coordinate system is
orthogonal.

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 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

1.5.3 Space Curve

 
If R  R(q) is the position vector joining origin O of a coordinate system and any point
 
P ( x, y, z ) , then R  R(q) is given by:
z

R(q)  x(q)iˆ  y(q) ˆj  z (q)kˆ . P(xi, yi, zi)
 Si ê N
The space curve C is defined by R(q) .
 ê B
dR êT
is a vector in the direction of the tangent to C.
dq O

If q is taken as the arc length S measured from some fixed y

 x
dR
points on C , then is a unit tangent vector , is denoted by
dS
êT .

The rate at which êT changes with respect to S is a measure of the curvature of C and is given
deˆ
by T , a normal to the curve at the point. If ê N is the unit vector in the direction of this normal,
ds
deˆ 1
then eˆ N  K T , where K is called curvature of C at the specified point and   is the
dS K
radius of curvature at that point.

A unit vector ê B perpendicular to êT and ê N such as eˆB  eˆT  eˆ N is called the binormal to the
curve.

The directions T, N and B form a localized right-handed rectangular coordinate system at any
specified points of C .

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1.5.4 Definition of Scale factors and Unit Vectors


Let R  x iˆ  y ˆj  z kˆ be the position vector of a point P(q1 , q2 , q3 ) in a curvilinear coordinate
 
system, i.e., R  R(q1 , q2 , q3 ) . A tangent to q1 -curve (axis) at P (at which q 2 and q 3 are

R
constant) is . Then, a unit vector is given by:
q1
   
R R R R
eˆ1  / or  h1 ê1 h1  .
q1 q1 q1 q1

  
R R R
Similarly eˆ2  / ; h2  ,
q 2 q 2 q 2
  
R R R
eˆ3  / ; h3 
q3 q3 q3

h1 , h2 , h3 are called the scale factors and eˆ1 , eˆ2 , eˆ3 are called unit vectors in the increasing
direction of q1 , q 2 and q 3 .

Note: The scale factors relate the differential distance to the differential of thee coordinates.
These scale factors varying from point to point, and thus are, in general, function of position.
 
Since R  R(q1 , q2 , q3 ) , we have
  
 R R R
dR  dq1  dq 2  dq3  h1eˆ1 dq1  h2 eˆ2 dq 2  h3 eˆ3 dq3
q1 q 2 q3
 h1 dq1eˆ1  h2 dq 2 eˆ2  h3 dq3 eˆ3  ds1eˆ1  ds 2 eˆ2  ds3 eˆ3

 dS

Where ds1 , ds 2 , ds3 denote elemental distance along q1 , q 2 and q 3 axes respectively.
 
The differential of arc length dS can be determined from (dS ) 2  dR  dR

M N
In general (dS ) 2   (hm eˆm  hn eˆn )dq m dq n
m 1 n 1

[Along q1 -curve (axis), q 2 and q 3 are constants, thus, dR  h1dq1ê1 , therefore, arc length along
q1 at point P is ds1  h1dq1 . Similarly, ds2  h2 dq2 and ds3  h3 dq3 ].

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For orthogonal systems: eˆ1  eˆ2  eˆ1  eˆ3  eˆ2  eˆ3  0 ,

Therefore, (dS ) 2  h1 dq1  h2 dq2  h3 dq3

2 2 2 2 2 2

A space curve can be represented by parametric equations such as x  x(q) , y  y(q) and
z  z (q) .

A space surface can be represented by a two parameter function family,

x  x(q1 , q2 ) , y  y(q1 , q2 ) and z  z (q1 , q2 ) ,

A volume in space can be represented by a three-parametric family, x  x(q1 , q2 , q3 ) ,

y  y(q1 , q2 , q3 ) and z  z (q1 , q2 , q3 ) . Keeping any one of the qs in constant generates a surface.
Keeping any two of the q’s in constant generates a space curve.

Example:
 Cartesian system (X,Y,Z): X constant  a surface parallel to Y-Z plane
 Cylindrical system(R,,z) : R constant  a surface of a cylinder
 Spherical system: R constant  a surface of a sphere

z z z
x=constant R=constan
t R=constan
t

y y y

x x x
Cartesian system Cylindrical system Spherical system
(x,y,z) (r,,z) (R,,)

Review:
x  x(q) , y  y(q) , z  z (q)  Curve in space
x  x(q1 , q2 ) , y  y(q1 , q2 ) , z  z (q1 , q2 )  Surface in space
x  x(q1 , q2 , q3 ) , y  y(q1 , q2 , q3 ) , z  z (q1 , q2 , q3 )  Volume in space

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1.6 Curvilinear Surfaces

  
Let R  R(q1 , q2 ) represent a space surface, let (u 0 , v0 ) be a given point on the surface. R(u 0 , q 2 )

represents a space curve given by q1  u 0 (i.e., a line parallel to the q 2 -axis). R(q1 , v0 )
represents another space curve given by q 2  v0 (i.e., a line parallel to the q1 -axis).
 q1
R (u0,v0)
R

at (u 0 , v0 ) is a tangent to the curve q1  u 0 q2
q 2 R
 q1=u
0
q1

R
at (u 0 , v0 ) is a tangent to the curve q 2  v0
q1
q2
  q2=v0
R R
 is a vector normal to the plane
q1 q 2
containing the two tangents.
 
R R

q1 q 2
  is the unit vector normal to the given surface at (u 0 , v0 )
R R

q1 q 2


 R
Elemental/differential distance along the curve q 2  v0 is ds1  h1dq1eˆ1  dq1eˆ1 . It becomes
q1
   
  R R R R along the curve q 2  v0
dR  dS  dq1  dq 2  dq3  dq1 
q1 q 2 q3 q1  on the surface q3  C

 dS1

 R
Similarly, elemental/differential distance along the curve q1  u 0 is ds 2  h2 dq 2 eˆ2  dq 2 eˆ2 .
q 2
It became
   
  R R R R along the curve q 2  v0
dR  dS  dq1  dq 2  dq3  dq 2 
q1 q 2 q3 q 2  on the surface q3  C

 dS 2

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 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA
  
dS1  dS 2  h1 h2 dq1 dq 2 eˆ1  eˆ2  dA3
Elemental/differential area at point (u 0 , v0 ) is given by ,
 h1 h2 dq1 dq 2 eˆ3

dA3 is directed out from the surface. dA3  h1h2 dq1dq2

Similarly, dA1  h2 h3 dq2 dq3 ê1 and dA1  h2 h3 dq2 dq3 ,

dA2  h3 h1dq3 dq1 ê2 and dA2  h3 h1dq3 dq1

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 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

1.7 Determination of Unit Vectors and Scale Factors

  
R R R
 h1 ê1 ;  h2 ê2 ;  h3 ê3
q1 q 2 q3

R
i.e.,  hi eˆi
qi
  
 R R R
dR  dq1  dq 2  dq3
q1 q 2 q3

 
R  R(q1 , q 2 , q3 )  x iˆ  y ˆj  z kˆ  hi eˆi
 x(q1 , q 2 , q3 ) iˆ  y (q1 , q 2 , q3 ) ˆj  z (q1 , q 2 , q3 ) kˆ

Therefore:

R x ˆ y ˆ z ˆ
 i j k  hi eˆi
qi qi qi qi

x 2 y 2 z 2
(hi eˆi )  (hi eˆi )  ( ) ( ) ( )  hi
2

qi qi qi

 x 2 y 2 z 2
hi  ( ) ( ) ( )
 qi qi qi

eˆi  1 { x iˆ  y ˆj  z kˆ}
 hi qi qi qi

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 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

Cylindrical Coordinate System

A point P in space is given by p(q1 , q2 , q3 ) or p(r , , z ) with base vector (eˆ1 , eˆ2 , eˆ3 ) given
by (eˆr , eˆ , eˆ z ) .
z
 x  r cos 

 y  r sin 
z  Z


r  0, 0    2 ;    Z   ez
y

dx  dr cos   r sin  d e
r
y  dr sin   r cos  d 
dz  dz
er
x

(ds) 2  h1 dq1  h2 dq 2  h3 dq3

2 2 2 2 2 2 Cylindrical system
(R,,z)
 (dx) 2  (dy ) 2  (dz ) 2
 (cos  dr ) 2  2r sin  d cos  dr  (r sin  d ) 2
 (sin  dr ) 2  2r sin  cos  dr d  (r cos  d ) 2  (dz ) 2
 (dr ) 2  r 2 (d ) 2  (dz ) 2

Therefore: h1  1; h2  r; h3  1

R
 hi eˆi
qi

R x ˆ y ˆ z ˆ
 i j k  hi eˆi
qi qi qi qi

r - Direction:

R x ˆ y ˆ z ˆ
hr eˆr   i j k  cos  iˆ  sin  ˆj  0 kˆ
r r r r
 hr  1
(hr eˆr )  (hr eˆr )  (hr ) 2  cos 2   sin 2   1  
eˆr  cos  iˆ  sin  ˆj

 - Direction:

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 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

R x ˆ y ˆ z ˆ
h eˆ   i j k  r sin  iˆ  r cos  ˆj  0 kˆ
   
 h  r
(h eˆ )  (h eˆ )  (h ) 2  r 2 (sin 2   cos2  )  r 2  
eˆ   sin  iˆ  cos ˆj

Z - Direction:

R x ˆ y ˆ z ˆ
hZ eˆZ   i j k  0 iˆ  0 ˆj  1 kˆ
Z Z Z Z
 hZ  1
(hZ eˆZ )  (hZ eˆZ )  (hZ ) 2  12   ˆ
eˆZ  k

Summarize:
eˆr  cos  iˆ  sin  ˆj hr  1
eˆ   sin  iˆ  cos  ˆj ; h  r
eˆ  kˆ
Z hz  1

Transformation relationship

 iˆ  cos   sin  0  eˆr   eˆr   cos  sin  0  iˆ 

 ˆ   
 j    sin  cos  0  eˆ  ; or  eˆ    sin 
   cos  0  ˆj 
kˆ   0 0 1 eˆZ  eˆZ   0 0 1 kˆ 
 

Derivatives of the unit vectors:

eˆr eˆ eˆZ

0 0 0
r r r
eˆr eˆ eˆZ
 eˆ ;  eˆr ; 0
  
eˆr eˆ eˆZ
0 0 0
z z z

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 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

Example:
 
If R  R(t )  reˆr  zeˆ z is the position vector of a particle in cylindrical coordinates, obtain
 
expression for velocity vector, V , and acceleration vector, a , at that point.

eˆr eˆ eˆ

Since eˆr  eˆr (r , , z ) , then, deˆr d  r dr  r dz
 r z
deˆr eˆr d eˆr dr eˆr dz
Therefore   
dt  dt r dt z dt

deˆ eˆ d eˆ dr eˆ dz

Similarly,   
dt  dt r dt z dt

deˆz eˆz d eˆz dr eˆz dz

  
dt  dt r dt z dt

 dR deˆ dr dz deˆ
V  r r  eˆr  eˆ z  z z
dt dt dt dt dt
e d er dr er dz
ˆ ˆ ˆ dr dz eˆ d eˆ z dr eˆ z dz
 r( r   )  eˆr  eˆ z  z ( z   )
 dt r dt z dt dt dt  dt r dt z dt
d dr dz
 reˆ  eˆr  eˆ z
dt dt dt
 d (reˆ d dr dz
  eˆr  eˆ z )
 dV dt dt dt
a 
dt dt
dr d deˆ d d 2 d 2 r dr deˆr d 2 z dz deˆ z
 eˆ r   reˆ 2  2 eˆr   2 eˆ z 
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
dr d d eˆ d eˆ dr eˆ dz d  d r
2 2
 eˆ  r (   )  reˆ 2  2 eˆr 
dt dt dt  dt r dt z dt dt dt
dr eˆr d eˆr dr eˆr dz d z2
dz eˆ d eˆ z dr eˆ z dz
(   )  2 eˆ z  ( z   )
dt  dt r dt z dt dt dt  dt r dt z dt
dr d d d d 2 d 2 r dr d d 2z
 eˆ  r eˆr  reˆ 2  2 eˆr  eˆ  2 eˆ z
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
d r2
d dr d d  2
d z2
 [ 2  r ( ) 2 ]eˆr  [2  r 2 ]eˆ  2 eˆ z
dt dt dt dt dt dt

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 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

Scale factors and unit vectors in Spherical coordinate system ( R,  , )


OB  R eˆR
OA  R sin  z
x  R sin  cos 
x  r sin  sin  eR
z  r cos  
B e

O R
hR  1 e
 A y
eˆR  sin  cos  iˆ  sin  sin  ˆj  cos  kˆ
x
h  R
(R     )
eˆ  cos  cos  iˆ  cos  sin  ˆj  sin  kˆ

h  R sin 
eˆ   sin  iˆ  cos  ˆj

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 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

1.8 Functions of Vector to Describe Physical Problems

Type of functions

 A scalar as a function of a scalar, for example:    (T )

 
 A vector as a function of a scalar, for example: R  R(t )

 A scalar as a function of a vector, for example: T  T (R)
  
 A vector as a function of a vector, for example: V  V (R)
   
General description:    ( R, t ) and A  A( R, t )

Scalar field: A scalar quantity given as a function of coordinate space and time, t, is called
scalar field.

p  p ( x, y , z , t ) T  T ( x, y , z , t )
For examples:  and 
 p ( R, t )  T ( R, t )

Vector field: A vector quantity given as a function of coordinate space and time, t, is called
vector field.
       
For examples: V  V ( x, y, z, t )  V ( R, t ) and M  M ( x, y, z, t )  M ( R, t )

 In general, a field denotes a region throughout which a quantity is defined as a function

of location within the region and time.

 If the quantity is independent of time, the field is steady or stationary.

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 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

1.9 Gradient
Gradient is a vector generated by the differentiation of a scalar function

Let    ( R)   (q1 , q2 , q3 )

We refer to the spatial variation of  in a particulate direction as a directional derivative, and in

general this derivative is different in different directions.

A simple but useful representation of directional derivative is introduced through grouping

together the partial derivatives of  along the coordinate axes (bases) as the components of a
vector called the gradient of  .
   
Consider the change of  over the directed distance dR (i, e., R  R  R ), find
  
d  lim
 [ ( R  R)   ( R)]  ?
R 0

From the total differential formula of the calculus, the first order differential in  will be
  
d  dq1  dq 2  dq3  high Orders terms
q1 q 2 q3
   1  1  1 
 dq1  dq 2  dq3  h1 dq1  h2 dq 2  h3 dq3
q1 q 2 q3 h1 q1 h2 q 2 h3 q3
1  1  1 
 ds1  ds 2  ds3
h1 q1 h2 q 2 h3 q3
 
Since dR  dS  ds1 eˆ1  ds2 eˆ2  ds3 eˆ3
1  1  1 
Now introduce a vector [ , , ] denoted by  in the curvilinear
h1 q1 h2 q 2 h3 q3
orthogonal coordinate system with unit vector (eˆ1 , eˆ2 . eˆ3 ) , then,
1  1  1 
d  [ , , ]  [ds1 , ds 2 , ds3 ]
h1 q1 h2 q 2 h3 q3
 
   dR    dS
 d
Since dS  dS  eˆS therefore,    eˆs
dS
d
    eˆs is a maximum when   ês is a maximum. i.e., when  and ê s are
dS
in the same direction. In other words,  is the direction of maximum changes of 
and  is the magnitude of the change.
 The direction of the gradient to a level of a scalar field is normal to the surface at a
given point, i.e.,  is a vector normal to  (q1 , q2 , q3 )  C . In the

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 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA
 
 (q1 , q2 , q3 )  C plane, d    dS  0 because  is a constant.   dS  0

means  and dS are orthogonal.
 Gradient is a vector composed of partial derivatives of a scalar  in the coordinate
directions or along the orthogonal basis of a vector space.

General notion of gradient:


In a scalar field of    (R) , the spatial variation of  can be calculated by
 
d    dR    dS .
 
Suppose a scalar field  is a function of a vector, i.e.,    (V ) where V is a vector.

Then:
   
d  dV1  dV2  dV3 or d  dV   .
V1 V2 V3

Where V1 ,V2 ,V3 are the components of vector V .

If  is a function of more than one vectors or is a function of several sets of independent

variables, i.e.,
 
   (q1 , q2 , q3 ,V1 ,V2 ,V3 , t )   ( R,V , t )

Then,
      
d  dq1  dq 2  dq  dV1  dV2  dV3  dt
q1 q 2 q3 V1 V2 V3 t
  
 dR    dV    dt
t

Integral definition of gradient:


  lim [   dA / V ]  lim [   eˆn dA / V ]
V 0 V 0
S S

where V is a infinitesimal arbitrary volume and S is the surface of the volume considered.
 
dA is elemental area on the surface. dA  eˆn dA and ên is a unit vector pointing outward normal
to the surface.

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 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

1.10 Contra-variant Vector and Covariant Vector

Contravariant components of a vector

 
For a position vector R  R(q1 , q2 , q3 )
  
 R R R
dR  dq1  dq 2  dq3
q1 q 2 q3
 h1eˆ1 dq1  h2 eˆ2 dq 2  h3 eˆ3 dq3

Consider the basis (h1eˆ1 , h2 eˆ2 , h3 eˆ3 ) , and expanding a vector A  A1eˆ1  A2 eˆ2  A3 eˆ3 in terms of
this basis and obtained.
  
 ~ ~ ~  ~ R ~ R ~ R
A  A1 (h1eˆ1 )  A2 (h2 eˆ2 )  A3 (h3 eˆ3 ) or A  A1  A2  A3
q1 q1 q1

~ ~ ~ 
( A1 , A2 , A3 ) are called the contra-variant component of A  A1eˆ1  A2 eˆ2  A3 eˆ3 .

R
Since is a tangent to the i –th coordinate axes, the bases are in the tangent space.
q i

~ ~ ~
A A A3
A1  1 ; A2  2 ; A3  .
h1 h2 h3


Covariant components of vector A  A1eˆ1  A2 eˆ2  A3 eˆ3

qi is a gradient to the i-th coordinate surface. In other words, qi is a gradient to the
surface qi  const .

eˆ1  eˆ  eˆ 
  2  3
h1 q1 h2 q 2 h3 q3

eˆ1 q1 eˆ2 q1 eˆ3 q1 eˆ1

q1     where ê1 is a vector normal to the qi  const surface.
h1 q1 h2 q 2 h3 q3 h1

eˆ2 eˆ
Similarily, q 2  and q3  3 .
h2 h3

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 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA


If we consider the basis (q1 , q2 , q3 ) , a vector A  A1eˆ1  A2 eˆ2  A3 eˆ3 can be expanded in
      eˆ  eˆ  eˆ
terms of this basis as A  A1q1  A2 q2  A3q3 or A  A1 1  A2 2  A3 3 .
h1 h2 h3
   
Where ( A1 ; A2 ; A3 ) are called the covariant component of vector A  A1eˆ1  A2 eˆ2  A3 eˆ3
  
A1 A2 A3
Where A1  ; A2  ; A3  .
h1 h2 h3

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 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

1.11 Divergence of a Vector Field


Definition: The divergence of a vector (   B ) at a point is the net outflow (efflux) of the
vector field per unit volume enclosing the point.

Let V be an elemental volume with a surface S . An element area on the surface S is A . If

B is a vector at a point in this vector field, then:
 
   B  dA
  B  DivB  lim [ S ]
V 0 V
   
Where B  dA  B  eˆn dA is the outflow of B through dA , and ên is a unit vector pointing
 
outward and normal to the surface.  B  dA is the net outflow (efflux) from the surface.
S
  
 If B  V the velocity vector, then,   V is the volume flux from the point, i.e., the rate
at which fluid volume is leaving a point per unit volume.
  
 If B  V the vector composed of density times the velocity vector, then,   V is the
mass outflow (efflux) from the surface.
 
Div V    V ;

V  V1 eˆ1  V2 eˆ2  V3 eˆ3

eˆ1  eˆ  eˆ 
  2  3
h1 q1 h2 q 2 h3 q3

 eˆ  eˆ  eˆ 
 V  ( 1  2  3 )  (V1 eˆ1  V2 eˆ2  V3 eˆ3 )
h1 q1 h2 q 2 h3 q3

Cartesian system:
   ˆ 
  V  (iˆ  ˆj  k )  (iˆV x  ˆjV y  kˆV z )
x y z
 (i V x  jV y  kˆV z )
ˆ ˆ  (iˆV x  ˆjV y  kˆV z )  (iˆV x  ˆjV y  kˆV z )
 iˆ   ˆj   kˆ 
x y z
iˆ ˆ V x ˆj ˆ V y k ˆ V  (i V x  ˆjV y  kˆV z ) ˆ  (iˆV x  ˆjV y  kˆV z )
ˆ
 iˆ  [V x i  Vy  j  V z  kˆ z ]  ˆj  k
x x x x x x y z
V V y V z
 x  
x y z

- 26 -
 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

Cylindrical system:
  eˆ  
  V  (eˆr   eˆ z )  (Vr eˆr  V eˆ  V z eˆ z )
r r  z
 (Vr eˆr  V eˆ  V z eˆ z ) eˆ  (Vr eˆr  V eˆ  V z eˆ z ) (Vr eˆr  V eˆ  V z eˆ z )
 eˆr     eˆ z 
r r  z
 (Vr eˆr  V eˆ  V z eˆ z )
Term 1  eˆr 
r
V eˆ V eˆ V eˆ
 eˆr  ( r eˆr  Vr r  r eˆ  V   z eˆ z  V z z )
r r r r r r
V
 r
r
eˆ  (Vr eˆr  V eˆ  V z eˆ z )
Term 2   
r 
eˆ V eˆ V eˆ V eˆ
   ( r eˆr  Vr r  r eˆ  V   z eˆ z  V z z )
r      
eˆ V V V
   ( r eˆr  Vr eˆ  r eˆ  V eˆr  z eˆ z )
r   
V 1 Vr
 r 
r r 
 (Vr eˆ r  V eˆ  V z eˆ z )
Term 3  eˆ z 
z
Vr eˆ V eˆ V eˆ
 eˆ z  ( eˆ r  Vr r  r eˆ  V   z eˆ z  V z z )
z z z z z z
V z

z
Therefore,
  eˆ  
  V  (eˆr   eˆ z )  (Vr eˆr  V eˆ  V z eˆ z )
r r  z
V V 1 V V z
 r  r  
r r r  z
1  (rVr ) V  (rVz )
 [   ]
r r  z

In general form:

 1 (h h V ) (h1 h3V2 ) (h1 h2V3 )

 V  [ 2 3 1   ]
h1 h2 h3 q1 q 2 q3

- 27 -
 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

Proof 1:

Generalized definition of divergence (from vector algebra)

eˆ1  eˆ  eˆ 
  2  3
h1 q1 h2 q 2 h3 q3
From the definition of covariant vector

eˆ1 eˆ2 eˆ3

q1  ; q 2  ; q3 
h1 h2 h3

  A    ( A1 eˆ1  A2 eˆ2  A3 eˆ3 )

Consider the first term:   ( A1 eˆ1 )    ( A1 (h1h2 q2  q3 )

Since eˆ1 , eˆ2 , eˆ3 is a orthogonal base vector, eˆ1  eˆ2  eˆ3  h2 q2  h3q3  h2 h3q2  q3 , then

  ( A1 eˆ1 )  ( A1 h2 h3 )  (q 2  q3 )  ( A1 h2 h3 )  (q 2  q3 )

eˆ eˆ
 ( A1 h2 h3 )  ( 2  3 )  ( A1 h2 h3 )  (q 2  q3 )
h2 h3
     
Since   ( A  B)  B  (  A)  A  (  B)

eˆ2 eˆ3
  ( A1 eˆ1 )  ( A1 h2 h3 )  (  )  ( A1 h2 h3 )  (q 2  q 3 )
h2 h3
eˆ eˆ
 ( A1 h2 h3 )  ( 2  3 )  ( A1 h2 h3 )[q 2  (  q 3 )  q 3  (  q 2 )]
h2 h3
eˆ
 ( A1 h2 h3 )  ( 1 )
h2 h3
eˆ  ( A1 h2 h3 ) eˆ2  ( A1 h2 h3 ) eˆ3  ( A1 h2 h3 ) eˆ
( 1   )( 1 )
h1 q1 h2 q 2 h3 q 3 h2 h3
1  ( A1 h2 h3 )

h1 h2 h3 q1

Similarly, term 2 and term 3 can be calculated.

Therefore:
 1 ( A1 h2 h3 ) (h1 h3 A2 ) (h1 h2 A3 )
 A  {   }
h1 h2 h3 q1 q 2 q3

- 28 -
 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

Proof 2:

Generalized definition of Divergence of a vector field using integral form


Let B  B1 eˆ1  B2 eˆ2  B3 eˆ3 , by definition
 
    dA
B surface 2
  B  DivB  lim [ S ] q2 axis
V 0 V
P(x,y,z)

Consider a volume element in a curvilinear z B
space around the point P(q1 , q2 , q3 ) with the
q3 axis
h1q1 , h2 q2 , h3 q3 as the edge of the surface1
volume.
q1 axis
Outflow in the DIV of q1 at point
P(q1 , q2 , q3 ) is given by
y
x

( B1 eˆ1  B2 eˆ2  B3 eˆ3 )  (eˆ1h2 h3 q2 q3 )  B1h2 h3 q2 q3

q1
Net outflow from the surface1, which is normal to q1 -axis with a distance from the point
2
P(q1 , q2 , q3 ) is given by

( B1 h2 h3 q 2 q3 ) q1
Surface 1 = B1 h2 h3 q 2 q3  .
q1 2
q1
Similarly, inflow from the surface 2, which is normal to q1 -axis with a distance  from the
2
point P(q1 , q2 , q3 ) is given by

( B1 h2 h3 q 2 q3 ) q1
Surface 2 = B1 h2 h3 q 2 q3  .
q1 2

The net outflow (efflux) along the q1 direction will be:

 ( B1 h2 h3 q 2 q3 ) 1  ( B1 h2 h3 )
Surface 1 - Surface 2  q1  [ h1 q1 h2 q 2 h3 q3 ]
q1 h1 h2 h3 q1   
V

1  ( B1 h2 h3 )
 V
h1 h2 h3 q1

- 29 -
 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

Similarly, the net outflow (efflux) along the q 2 and q 3 direction will be:
1 ( B2 h1 h3 ) 1 ( B3 h1 h2 )
V and V
h1 h2 h3 q 2 h1 h2 h3 q3

Therefore
 
   dA
B
  B  lim [ S ]
V 0 V
1  ( B1 h2 h3 ) 1  ( B2 h1 h3 ) 1  ( B3 h1 h2 )
V  V  V
h1 h2 h3 q1 h1 h2 h3 q 2 h1 h2 h3 q3
 lim [ ]
V 0 V
1  ( B1 h2 h3 )  ( B2 h1 h3 )  ( B3 h1 h2 )
 lim [   ]
V 0 h h h
1 2 3 q1 q 2 q3
1  ( B1 h2 h3 )  ( B2 h1 h3 )  ( B3 h1 h2 )
 [   ]
h1 h2 h3 q1 q 2 q3

- 30 -
 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

1.12 The Curl of a Vector Field

 
  B  Curl B

eˆ1 eˆ2 eˆ3

q1  ; q 2  ; q3 
h1 h2 h3

B  B1 eˆ1  B2 eˆ2  B3 eˆ3

  B    ( B1 eˆ1  B2 eˆ2  B3 eˆ3 )

Consider the first term

  ( B1 eˆ1 )    ( B1 h1q1 )    ( B1 h1q1 )

  
Since   ( A)    ( A)    A

  ( B1 eˆ1 )  ( B1 h1 )  q1  ( B1 h1 )  q1

 ( B1 h1 )  q1
eˆ  ( B1 h1 ) eˆ2  ( B1 h1 ) eˆ3  ( B1 h1 ) eˆ
[ 1   ] ( 1 )
h1 q1 h2 q 2 h3 q3 h1
eˆ  eˆ  ( B1 h1 ) eˆ3  eˆ1  ( B1 h1 )
 2 1 
h2 h1 q 2 h3 h1 q3
 eˆ3  ( B1 h1 ) eˆ  ( B1 h1 )
  2
h2 h1 q 2 h3 h1 q3
1 eˆ  ( B1 h1 ) eˆ3  ( B1 h1 )
 { 2  }
h1 h3 q3 h2 q 2

Similarly,

1 eˆ3 ( B2 h2 ) eˆ1 ( B2 h2 )
  ( B2 eˆ2 )  {  }
h2 h1 q1 h3 q3

1 eˆ1 ( B2 h2 ) eˆ2 ( B2 h2 )
  ( B3 eˆ3 )  {  }
h3 h2 q2 h1 q1

Therefore,

- 31 -
 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

  B    ( B1 eˆ1  B2 eˆ2  B3 eˆ3 )
1 eˆ  ( B1 h1 ) eˆ3  ( B1 h1 )
 { 2  }
h1 h3 q3 h2 q 2
1 eˆ  ( B2 h2 ) eˆ1  ( B2 h2 )
 { 3  }
h2 h1 q1 h3 q3
1 eˆ  ( B2 h2 ) eˆ2  ( B2 h2 )
 { 1  }
h3 h2 q 2 h1 q1
Or
h1eˆ1 h2 eˆ2 h3 eˆ3
 1   
 B 
h1 h2 h3 q1 q 2 q3
h1 B1 h2 B2 h2 B2

- 32 -
 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

1.13 Some Relations Involving the Vector Operator 

eˆ1  eˆ  eˆ 
  2  3 is a vector operator and not a vector. Thus, it is necessary to
h1 q1 h2 q 2 h3 q3
present the orders in which  appears with respect to the other terms.

 
For example:   A  A  
 
Some identities of interest:  , are scalar variables and A, B are vector variables:

 ( )    

  
   ( A)    A    A
  
   ( A)    A    A
         
 ( A  B)  ( A  ) B  ( B  ) A  A  (  B)  B  (  A)
     
   ( A  B)  B  (  A)  A  (  B)
         
   ( A  B)  A(  B)  ( B  ) A  B(  A)  ( A  ) B

   (  A)  0
   ( )  0
    
   (  A)  (  A)    A  (  A)   2 A

Proof:

By simple expansion:
   
  ( A)  (iˆ  ˆj  kˆ )  (iˆAx  ˆjAy  kˆAz )
x y z
Ax Ay Az
  
x y z
 A  Ay  A
 Ax  x  Ay    Az   z
x x y y z z
   A Ay Az
 Ax  Ay  Az  [ x   ]
x y z x y z
 
   A     A

The vector and scalar in the identities are defined intrinsically - that is without reference to any
special coordinate system. Verification of the above equations in any one coordinate system (e,g,
Cartesian) is equivalent to verification of all coordinate system.

- 33 -
 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

Determination of Laplacian equation      2

Consider a scalar variable 

eˆ1  eˆ2  eˆ3  

    B
h1 q1 h2 q 2 h3 q3

 1  1  1 
i.e., B  [ ; ; ]  ( B1 , B2 , B3 )
h1 q1 h2 q 2 h3 q3

 1  ( B1 h2 h3 )  (h1 h3 B2 )  (h1 h2 B3 )
B  {   }
h1 h2 h3 q1 q 2 q3
1  h2 h3   h1 h3   h1 h2 
 { ( ) ( ) ( )}
h1 h2 h3 q1 h1 q1 q 2 h2 q 2 q3 h3 q3
  2

- 34 -
 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

1.14 Gauss Divergence Theorem

 
    dA
B
Recall that:   B  DivB  lim [ S ]
V 0 V

 1     
can be approximated as:   B 
V  B  dA
S
or (  B)V   B  dA for an element control
S
volume.

Now consider a finite control volume V in space subdivided into many smaller elemental sub-
volumes.

Suppose   B for all the sub volume are evaluated and summed:

N  N  
 (
i 1
 B ) i Vi    B  dA i 1 S
Vi Vi+1
N  N  
lim  (  B) i Vi  lim   B  dA ei+1
ei
Vi 0 Vi 0
i 1 i 1 S
 
volume int egral by definition

 N  
 (  B ) dV  lim
Vi 0
  B  dA
i 1 S
V


The flow of B through the common faces of adjacent volumes canceled because the inflow
through one face equals the outflow through the other.

Thus, if we now sum the net outflow of B of all the sub-volumes, only faces on the surface
enclosing the region will contribute to the summation.

State in integral form the above statement becomes:

N    
lim
Vi 0
  B  dA   B  dA
i 1 S S

Thus, Gauss divergence theorem states:

  

V
(  B ) dV    dA
B
S

- 35 -
 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

1.15 Stokes Theorem


For a curve C in a three-dimensional space, let us assume there is a function f ( R)  f ( x, y, z )
defined everywhere on C.

Let us make N sub-divisions between the two points P1 and P2 . z

N
p1
Then:  f ( x, yz ) dl  N 
lim  f ( x , y , z )l
i i i i
(xi, yi, zi)
C eachli 0 i 1
li
If we specify l as the arc length parameter S, then f can be
parametrically represented in forms of the arc length S.

S2
y
i. e.,  f ( x, y, z) dl   f ( x(s), y(s), z(s)) ds
C S1 x


Line integral for a vector valued function B
  

C
B  dl    eˆT dl
B
C

As before, we let l as the arc length parameter S, then


   dR
 B dl  C [ B( x(s), y(s), z(s)) dS ]dS
C

  ( B1 S1  B2 S 2  B3 S 3 )
C
Since

B  B1 eˆ1  B2 eˆ2  B3 eˆ3

dR  dS1 eˆ1  dS 2 eˆ2  dS 3 eˆ3

dR
dS  dS1 eˆ1  dS 2 eˆ2  dS 3 eˆ3
dS

- 36 -
 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

Component of Curl in a direction ê


i.e. eˆ  (  B)  ?

From the integral definition:

 
   B
dA
  B  lim [ S ]
V 0 V

Thus:
  
  eˆ  (dA  B)  eˆ  (eˆ n  B) dA
eˆ  (  B)  lim [ S ]  lim [ S ]
V 0 V V 0 V

By using the identity

     
C  ( A  B)  (C  A)  B for the right hand, we can write:
 
  n ) dA
ˆ
e  ( ˆ
e  B   (eˆ  eˆn ) dA
B
eˆ  (  B)  lim [ S ]  lim [ S ]
V 0 V V 0 V

To evaluate this integral, we propose a volume elements as a cylinder (not necessarily of circular
cross section) with its axis parallel to ê .

Thus, ê
 ên
   (eˆ  eˆn ) dA
B
eˆ  (  B )  lim [ S ]
V 0 V

 B  (eˆ  eˆn ) dA 

 S top 
 
 V 
z
 y
 B  (eˆ  eˆn ) dA 
 S  
 lim  bottom 
V 0
 V 

  
 S
B  ( ˆ
e  ˆ
e ) dA êT

n


 side ên

 V 
x
 

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 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

At the top and bottom, ê and ê n are parallel, therefore, eˆ  eˆn  0 .

 
 B  (eˆ  eˆn ) dA 
  B  (eˆ  eˆ n
 
) dA

eˆ  (  B)  lim [ S ]  lim  S  side 
V 0 V V  0
 V 
 
eˆ  eˆn  eˆt at the side of the volume, therefore,

  eˆt ) dA 
 S
( B
 
eˆ  (  B)  lim   side 
V 0
 V 
 

By assuming eˆt  B is constant along the axis on the side surface

Then,

 ( B  eˆt ) dA 
     h  
eˆ  (  B)  lim  S  side
V 0 V
  lim 
V 0 V

 ( B  eˆt ) ds 

  C
 
 1  
 lim 
V 0 A
 bottom C
 ( B  ˆ
e t ) ds 

 1  
 lim 
A0 A
 bottom C
 ( B  ˆ
e t ) ds 


We divide S into a large number of tine surface regions, say, N of them,

Given the i-th region

 1 
Ai Ci
eˆni  (  B) i  ( B  eˆti ) dS i ên j Si
    ên
[eˆni  (  B) i ]Ai   ( B  eˆti ) dS i   B  dS i ên
Ci Ci

Adding the N-equations for i =1 to N, the left hand S

side becomes the surface integral as the portion C
become infinity tine as show below:
N  N  
i 1
[ ˆ
e ni  (  B ) i ]Ai  lim
Ai 0
 
i 1 Ci
B  dS i
 
surfaceint egral by definition
  N  
  (  B)  dA  lim
Ai 0
  B  dS
i 1 Ci
i
S

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 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

Consider surface region 1 and 2 which have the portion DC of their boundaries in common. At

any point on the segments DC, note that the dS for C1 and C 2 are oppositely orientated while

the B is uniquely defined. So, the contribution
from the DC portion of C 2 be exactly cancels
the contribution of C1 . Similarly, we have
cancellation from all the C i ’s except for C2
C
segments along the boundary curve C , such
as AB, which are not shared . D C1

State in integral form: B

N    
lim   B  dS i   B  dS A
Ai 0
i 1 Ci C A

Therefore,
   
 (  B)  dA   B  dS
S C

- 39 -