Surg Clin N Am 88 (2008) 343–359

Complications of Gynecologic Surgery

Michael P. Stany, MDa, John H. Farley, MDb,*
a
Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Walter Reed Army Medical Center,
6900 Georgia Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20307, USA
b
Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Uniformed Services University
of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA

Within the last several decades, many advances have been made in the
field of gynecologic surgery. Specifically, both laparoscopy and hysteroscopy
have provided patients with minimally invasive procedures for treatment of
conditions previously thought to require laparotomy. Regardless of the na-
ture of the procedure, the proximity of the female reproductive tract to the
urinary tract, bowel, nerves, and pelvic vasculature places these structures
at risk for injury during surgery. This article presents the intraoperative
and postoperative complications most commonly encountered during gyne-
cologic surgery and reviews strategies for both prevention and management.

Intraoperative complications
Urinary tract injury
The urinary tract is at risk for injury during gynecologic surgery because of
its proximity to the blood supply of the uterus and ovaries. The overall inci-
dence of urinary tract injury during pelvic surgery is between 0.33% and
4.8% [1,2]. Bladder injury is more common than ureteral injury, representing
80% of urinary tract injuries [1]. Risk factors for urinary tract injury include
pelvic adhesions, malignant tumor, and history of previous irradiation [1,3].
In a prospective study by Vakili and colleagues [2] that employed universal
cystoscopy after hysterectomy, the incidence of urinary tract injury was
found to be 4.8%. Bladder injury (3.6%) occurred more frequently than ure-
teral injury (1.7%). Interestingly, only 12.5% of ureteral injuries and 35.3%

The opinion or assertions contained herein are the private views of the authors and are
not to be construed as official or as reflecting the views of the Department of the Army or
the Department of Defense.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (J.H. Farley).

0039-6109/08/$ - see front matter. Published by Elsevier Inc.

doi:10.1016/j.suc.2007.12.004 surgical.theclinics.com
344 STANY & FARLEY

of bladder injuries were detected before cystoscopy. Early recognition of uri-

nary tract injury lowers the risk of patients needing re-operation for these
complications [1]. Any time a surgeon suspects urinary tract injury, he or
she is obligated to investigate and prove the suspicion to be unwarranted.

Ureteral injury
Ureteral injury most commonly occurs proximally at the pelvic brim dur-
ing ligation of the infundibulopelvic ligament and distally during ligation of
the uterine artery during hysterectomy [1,4,5]. A review of total laparoscopic
hysterectomies found a 0.3% incidence of ureteral injury, with all injuries
occurring at the distal ureter at the level of the uterine artery/uterosacral lig-
ament [6]. Up to 50% of cases of unilateral ureteral injury are asymptomatic
postoperatively [7].
The best way to prevent ureteral injury is to identify the ureter before
clamping critical pedicles. If injury occurs, however, management depends
on the location and mechanism of injury.
If the ureter is ligated with suture, the suture should be removed and the
ureter assessed for viability. If it is deemed viable, a stent should be placed.
This procedure can be performed by cystoscopy or by performing a cystot-
omy and then placing a stent [5].
If there is a partial transection injury, a ureteral stent should be placed in
the ureterotomy, and the defect closed with 5-0 polyglycolic acid suture [5].
Repair of a complete transection ureteral injury depends on the location. If
the injury occurs in the upper or middle third of the ureter, a ureteroureter-
ostomy can be performed [5]. This method, however, is successful only if
there is adequate length to allow a tension-free repair and sometimes re-
quires mobilizing the kidney. A ureteroureterostomy is performed by trim-
ming and spatulating the proximal and distal ends of the ureter, with the
spatulation on opposite sides of the segments. The ends are sutured together
with fine absorbable suture. The spatulation allows a larger lumen and a
watertight seal.
If transection occurs within 6 cm of the ureterovesical junction, a ureter-
oureterostomy should not be performed because of the risk of compromising
the vascularity to this distal segment [5]. In such situations, a ureteroneocys-
totomy with psoas hitch can be performed [5]. With this procedure, the distal
segment first is ligated with permanent suture. The bladder then is mobilized
from its attachment in the retropubic space. A cystotomy then is performed
on the ventral surface of the bladder with the incision running in the direction
of the ureteroneocystotomy so as to elongate the bladder. The bladder then is
attached to the psoas tendon with two 3-0 nylon sutures. The ureter then is
sutured to the bladder over a stent.

Bladder injury
Patients who have a history of prior surgery and malignancy are at
a higher risk of bladder injury during hysterectomy [3,8]. A history of
 COMPLICATIONS OF GYNECOLOGIC SURGERY 345

cesarean section specifically increases the risk of unintentional cystotomy,

probably because of the prior scarring between the bladder base and pubo-
vesicocervical fascia [9,10]. A history of cesarean section is not necessarily
a contraindication for vaginal hysterectomy, because in patients who have
a history of a cesarean section the rates of unintentional cystotomy are sim-
ilar for hysterectomies performed by the abdominal and vaginal routes [9].
During abdominal hysterectomy, the bladder is at risk for injury during the
creation of the bladder flap, when the the bladder dome is dissected from the
lower uterine segment. Most of the bladder injuries that occur during vag-
inal hysterectomy occur during dissection of the bladder from the vaginal
wall and can involve the trigone [3]. The surgeon must be cognizant of
the location of the ureteral orifices when an injury occurs during a vaginal
hysterectomy.
When a cystotomy is recognized intraoperatively, the surgeon should
complete the hysterectomy before repairing the bladder. Removing the
uterus provides optimal visualization during the bladder repair. Bladder in-
jury at the time of vaginal hysterectomy can be repaired successfully from
the vaginal route with adequate mobilization and a tension-free, layered re-
pair [3].
A cystotomy should be closed in two layers. The urothelium can be
closed with 2-0 chromic suture, and the detrusor muscle is closed with 2-0
polyglycolic acid suture in a running Lembert technique [5]. The bladder
then should be catheterized for 5 to 7 days to allowing healing.

Bowel injury
The incidence of bowel injury during hysterectomy is low, approximately
0.3% [11]. Bowel injury can occur during adhesiolysis or during dissection in
the posterior cul-de-sac. There is a higher rate of bowel injury with abdom-
inal hysterectomy than with vaginal hysterectomy [12].
If less than 50% of the circumference of the bowel wall is injured, a suture
repair may be performed in a direction perpendicular to the lumen to avoid
narrowing. Larger defects, multiple defects, thermal injuries, or injuries in-
volving the vasculature require resection of the affected bowel segments.
When there is concern about a rectal injury, but an actual defect is not
obvious, the surgeon should perform a bubble test [12]. This test consists
of insufflating air into the anus through a 22-Fr Foley catheter or sigmoido-
scope after the pelvis is irrigated with saline solution. The presence of bub-
bles confirms a rectal injury. This test can be performed during laparotomy
or laparoscopy.
Although uncommon, bowel injury can occur with laparoscopy, specifi-
cally with the insertion of the Veress needle and the initial trocar insertion.
A meta-analysis evaluating the risk of bowel injury with major operative
laparoscopy found the incidence to be 0.33% [13]. Injuries can occur at var-
ious locations along the bowel, and patients who have a history of previous
346 STANY & FARLEY

abdominal surgery are at a greater risk for such injuries. Although uncom-
mon, gastric injury can occur during Veress needle insertion. The risk can be
decreased by gastric decompression before entry. Should an injury occur, it
usually heals spontaneously if it is hemostatic and is smaller than 5 mm [5].
Larger injuries often can be repaired laparoscopically, depending on the ex-
tent of the defect.
Unrecognized thermal bowel injury during laparoscopy can have a disas-
trous outcome. Tissue necrosis and then perforation of the affected bowel
can occur 72 to 96 hours after surgery. One must have a high index of sus-
picion for such an injury in patients presenting with fever and abdominal
pain several days after an operative laparoscopy [5]. Up to 15% of bowel
injuries are not noted at the time of laparoscopy. One study found that
one in five cases of delayed diagnosis of bowel injury resulted in death [13].

Vascular injuries
When bleeding occurs, the surgeon must use knowledge of pelvic anat-
omy to achieve hemostasis safely. Blindly clamping areas of bleeding can
lead to ureteral injury or worsen the ongoing bleeding. Basic surgical tech-
niques such as pressure, the use of the electrosurgical unit, or vessel ligation
should be employed first. If these measures fail to control bleeding, the sur-
geon needs to employ other measures to achieve hemostasis. The literature
has described a range of techniques that have been successful in the face of
pelvic hemorrhage.
One such modality is the use of tissue sealants [14]. Several manufacturers
make a fibrin sealant that contains both fibrinogen and thrombin (eg, Tisseel,
Baxter Healthcare, Deerfield, Illinois; Evicel, OMRIX Biopharmaceuticals
Ltd, Israel). These agents contain a supraphysiologic concentration of fibrin-
ogen that, when mixed with thrombin, augments the terminal stage of the co-
agulation cascade. These compounds rapidly form a clot. Gelatin matrix
solutions (eg, FloSeal, Baxter Healthcare) are another option for achieving
hemostasis. These solutions contain only thrombin and require contact
with the fibrinogen in blood to form a fibrin polymer clot. Gelatin matrix so-
lutions are a pure hemostatic agent.
Another technique that can be used is bilateral hypogastric artery liga-
tion. After incising the peritoneum overlying the common iliac artery, the
surgeon identifies the bifurcation of the hypogastric artery and external iliac
artery [5]. A dissection is performed between the hypogastric artery and
vein, at least 2 cm from the bifurcation. This dissection should be performed
in a lateral-to-medial direction to avoid injury to the hypogastric vein. Fur-
thermore, the artery should be ligated at least 2 cm from the bifurcation to
avoid ligation of the posterior division of the internal iliac artery, which can
lead to ischemia of the skin and subcutaneous tissue of the gluteus.
Papp and colleagues [15] reported a series of 80 gynecologic cases of in-
tractable pelvic hemorrhage, 41 of which were controlled successfully with
 COMPLICATIONS OF GYNECOLOGIC SURGERY 347

bilateral hypogastric artery ligation. Although no ureter or bowel complica-

tions were noted, one hypogastric vein injury was managed by clamping and
ligating.
Acute pelvic hemorrhage has been treated successfully using pelvic vessel
arterial embolization [16]. This procedure can identify the bleeding vessel by
angiography and occlude it with various materials. This method, however,
may be more effective for acute arterial bleeding than for venous bleeding.
When all measures fail, it sometimes is necessary simply to pack the area
that is bleeding, especially in the face of a coagulopathy. Multiple laparot-
omy sponges are packed into a bag over the concerning area to tamponade
the bleeding [17]. The abdomen is closed and re-explored approximately
48 hours later. When packing, the surgeon must avoid excessive pressure
on the inferior vena cava so to avoid comprising renal function.

Specific circumstances
Laparoscopic trocar–related injury
The most common complication of laparoscopic surgery is injury of the
superficial or inferior epigastric vessels [18]. This injury is diagnosed by
bleeding from the trocar site. Injury to the inferior epigastric vessel can
cause retroperitoneal or intraperitoneal bleeding, and injury to the superfi-
cial epigastric vessels can cause subcutaneous or intramuscular bleeding.
Many techniques for controlling epigastric vessel bleeding have been de-
scribed. These techniques include compression with a 12-Fr Foley catheter
inserted through the trocar sleeve, passing suture through the abdominal
wall caudad and cephalad to the trocar to ligate the injured vessel, or bipo-
lar coagulation of the vessel through the peritoneum [18].
Vascular injury in the abdominal wall can be avoided by understanding
the course of these vessels and by identifying them before trocar placement.
Both transillumination and direct visualization have been advocated for
identifying the superficial and inferior epigastric vessels, respectively, before
lateral trocar placement. Transillumination, however, has been found to be
effective in identifying the superficial epigastric vessels only 64% of the time,
and this technique is less effective in patients who have dark skin and a body
mass index greater than 25 kg/m2 [19]. Laparoscopic visualization of the in-
ferior epigastric vessels is successful in more than 80% of patients. Because
visualization or transillumination is not always possible, knowledge of the
course of the epigastric vessels sometimes is helpful. Saber and colleagues
[20] performed CT mapping of the inferior and superficial epigastric vessels
and found that these vessels usually are located between 4 and 8 cm from
midline. They are most lateral at the level of the pubis and are most medial
at the midpoint between the pubis and umbilicus [20].
Vascular and bowel complications from laparoscopy can occur during
creation of the pneumoperitoneum and placement of the initial trocar.
348 STANY & FARLEY

Dixon and Carrillo [21] described a series of seven iliac vascular injuries that
occurred during initial trocar/needle insertion with closed laparoscopy.
Right-sided iliac injuries were more common, and the right common iliac
vein was the most common site of injury. Interestingly, the common factor
for all injuries was the level of surgeon experience. All injuries occurred with
surgeons who had performed less than 20 laparoscopies.
Once a vascular injury is recognized during laparoscopy, immediate con-
version to exploratory laparotomy and application of the appropriate vascu-
lar surgical procedures are required to minimize morbidity and mortality.
In a retrospective comparison of open laparoscopy and closed laparos-
copy (Veress needle or blind insertion of first trocar), Bonjer and col-
leagues [22] found the rates of vascular injury to be 0.075% with closed
laparoscopy and 0% with open laparoscopy. Visceral injury rates were
0.083% and 0.048%, respectively [22]. Although the differences in this
study were statistically significant, the overall risk for both techniques is
low. In fact, a meta-analysis analyzing various entry techniques found
no evidence that open laparoscopy is superior or inferior to other entry
techniques [23].

Hysteroscopy
Uterine perforation during hysteroscopy
Uterine perforation is a complication of approximately 1.5% of hystero-
scopic procedures [24]. Uterine perforation must be suspected if the uterine
sound can be passed further than the known size of the uterus, if there is
difficulty in maintaining distension of the uterine cavity, or if bowel is visu-
alized [18]. Measures used to minimize the risk of uterine perforation include
preoperative bimanual examination to determine the size and position of the
uterus and the use of transabdominal ultrasound during passage of the cer-
vical dilators to confirm intrauterine location.
The location and method of perforation dictate further management.
A uterine fundal perforation usually can be managed expectantly if it is
made with a uterine sound or narrow dilator. If there is no evidence of
bleeding from the uterus, conservative management with or without a short
course of antibiotics may be considered [25]. If there is evidence of bleeding,
or if the perforation was made with a sharp instrument, abdominal explora-
tion with laparoscopy and possibly laparotomy may be indicated.
Anterior or posterior wall uterine perforations can occur in patients who
have an extremely anteverted or retroverted uterus. Because the bladder and
rectum are in these respective locations, one must consider further evalua-
tion with cystoscopy or laparoscopy if there is a concern for bladder or
bowel injury.
Lateral uterine wall perforations should be followed by prompt laparos-
copy because of the concern for vascular injury. Perforations in these
 COMPLICATIONS OF GYNECOLOGIC SURGERY 349

locations can damage the uterine vessels, and a broad ligament hematoma
may be seen during laparoscopy [26].

Complications caused by hysteroscopic distension media

High-viscosity (eg, dextran 70), low-viscosity/electrolyte-poor (eg, glycine
and sorbitol), and low-viscosity/electrolyte-containing (eg, normal saline
and lactated Ringer’s solution) medias are commonly used for distension
of the uterus during hysteroscopy. The use and safety profiles of these me-
dias vary, however.
Dextran 70 is used because of its excellent visibility, but the manufacturer
recommends that no more than 250 mL be absorbed because of the concern
for pulmonary edema. Anaphylactic reactions and coagulopathy also are
rare complications that have been described [25].
Glycine and sorbitol allow the use of monopolar cautery during operative
hysteroscopy. Large volume deficits have been associated with hyponatre-
mic hypervolemia, however. After intravasation, glycine and sorbitol are
metabolized, leaving free water [25]. This free water accumulates in the brain
and increases intracranial pressure. When fluid deficits reach 1000 to
1500 mL, the procedure should be terminated, and the patient’s serum elec-
trolytes should be assessed. Patients who have excessive intravasation expe-
rience headache, nausea, vomiting, and agitation [27]. This manifestation
can progress to pulmonary and cerebral edema. These patients require close
monitoring and diuretic administration.
Unlike glycine and sorbitol, normal saline and lactated Ringer’s solution
have physiologic osmolarity and contain sodium. Although excessive intra-
vasation does not lead to hyponatremia, it can lead to volume overload.
Media deficits of greater than 2500 mL should prompt conclusion of the
procedure, and the patient’s electrolytes should be assessed [28].
Several fluid-management systems are available to monitor closely the
amount of distension media lost during hysteroscopy. The amount of media
intravasation can be lessened by using the minimum intrauterine pressure
needed to perform the hysteroscopy, and by minimizing operating time.
The physician must be aware that certain procedures such as endometrial
ablation and resection of myomas open vascular channels and place the pa-
tient at increased risk for fluid overload [25].

Postoperative complications
Ileus and bowel obstruction
Postoperative ileus is characterized by abdominal distension, nausea,
vomiting, abdominal pain, and delayed passage of flatus [29]. The stomach
and small intestine usually resume normal activity 8 hours after surgery. The
large bowel usually is the last segment to regain function after surgery,
350 STANY & FARLEY

taking 48 to 72 hours after surgery. Factors predisposing patients to postop-

erative ileus include bowel manipulation and extensive adhesiolysis. Longer
operating times also are associated with longer time to return of bowel func-
tion [29]. The incidence of postoperative ileus has been found to be 3%
among patients undergoing total abdominal hysterectomy [29]. The mean
time to first flatus among abdominal hysterectomy patients has been found
to be 53 hours [29]. Several studies evaluating the safety of early feeding
after major gynecologic surgery did not find an increased incidence of ileus
[30,31].
Bowel obstruction can present similarly to postoperative ileus with the
symptoms of nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. Bowel obstruction,
however, will have a more delayed onset, with most patients having an ini-
tial period of normal bowel function. When there is a concern for ileus or
bowel obstruction, management includes having the patient take nothing
by mouth and administering intravenous fluid hydration, electrolyte reple-
tion, and naso-gastric decompression. Small bowel obstruction can be man-
aged conservatively as long as there is no evidence of bowel necrosis or
strangulation. Fever, tachycardia, leukocytosis, and metabolic acidosis
may be signs of bowel strangulation.
Studies evaluating the etiology of bowel obstruction have found that ad-
hesions are the most common cause of bowel obstruction [32]. Among gy-
necologic procedures, total abdominal hysterectomy has been found to be
the most common adhesion-related cause of bowel obstruction, with an in-
cidence of 13.6 per 1000 procedures [32]. Adhesions to the previous laparot-
omy site were found in 75% of cases of bowel obstruction. The median time
from surgery to presentation with bowel obstruction was 4 years.
Postoperative bowel complications occur less frequently with laparos-
copy, probably because there is less bowel manipulation than with laparot-
omy. In fact, the combined rate of postoperative ileus and small bowel
obstruction after operative laparoscopy is 0.036% [33]. Less invasive proce-
dures also are associated with lower rates of bowel obstruction. Al-Sunaidi
and Tulandi [32] did not find any greater incidence of bowel obstruction
among patients who underwent laparoscopic supracervical hysterectomy
than in patients who underwent abdominal hysterectomy.

Incisional hernia
The incidence of ventral hernia in patients who have undergone a vertical
midline incision is 10% to 16% [34,35]. In an effort to determine if surgical
technique can affect the rate of hernia, a prospective study compared a non-
locking continuous technique with the interrupted, Smead Jones technique
for closure of a vertical midline laparotomy using looped polyglycolic suture
[34]. With follow-up of up to 3 years, the authors found no significant dif-
ference in the incidence of hernia between the two techniques. Almost 90%
of hernias were diagnosed within the first year after surgery [34]. Risk
 COMPLICATIONS OF GYNECOLOGIC SURGERY 351

factors for hernia include a body mass index greater than 27 kg/m2, diabetes,
and wound infection [35]. Unlike vertical midline incisions, patients who
have a history of only one Pfannenstiel incision have a very low incidence
of hernia [36].
Incisional hernias after laparoscopy are rare events, especially with the in-
creasing use of smaller, bladeless trocars. When bladed trocars have been
used, trocar-site hernias have been found to occur in 0.23% of the sites
where 10-mm trocars were used and in 3.1% of the sites where 12-mm tro-
cars were used [37]. Given these higher rates of hernia, it is recommended
that the fascia be closed at sites where bladed trocars 10-mm and larger
are placed. There are data, however, suggesting that the newer nonbladed
trocars do not cause as much fascial trauma and do not require fascial clo-
sure. Prospective studies have evaluated the incidence of hernia at lateral
port sites above the arcuate line where 10-mm and 12-mm nonbladed trocars
were used and no fascial closure was performed. The rates of trocar site her-
nia ranged from 0% to 0.2% [38,39]. This lower rate of trocar-site hernia is
thought to result from the smaller residual fascial defect after the these tro-
cars are removed, which has been found to be 6 to 8 mm after removal of
10-mm and 12-mm bladeless trocars [38].

Infection
The risk of postoperative infection after hysterectomy, including wound
infections and pelvic abscesses, has been found to be between 3% and 10%.
Most pelvic and incisional infections are polymicrobial [5]. Abdominal
hysterectomy is associated with a higher risk of infection than vaginal hys-
terectomy [40,41]. Measures to decrease the risk of infection include a pre-
operative antiseptic shower the night before surgery, appropriate skin
preparation, and prophylactic antibiotics. Although antiseptic showers
have not been shown definitely to decrease the rate of infection, the Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention strongly recommends this practice, be-
cause it decreases the skin microbial count [42]. Commonly used preopera-
tive skin preparations include povidone-iodine and chlorhexidine. Although
a recent study has shown lower bacterial colony counts with the use of chlo-
rhexidine, prospective studies evaluating its efficacy in prevention of post-
hysterectomy infection are lacking [43]. One measure that has been
proven to decrease postoperative infection is the use of prophylactic antibi-
otics. Administration of intravenous antibiotics 1 hour before hysterectomy
has been shown to decrease postoperative infections by 25% to 30%
[40,44]. Broad-spectrum antibiotics are used for prophylaxis. Cefazolin
(1 g) is the most commonly used antibiotic because of its relatively long
half-life and low cost [45]. Among gynecologic procedures, prophylactic an-
tibiotics are indicated only for hysterectomies [45]. Laparoscopy, hystero-
scopy, and laparotomy without hysterectomy do not require prophylactic
antibiotics.
352 STANY & FARLEY

Wound complications
The incidence of wound infection complicating abdominal hysterectomy
has been found to be 3% to 8% [46]. Most wound complications, such as
infection, hematoma, and seroma, result in an open wound. These incisions
should be opened, irrigated, and débrided as necessary. After they are open,
the wounds can heal either by secondary intention or by reclosure with sur-
gical re-approximation. Complete healing by secondary intention can take
between 2 and 8 weeks [46]. In a meta-analysis by Wechter and colleagues
[46] of disrupted laparotomy wounds, reclosure resulted in faster healing
times, 16 to 23 days, versus 61 to 72 days for secondary intention. Generally,
reclosure should be performed around 4 days after wound opening. Both en
bloc mass techniques, incorporating 3 cm of tissue on each side of the inci-
sion, and vertical mattress suture techniques have been described for clo-
sure. Vertical mattress closures, however, may make reclosure in the office
more practical, because reclosure can be done easily with local anesthesia.
Various suture materials have been used successfully. The sutures usually
are removed around 10 days after placement.
Obesity has been found to be an independent risk factor for wound com-
plications [41]. Unfortunately, several studies evaluating the efficacy of drain
placement or subcutaneous tissue reapproximation have shown no decrease
in the rate of wound complications in obese patients [47,48].

Vaginal cuff abscess

Patients who have a vaginal cuff abscess typically present with fever and
pelvic pain after hysterectomy. Management includes intravenous antibi-
otics and drainage. It may be reasonable, based on the clinical scenario,
to treat the patient first with antibiotics. Recommended regimens include
imipenem-cilastin, clindamycin/gentamicin, or the addition of metronida-
zole if there is a suspicion for anaerobes [5]. If there is no clinical improve-
ment, surgical drainage is recommended.

Vaginal cuff dehiscence

Vaginal cuff dehiscence can present with either abdominal pain or a report
of a vaginal bulge. Vaginal cuff dehiscence has been found to occur between
4 weeks and more than a year after surgery [49]. A history of recent inter-
course frequently precedes presentation [49]. If there is no bowel injury,
a vaginal cuff dehiscence can be repaired vaginally in most instances.
Hur and colleagues [49] evaluated the incidence of vaginal cuff dehiscence
after hysterectomy by mode of hysterectomy. They found a significant in-
crease in vaginal cuff dehiscence in patients who underwent total laparo-
scopic hysterectomy (4.9%) when compared with abdominal (0.12%) and
vaginal hysterectomy (0.29%). The authors postulated that this finding
 COMPLICATIONS OF GYNECOLOGIC SURGERY 353

might result from the effect of thermal energy on the vaginal cuff when it is
transected from the cervix.

Neuropathy
The lumbosacral plexus supplies many nerves that travel through the pel-
vis and therefore are at risk for injury during gynecologic surgery. A review
of the literature identified improper placement of self-retaining or fixed
retractors, improper positioning of patients in the lithotomy position preop-
eratively, and radical surgical dissection to be three major predisposing risk
factors for neurologic injury at the time of gynecologic surgery [50]. In
a review of 1210 patients undergoing major pelvic surgery, Cardosi and
colleagues [51] found that 1.9% of patients suffered a postoperative neurop-
athy. The range of injuries included surgical trauma, stretch, suture entrap-
ment, and retractor-related injuries. With physiotherapy and medical or
surgical treatment, 73% of patients experienced complete resolution of
symptoms [51].

Femoral nerve injury

Iatrogenic femoral nerve injury occurs in up to 11% of abdominal hyster-
ectomies [52]. The femoral nerve is at risk from injury by direct compression
from a retractor or from stretch from incorrect high-lithotomy positioning.
In the former case, compression of a retractor blade on the iliopsoas muscle
in which the nerve runs can result in injury. In the latter case, excessive hip
flexion and abduction with external hip rotation results in extreme angula-
tion of the femoral nerve beneath the inguinal ligament. Femoral nerve in-
jury presents with weakness or inability to flex the hip or extend the knee or
with paresthesia over the anterior and medial thigh [50].
In a prospective evaluation comparing self-retaining retractors and hand-
held retractors, 7.5% of patients in the self-retaining retractor group expe-
rienced a femoral neuropathy, compared with 0.7% in the group without
self-retaining retractors [53].

Lateral femoral cutaneous nerve injury

The lateral femoral cutaneous nerve is at risk for injury from compres-
sion by a self-retaining retractor. Injury to this nerve presents postopera-
tively with pain and paresthesia in the anterior and posterior lateral thigh
[50].

Genitofemoral nerve injury

The genitofemoral nerve runs along the ventral surface of the psoas mus-
cle. It is most at risk during external iliac lymph node dissections. Transec-
tion of this nerve results in paresthesia of the ipsilateral mons, labia majora,
and skin overlying the femoral triangle [50].
354 STANY & FARLEY

Obturator nerve injury

The obturator nerve lies among the nodal tissue in the obturator space,
predisposing it to injury during lymph node dissections. Injury to this nerve
can result in sensory loss in the upper thigh or weakness in the hip adductors
[50]. If this nerve is injured, it should be repaired immediately to preserve
motor function. The epineural sheaths should be aligned with care to avoid
misalignment of the neural fascicles. The nerve endings then should be re-
approximated with 8-0 and 10-0 nylon. Repair followed by physical therapy
usually results in complete recovery.

Common peroneal nerve

The common peroneal nerve runs superficially across the lateral head of
the fibula and descends down the lateral calf. Because of its superficial po-
sition, this nerve is at risk for compression injury, especially when a patient’s
lateral knee rests on the boot in low-lithotomy stirrups. The calf must be
supported appropriately to avoid injury. Injury to this nerve can cause
foot drop and lateral lower-extremity paresthesia [50].

Incisional pain
Approximately 1% to 4% of patients who undergo a Pfannenstiel incision
experience postoperative suprapubic or groin pain [36,54]. This pain usually
is from an injury to the ilioinguinal or iliohypogastric nerves. These nerves
are most at risk when the incision extends lateral to the rectus muscle and
into the internal oblique muscle. Injury to the ilioinguinal and iliohypogastric
nerves from laparoscopic trocar insertion also has been described [51].
Often, pain can result from a neuroma. A neuroma occurs when a periph-
eral nerve is damaged or becomes engulfed in scar tissue. A neuroma should
be suspected in patients who have pain lasting more than 6 months that has
not responded to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, gabapentin, or scar
message. Clinical features suggestive of a neuroma include delayed onset of
postoperative pain, hyperesthesia around the incision, numbness, referred
pain, and reproduction of the pain with point percussion (Tinel’s sign).
Both diagnostic nerve blocks and electromyography have been described
for diagnosing neuromas. Treatment of a neuroma includes resection fol-
lowed by implantation of the proximal nerve stump into muscle to avoid re-
currence. This technique has been found to be very effective in the treatment
of patients known to have a postoperative neuroma [55].

Deep venous thromboembolism/pulmonary emboli

The incidence of deep venous thromboembolism (DVT) among patients
undergoing major gynecologic surgery is 7% to 47% depending on the as-
sociated risk factors [56]. Although the incidence of pulmonary embolism
 COMPLICATIONS OF GYNECOLOGIC SURGERY 355

(PE) among patients who have benign findings is 0.3%, in gynecologic on-
cology patients undergoing major abdominal surgery the incidence of PE
within 7 weeks of surgery is 4.1% [57].
Multiple risk factors for formation of DVT have been identified, including
obesity, malignancy, pelvic surgery, smoking, age greater than 40 years, history
of DVT/PE, diabetes, and thrombophilias [57,58]. Early intervention with pro-
phylaxis is imperative, because 50% of all perioperative DVTs form during the
operation, and an additional 25% form within 72 hours of surgery [59].
Strategies to prevent DVT include early ambulation, the use of pneu-
matic compression devices, and various anticoagulants. Maxwell and
colleagues [60] found low molecular weight heparin and external compres-
sion to be equally effective in postoperative prophylaxis of DVT among pa-
tients who had a gynecologic malignancy. There were no statistically
significant increases in bleeding complications in patients treated with low
molecular weight heparin when compared with patients treated with exter-
nal pneumatic compression. Table 1 lists various prophylactic measures.

Cardiac complications
Perioperative myocardial infarction occurs in about 3% of patients un-
dergoing noncardiac surgery, but this rate varies with different risk factors
[61]. Myocardial infarction often is a difficult diagnosis to make, because
only 14% of patients who are found to have a myocardial infarction

Table 1
Recommendations for deep vein thrombosis prophylaxis for gynecologic surgery
Procedure Additional risk factors Intervention
Gynecologic procedure None None
! 30 minutes
Gynecologic laparoscopic Present LDUH, LMWH, IPC, or GCS
procedures
Major gynecologic surgery None IPC started just before surgery,
for benign disease or LDUH, 5000 units bid,
or once-daily LMWH
Major gynecologic surgery Present LDUH, 5000 units tid; higher
for benign disease dose of LMW; consider
combination with IPC or GCS
Major gynecologic surgery Present or absent LDUH, 5000 units tid; higher
for malignancy dose of LMWH; consider
combination with IPC or GCS
Abbreviations: bid, twice daily; GCS, graduated compression stockings; IPC, intermittent
pneumatic compression; LDUH, low-dose unfractionated heparin; LMWH, low molecular
weight heparin; tid, three times daily.
Data from Geerts WH, Pineo GF, Heit JA, et al. Prevention of venous thromboembolism:
the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest 2004;
126(Suppl 3):338S–400S.
356 STANY & FARLEY

complain of chest pain. A rise in troponin and ECG changes most com-
monly lead to the diagnosis of a perioperative myocardial infarction.
Surgery predisposes patients to myocardial ischemia. Large volume
shifts, blood loss, heart rate elevations, and increased postoperative platelet
reactivity all place patients, especially those who have underlying coronary
disease, at risk for cardiac events. Preoperatively, patients at high cardiac
risk should be identified so that appropriate testing and therapeutic mea-
sures can minimize risk. This preoperative evaluation determines risk by as-
sessing patient-specific variables, exercise capacity, and the surgery-specific
risk [62]. Following the American College of Cardiology and the American
Heart Association evaluation and management guidelines can optimize a pa-
tient’s preoperative medical management and provide a low rate of perio-
perative cardiac complications [63].

Summary
The gynecologic surgeon must be knowledgeable about common intrao-
perative and postoperative complications to decrease the risk of patient
morbidity. Any time there is a concern for a urinary tract injury or bowel
injury, the surgeon should perform a thorough investigation to determine
the location of the defect or to rule out the occurrence of an injury. Pelvic
hemorrhage should be managed with sound surgical technique, always being
cognizant of the location of the ureter. Additional measures such as the use
of tissue sealants and bilateral hypogastric artery ligation sometimes are
needed to achieve hemostasis. The incidence of postoperative infection is de-
creased with the proper administration of prophylactic antibiotics before
hysterectomy. Wound complications that require reopening the incision
can be closed by secondary intention or with reclosure. Neuropathies can
be avoided with proper patient positioning, retractor placement, and atten-
tion to anatomy. The risks of postoperative DVT/PE can be lowered with
the appropriate prophylaxis, and the risks of postoperative myocardial in-
farction can be lowered with the appropriate preoperative evaluation and
medical management.

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