“Essentially, all models are wrong,

but some are useful”

G. E. P. Box

George Edward Pelham Box

18 October 1919 – 28 March 2013. Statistician, who
worked in the areas of quality control, time-series
analysis, design of experiments, and Bayesian inference.
He has been called “one of the great statistical minds of
the 20th century”.

TUR-1
 The turbulent world around us

What is turbulence?
Due to its complexity, a definition does not work properly for turbulence, instead
of it, it’s better to explain its characteristics.
Tennekes and Lumley [1] in their book called “A First Course in Turbulence”, list
the characteristics of turbulence:
• Irregularity
• Diffusivity
• Dissipation
• Large Reynolds numbers
• Three Dimensional Vorticity fluctuations
• Continuum
• Feature of a flow, not fluid

TUR-2
[1] H. Tennekes and J. L. Lumley. A first course in turbulence, MIT Press, 1972.
 The turbulent world around us

Turbulent flow have the following characteristics

• One characteristic of turbulent flows is their irregularity or randomness. A fully deterministic
approach to characterize turbulent flows is very difficult. Turbulent flows are usually described
statically. Turbulent flows are always chaotic. But not all chaotic flows are turbulent. Magma
flowing can be chaotic but not necessarily turbulent.
• The diffusivity of turbulence cause rapid mixing and increased rates of momentum, heat, and
mass transfer. A flow that looks random but does not exhibit the spreading of velocity
fluctuations through the surrounding fluid is not turbulent.
• Turbulent flows are dissipative. Kinetic energy gets converted into heat due to viscous shear
stresses. Turbulent flows die out quickly when no energy is supplied.
• Turbulent flows always occur at high Reynolds numbers. They are caused by a complex
interaction between the viscous forces and convection.
• Turbulent flows are rotational, that is, they have non-zero vorticity. Mechanisms such as the
stretching of three-dimensional vortices play a key role in turbulence.
• Turbulence is a continuum phenomenon. Even the smallest eddies are significantly larger than
the molecular scales.
• Turbulence is a feature of fluid flow and is not a property of the flow. A liquid or a gas at high
Reynolds number will exhibit the same dynamics.

TUR-3
 The turbulent world around us

What is turbulence?
• For the purpose of this training, let us state the
following:
• Turbulence is an unsteady, aperiodic motion in
which all three velocity components fluctuate in
space and time.

QOI
• Every transported quantity shows similar
fluctuations (pressure, temperature, species,
concentration, and so on)
• Turbulent flows contains a wide range of eddy
sizes (scales):
• Large eddies derives their energy from the Time

mean flow. The size and velocity of large

eddies are on the order of the mean flow.
• Large eddies are unstable and they break-
up into smaller eddies.
• The smallest eddies convert kinetic energy
into thermal energy via viscous dissipation.
• The behavior of small eddies is more
universal in nature. TUR-4
 The turbulent world around us

Buoyant plume of smoke rising from a stick of incense

Photo credit: https://www.flickr.com/photos/jlhopgood/
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0) TUR-5
 The turbulent world around us

Von Karman vortices created when prevailing winds sweeping Von Karman Vortex Streets in the northern Pacific Photographed from
east across the northern Pacific Ocean encountered Alaska's the International Space Station
Aleutian Islands Photo credit: NASA
Photo credit: USGS EROS Data Center Satellite Systems Branch. Copyright on the images is held by the contributors. Apart from Fair Use,
Copyright on the images is held by the contributors. Apart from Fair permission must be sought for any other purpose.
Use, permission must be sought for any other purpose.

TUR-6
 The turbulent world around us

Tugboat riding on the turbulent wake of a ship Trailing vortices

Photo credit: https://www.flickr.com/photos/oneeighteen/ Photo credit: Steve Morris. AirTeamImages.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License (CC BY-NC 2.0) Copyright on the images is held by the contributors. Apart from Fair Use,
permission must be sought for any other purpose.

TUR-7
 The turbulent world around us

Flow visualization over a spinning spheroid Flow around an airfoil with a leading-edge slat
Photo credit: Y. Kohama. Photo credit: S. Makiya et al.
Copyright on the images is held by the contributors. Apart from Fair Use, Copyright on the images is held by the contributors. Apart from Fair Use,
permission must be sought for any other purpose. permission must be sought for any other purpose.

TUR-8
 The turbulent world around us

Vortices on a 1/48-scale model of an F/A-18 aircraft inside a Water Tunnel

Photo credit: NASA Dryden Flow Visualization Facility. http://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/multimedia/imagegallery/FVF
Copyright on the images is held by the contributors. Apart from Fair Use, permission must be sought for any other purpose. TUR-9
 Turbulence, does it matter?
Blower simulation using sliding grids

No turbulence model used (laminar, K-epsilon turbulence model

unresolved DNS, name it as you want) http://www.wolfdynamics.com/training/turbulence/image2.gif
http://www.wolfdynamics.com/training/turbulence/image1.gif

TUR-10
 Turbulence, does it matter?
Vortex shedding past square cylinder

Physical and numerical side of the

problem:
• The governing equations of the problem are the
incompressible Navier-Stokes equations.
• To model the turbulence, we will use two approaches,
LES and RANS.
• We are going to work in a 3D domain with periodic
boundary conditions.
• This problem has plenty of experimental data for
validation.

Uin = 0.535 m/s

H = 0.04 m
Re = 21400
Working fluid: Water

TUR-11
 Turbulence, does it matter?
Vortex shedding past square cylinder

Turbulence model Drag coefficient Strouhal number Computing time (s)

Laminar 2.81 0.179 93489

LES 2.32 0.124 77465

DES 2.08 0.124 70754

SAS 2.40 0.164 57690

URANS (WF) 2.31 0.130 67830

URANS (No WF) 2.28 0.135 64492

RANS 2.20 - 28246 (10000 iter)

Experimental values 2.05-2.25 0.132 -

Note: all simulations were run using 4 cores.

References:
Lyn, D.A. and Rodi, W., The flapping shear layer formed by flow separation from the forward corner of a square cylinder. J. Fluid Mech., 267, 353, 1994.
Lyn, D.A., Einav, S., Rodi, W. and Park, J.H., A laser-Doppler velocimetry study of ensemble-averaged characteristics of the turbulent near wake of a square
cylinder. Report. SFB 210 /E/100.
TUR-12
 Turbulence, does it matter?
Vortex shedding past square cylinder

LES (Smagorinsky) – Vortices visualized Laminar (no turbulence model) –

by Q-criterion Vortices visualized by Q-criterion
http://www.wolfdynamics.com/training/turbulence/image4.gif http://www.wolfdynamics.com/training/turbulence/image5.gif

TUR-13
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Turbulence modeling
• The majority of natural and engineering flows are turbulent, hence the necessity of
modeling turbulence.
• The objective of turbulence modeling is to develop equations that predict the time
averaged velocity, pressure, temperature fields without calculating the complete
turbulent flow pattern as a function of time.
• Turbulence can be wall bounded or free shear. Depending of what you want to
simulate, you will need to choose an appropriate turbulence model.
• There is no universal turbulence model, hence you need to know the capabilities and
limitations of the turbulence models.
• Due to the multi-scale and unsteady nature of turbulence, modeling it is not an easy
task.
• Simulating turbulent flows in any general CFD solver (e.g., OpenFOAM®, SU2,
Fluent, CFX, Star-CCM+) requires selecting a turbulence model, providing initial
conditions and boundary conditions for the closure equations of the turbulent model,
selecting a near-wall modeling, and choosing runtime parameters and numerics.

TUR-14
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Turbulence modeling – Fluctuations of transported quantities

t+T
¯(x, t) = 1 (x, t)dt, T1 << T << T2
T t

• We have defined turbulence as an unsteady, aperiodic motion in which velocity components and
every transported quantity fluctuate in space and time.
• For most engineering application it is impractical to account for all these instantaneous
fluctuations.
• Therefore, we need to somehow remove those small scales by using models. TUR-15
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Turbulence modeling – Fluctuations of transported quantities

Laminar flow in a pipe Turbulent flow in a pipe

• Turbulence has a direct effect on the velocity profiles and mixing of transported quantities.
• The turbulent case shows two regions. One thin region close to the walls with very large velocity
gradients, and a region far from the wall where the velocity profile is nearly uniform.
• In the illustration, the velocity profile of the turbulent case has been averaged (in reality there are
fluctuations). TUR-16
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Turbulence modeling – Fluctuations of transported quantities

Averaged turbulent flow Instantaneous turbulent flow

• In the left figure, the velocity profile has been averaged.

• In reality, the velocity profile fluctuates in time (right figure).
• The thin region close to the walls has very large velocity gradients and is laminar.
• Far from the flows, the flow becomes turbulent.
TUR-17
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Turbulence modeling – Fluctuations of transported quantities

Flow in a pipe. (a) Laminar, (b) Transitional, (c) Turbulent

• Turbulence has a direct effect on the velocity profiles and mixing of transported quantities.
• Case (a) correspond to a laminar flow, where the dye can mix with the main flow only via molecular diffusion,
this kind of mixing can take very long times.
• Case (b) shows a transitional state where the dye streak becomes wavy but the main flow still is laminar.
• Case (c) shows the turbulent state, where the dye streak changes direction erratically, and the dye has mixed
significantly with the main flow due to the velocity fluctuations. TUR-18
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Turbulence modeling – Boundary layer

Note: The scales are
exaggerated for clarity

Boundary layer (Laminar-Transitional-Turbulent flow)

• In this case, a laminar boundary layer starts to form at the leading edge.
• As the flow proceeds further downstream, large shear stresses and velocity gradient develop within the
boundary layer. At one point the flow becomes turbulent.
• The turbulent motion increases the mixing and the boundary layer mixing.
• What is happening in the transition region is not well understood. The flow can become laminar again or can
become turbulent.
• As for the pipe flow, the velocity profiles in the laminar and turbulent regions are different. TUR-19
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Turbulence modeling – Thermal boundary layer

Thermal boundary layer vs. Viscous boundary layer Thermal boundary layer in function of Prandtl number (Pr)
Forced convection

Momentum and thermal boundary layer

• Just as there is a viscous boundary layer in the velocity distribution (or momentum), there is also a thermal
boundary layer.
• Thermal boundary layer thickness is different from the thickness of the viscous sublayer (momentum), and is
fluid dependent.
• The thickness of the thermal sublayer for a high Prandtl number fluid (e.g. water) is much less than the
momentum sublayer thickness.
• For fluids of low Prandtl numbers (e.g., air), it is much larger than the momentum sublayer thickness.
• For Prandtl number equal 1, the thermal boundary layer is equal to the momentum boundary layer. TUR-20
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Vorticity does not always mean turbulence

Instantaneous vorticity magnitude field

http://www.wolfdynamics.com/training/turbulence/image6.gif

• The Reynold number in this case is 100, for these conditions the flow still is laminar.
• We are in the presence of the Von Karman vortex street, which is the periodic shedding of vortices caused by
the unsteady separation of the fluid around blunt bodies.
• Vorticity is not a direct indication of turbulence.
• However, turbulent flows are rotational, they exhibit vortical structures. TUR-21
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Reynolds number and Rayleigh number

• It is well known that the Reynolds number characterizes if the flow is laminar or turbulent.
• So before doing a simulation or experiment, check if the flow is turbulent.
• The Reynolds number is defined as follows,

Convective effects UL
ReL = where L = x, d, dh , etc
µ Viscous effects

• Where U and L are representative velocity and length scales.

• If you are dealing with natural convection, you can use the Rayleigh number, Grashof number,
and Prandtl number to characterize the flow.
Specific heat Thermal expansion coefficient

Buoyancy effects g L3 T ⇢2 cp gL3 T

Ra = = = Gr ⇥ P r
Viscous effects ⌫↵ µk Thermal conductivity

Momentum diffusivity µcp g (TS T1 )L3

Pr = = Gr =
Thermal diffusivity k ⌫2 TUR-22
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Reynolds number and Rayleigh number

• Turbulent flow occurs at large Reynolds number.
• For external flows,

Rex 500000 Along a surface (slender body)

Red 20000 Around an obstacle (bluff body)

• For internal flows,

Redh 2300

• Notice that other factors such as free-stream turbulence, surface conditions, blowing, suction,
roughness and other disturbances, may cause transition to turbulence at lower Reynolds
number.
• If you are dealing with natural convection and buoyancy, turbulent flows occurs when

Ra
109
Pr
TUR-23
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Turbulence modeling – Scales of turbulence

• According to Kolmogorov’s universal equilibrium theory (K41), the motion at the
smallest scales should depend only upon:
• The rate at which the larger eddies supply energy,
dk
"=
dt
• The kinematic viscosity .
• By using dimensional analysis and similarity hypothesis, Kolmogorov derived the
turbulence microscales:
3 1/4 1/2
1/4
= = u =( )

Length scale Time scale Velocity scale

• These scales are indicative of the smallest eddies, that is, the scale at which the
energy is dissipated.
For a complete derivation please refer to:
[1] H. Tennekes and J. L. Lumley. A first course in turbulence, MIT Press, 1972.
[2] S. Pope. Turbulent Flows, Cambridge University Press, 2000.
[3] D. Wilcox. Turbulence Modeling for CFD, DCW Industries ,Inc., 2010. TUR-24
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Turbulence modeling – Scales of turbulence

• From the previous equations, we can derive the following relations

u 1 u
= and Re = =1

• Where Re is the Kolmogorov Reynolds number.

• The fact that the Kolmogorov Reynolds number is equal to 1, is consistent with the
notion that the energy cascade proceeds to smaller and smaller scales until the
Reynolds number is small enough for dissipation due to viscosity to be effective.
• From the Kolmogorov turbulence microscales, it can be seen that for large Reynolds
number the length, time, and velocity scales of the smallest eddies are small
compared to those of the largest eddies.

Largest eddies l0 0 1/2 u0 1/4

3/4
ReT ReT ReT
Smallest eddies
u

k 3/2 k k 1/2 l0
• Where l0 = , ⌧0 = t =
" , and ReT ⌘ is the turbulence Reynolds number
" ⌫
Integral scales (length and time) TUR-25
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Turbulence modeling – Implications of scales

• The previous relationships indicate that the range of turbulent scales may span orders
of magnitude for high Reynolds number flows.
• Since these turbulent length scales ⌘ are much smaller that the large or integral
scales (i.e., wing chord, channel height, blockage ratio) associated with the flow of
interest, it is easy to see that a large amount of grid points/cells would be required to
fully simulate high Reynolds number flows.
• For example, in a direct numerical simulation (DNS) where all scales of turbulence
are resolved, the number of grid points/cells in one direction is directly
3/4
proportional to ReT .
9/4
• Thus, in a DNS simulation the gridding requirements scales proportional to ReT
or approximately proportional to Re3T for a single time step.
• And the number of time steps to satisfy a Courant condition of CFL < 1, is on the
3/4
order of O(ReT )
• As you can see, resolving all turbulence scales (or DNS simulations) requires a
formidable amount of computational power in CFD.
• Therefore, the importance of using turbulence models to alleviate the incredible
requirements of resolving all turbulence scales. TUR-26
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Turbulence modeling – Grid requirements

• The grid requirements of turbulence modeling in CFD, can be summarize as follows:
• DNS simulations requires no modeling, but it demands resolution form the large
scales all the way through at least the beginning of the dissipation scales. This
results in a grid scaling proportional to Re3T , or worse.
• LES simulations requires modeling of part of the inertial subrange and into the
beginning of the dissipation scales. The amount of required modeling is set by
the grid resolution, but is unlikely that the grid will scale worse that Re2T . Even is
this requirement seems to by high, LES simulation are starting to become
affordable in modern supercomputers.
• RANS simulations requires modeling of everything from the integral scales into
the dissipation range. As a consequence, the grid scaling is a weak function of
Re.
• As you can see, RANS simulations are very affordable (steady and unsteady).
• RANS simulations are the workhorse of turbulence modeling in industrial applications.
• Nevertheless, LES and DES are becoming more affordable.
• DNS is only use in research and for low Reynolds number.
TUR-27
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Turbulence modeling – Grid scales

Cell size
This cell is resolving the eddies

To resolve the boundary layer

you need very fine meshes
Cell size
This cell is not resolving the eddies Cell size
This cell may be resolving the eddies

• Turbulence modelling aims at predicting velocity and transported quantities fluctuations

without calculating the complete turbulent flow pattern as a function of time.
• Everything above grid scales (GS), can be resolved or modelled.
• Everything below grid scales or sub-grid scales (SGS) is modelled or filtered.

Bullet at Mach 1.5

Photo credit: Andrew Davidhazy. Rochester Institute of Technology.
Copyright on the images is held by the contributors. Apart from Fair Use, permission must be sought for any other purpose. TUR-28
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Energy spectrum and energy cascade

dk
"=
dt

Notice that this kind of graph is

local. It will be different for each
and every point in the domain.

• The turbulent power spectrum represents the distribution of the turbulent kinetic energy across
the various length scales. It is a direct indication of how energy is dissipated with eddies size.
• The mesh resolution determines the fraction of the energy spectrum directly resolved.
• Eddies cannot be resolved down to the molecular dissipation limit. TUR-29
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Energy spectrum and energy cascade

• The energy-containing eddies are denoted by L0; L1 and L2 denotes the size of the eddies in
the inertial subrange such that L2 < L1 < L0; LN is the size of the dissipative eddies.
• The large, energy containing eddies transfer energy to smaller eddies via vortex stretching.
• Smallest eddies convert kinetic energy into thermal energy via viscous dissipation.
• Large eddies derive their energy from the mean flow.
• The size and velocity of large eddies are on the order of the mean flow
TUR-30
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Energy spectrum and mesh resolution

• DNS simulations are quite expensive, they require a lot of grid points/cells in order to
resolve all the turbulent scales.
9/4
• Thus, in a DNS simulation the gridding requirements scales proportional to ReT
or approximately proportional to Re3T for a single time step.
• And every time step should be sufficiently resolved in time (CFL condition less than 1,
and the ideal value should be less than 0.5).
• An alternative to DNS, is the use of large eddy simulations (LES).
• In a good resolved LES simulation, we aim at resolving 80% of the turbulent kinetic
energy.
• If the mesh requirements of a LES are too high, we can do a VLES (very large eddy
simulation).
• In a VLES we aim at resolving 50% of the turbulent kinetic energy.
• If LES requirements are still high (which is the case for most of the industrial
applications), we use RANS/URANS models.
• In RANS/URANS simulations the whole energy spectrum is modeled.
• The mesh spacing should be sufficiently to capture well integral scales l0 and
model/resolve the boundary layer.
TUR-31
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Integral length scale and grid length scale

• The integral length scale l0 can be roughly estimate as follows,
• Based on a characteristic length, such as the size of a bluff body or pipe
diameter.
• From correlations.
• From experimental results.
• From a precursor RANS simulation.

• Remember, turbulent kinetic energy peaks at integral length scale l0 .

• Therefore, these scales must be sufficiently resolved in LES/DES simulations, or
capture (be able to track) in RANS/URANS simulations.
• After identifying the integral scales, try to cluster enough cells in the domain regions
where you expect to find the integral scales (or large eddies).
• In other words, put sufficient cells in the wake or core of the flow.
• In RANS/URANS/VLES simulations, it is acceptable to use a minimum of 5 cells
across integral length scales.
• LES simulations have higher requirements.
TUR-32
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Integral length scale and grid length scale

• The integral length scales l0 can be computed from a precursor RANS simulation as follows.
• You will need to use a two equation model ( k ✏ family or k ! family).
• Depending on the model selected, you can compute l0 as follows,

k 1.5 k 0.5
l0 = or l0 = where Cµ = 0.09
✏ Cµ !
• The ratio of integral length scale to grid length scale Rl can be computed as follows,

l0 p
3
Rl = where can be approximated as follows ⇡ cell volume
This approximation is accurate if the aspect
ratios are modest (less than 1.2)

• The recommended value of Rl should be Rl > 5 10

• Where 5 should be considered the lowest limit of resolution (for RANS/URANS and VLES) and
10 is the desirable lower limit (for LES/DES).
• Higher values can be used if computer power and time constrains permits.
• This is a very rough estimate, which is likely problem dependent.
• Remember, in well resolved LES simulations equal mesh resolution should be provided in all
directions. TUR-33
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Identification of integral length scale and grid length scale

Under-resolved area

Coarse mesh Fine mesh

• To identify integral length scales and grid length scales you can plot contours of these quantities
at different locations/planes in the domain.
• The lowest limit of Rl can be clipped so that the well resolved areas do not appear. In this
case we are clipping (showing) 0 < Rl < 5 .
• Under-resolved areas (the areas shown), will need finer meshes or local mesh adaption.
• Near-wall regions always pose challenges. In these areas is better to quantify the y+ value.
TUR-34
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Turbulence near the wall - Law of the wall

1
u+ = ln y + + C +

20 ⇢ ⇥ U⌧ ⇥ y U⌧ ⇥ y
y+ = =
18 µ ⌫
16
r
14 ⌧w
U⌧ =
12 ⇢
+
U 10
8 u+ = y + U
6
u+ =
U⌧
4

2 Where y is the distance normal to the wall, Ut

is the shear velocity, and u+ relates the mean
0 velocity to the shear velocity
-1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10

Y
+ y + or wall distance units is a very
important concept when dealing
with turbulence modeling,
Viscous sublayer Buffer Log-law layer
Layer remember this definition as we are
going to use it a lot.
Inner region Outer region
TUR-35
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Turbulence near the wall - Law of the wall

1
u+ = ln y + + C +

20

18
16
14
12
+
U 10
u+ = y +
8
6
4

0
-1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10

+
Y

Viscous sublayer Buffer Log-law layer

Layer

Inner region Outer region

Non-dimensional profile Actual profile - Physical velocity profile

• Near walls, in the boundary layer, the velocity changes rapidly.

+ +
• The use of the non-dimensional velocity u and non-dimensional distance from the wall y , results in a
predictable boundary layer profile for a wide range of flows
• In CFD, the most important zones are the viscous sublayer and the log-law layer.
• Turbulence models require different considerations depending on whether you solve the viscous sublayer,
model the log-law layer, or solve the whole boundary layer. TUR-36
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Near-wall treatment and wall functions

• When dealing with wall turbulence, we need to choose a near-wall treatment.
• If you want to resolve the boundary layer up to the viscous sub-layer you need very
fine meshes close to the wall.
• In terms of y +, you need to cluster at least 6 to 10 layers at y + < 10 .
• This is the most accurate approach but it is computationally expensive.

Outer region
Boundary layer

Log-law layer
30 < y+ < 300

Buffer layer
10 < y+ < 30
Viscous sublayer
y+ < 10

Wall
TUR-37
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Near-wall treatment and wall functions

• When dealing with wall turbulence, we need to choose a near-wall treatment.
• If you are not interested in resolving the boundary layer up to the viscous sub-layer,
you can use wall functions.
• In terms of y +, wall functions will model everything below y + < 30 or the target y +
value.
• This approach use coarser meshes, but you should be aware of the limitations of the
wall functions.
Outer region
Boundary layer

Log-law layer
30 < y+ < 300

Buffer layer
10 < y+ < 30
Viscous sublayer
Wall Function
y+ < 10

Wall
TUR-38
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Near-wall treatment and wall functions

• When dealing with wall turbulence, we need to choose a near-wall treatment.
• You can also use scalable wall functions. This kind of wall functions are valid in the
whole boundary layer.
• In terms of y +, you can use this approach for values between 1  y +  300 .
• This approach is very flexible as it is independent of the y + value, but is not available
in all turbulence models
• You also should be aware of the limitations of scalable wall functions.

TUR-39
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Near-wall treatment and wall functions

• Generally speaking, wall functions is the approach to use if you are more interested in
the mixing in the outer region, rather than the forces on the wall.
• If accurate prediction of forces or heat transfer on the walls are key to your simulation
(aerodynamic drag, turbomachinery blade performance, heat transfer) you might not
want to use wall functions.
• The wall function approach is also known as high-RE (HRN).
• The approach where you do not use wall functions is known as low-RE (LRN).
• Wall functions should be avoided if 10 < y + < 30 . This is the transition region and
nobody knows what is going on there.
• The low-RE approach is computational expensive as it requires clustering a lot cells
near the walls.
• To get good results with LRF, you will need to cluster at least 10 layers for y + < 6
• If you do not have any restrictions in the near-wall treatment, use wall functions.
• Wall functions can be used in RANS, DES and LES.
• If you are doing LES, it is highly recommended to use wall functions. Otherwise, your
meshing requirements will be very similar to DNS. TUR-40
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Removing small scales

Steady mean value Unsteady mean value

(x, t) = ¯(x) + (x, t) (x, t) = ¯(x, t) + (x, t)

mean value f luctuating part mean value f luctuating part

• We have seen that turbulent flows are characterize by instantaneous fluctuations of velocity,
pressure, and all transported quantities.
• In most engineering applications is not of interest resolving the instantaneous fluctuations.
• To remove the instantaneous fluctuations or small scales, two methods can be used:
• Reynolds averaging
• Filtering
• Both methods introduce additional terms that must be modeled for closure. TUR-41
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Removing small scales

• Two methods can be used to eliminate the need to resolve the small scales:
• Reynolds averaging (RANS/URANS):
• All turbulence scales are modeled.
• Can be 2D and 3D.
• Can be steady or unsteady.
• Filtering (LES/DES):
• Resolves large eddies.
• Models small eddies.
• Intrinsically 3D and unsteady.

• Both methods introduce additional terms in the governing equations that must be
modeled.
• The final goal of turbulence modeling is to find the closure equations to model the
additional terms (usually a stress tensor).
TUR-42
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Overview of turbulence modeling approaches

MODEL

Increasing modelling and mathematical

RANS

Increasing computational cost

Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes equations

URANS

complexity
Unsteady Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes equations

SAS
Scale Adaptive Simulations
Scale-Resolving Simulations

DES
SRS

Detached Eddy Simulations

LES
Large Eddy Simulations

DNS
Direct Numerical Simulations
TUR-43
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Overview of turbulence modeling approaches

RANS LES – Instantaneous field

RANS/URANS DES/LES DNS

• Solve the time-average NSE. • Solve the filtered unsteady NSE. • Solves the unsteady laminar NSE.
• All turbulent spatial scales are • SGS scales are filtered, GS are • Solves all spatial and temporal
modeled. resolved. scales; hence, requires extremely
fine meshes and small time-steps.
• Many models are available. One • Aim at resolving the temporal scales,
equation models, two equation hence requires small time-steps. • No modeling is required.
models, Reynolds stress models,
• For most industrial applications, LES • It is extremely computational
transition models, and so on.
simulations are computational expensive.
• This is the most widely approach for expensive. However, thanks to the
• Not practical for industrial flows.
industrial flows. current advances in parallel and
scientific computing it is becoming • It is intrinsically 3D and asymmetric.
• Unsteady RANS (URANS), use the
affordable.
same equations as the RANS but
with the transient term retained. • Many models are available.
• It can be used in 2D and 3D cases. • It is intrinsically 3D and asymmetric.
TUR-44
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Turbulence modeling – Starting equations

@⇢
+ r · (⇢u) = 0,
@t
NSE @ (⇢u)
+ r · (⇢uu) = rp + r · ⌧,
@t
@ (⇢et )
+ r · (⇢et u) = r · q r · (pu) + ⌧ :ru,
@t
+
Additional closure equations for the turbulence models, e.g.,

@ ⇤ ⇤
⇢ + ⇢r · (ū) = ⌧ R :rū ⇢! + r · [(µ + µT ) r]
@t

@! !
⇢ + ⇢r · (ū!) = ↵ ⌧ R :rū ⇢! 2 + r · [(µ + µT ) r!]
@t 

• Equations cannot be derived from fundamental principles.

• All turbulence models contain some sort of empiricism.
• Some calibration to observed physical solutions is contained in the turbulence models.
• Also, some intelligent guessing is used.
• A lot of uncertainty is involved! TUR-45
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Incompressible RANS equations

• Let us derive the Reynolds average equations for an incompressible flow.
• This is our starting point,

· (u) = 0
u p 2
+ · (uu) = + u
t

• And we want to arrive to the following RANS equations,

· (ū) = 0
ū p̄ 2 1 R
+ · (ūū) = + ū ·
t
Note: if you drop the time derivative we call it RANS (steady equations), and if you retain the time derivative we call it
URANS (unsteady equations). TUR-46
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Incompressible RANS equations

• Let us recall the Reynolds decomposition for the primitive variables of the starting
equations,

u(x, t) = ū(x) + u (x, t),

p(x, t) = p̄(x) + p (x, t)

• By substituting the previous equations into our starting equations, using the previous
averaging rules, and doing some algebra, we arrive to the incompressible
URANS/RANS equations,

· (ū) = 0
ū p̄ 2 1 R
+ · (ūū) = + ū ·
t
If we retain this term we talk about URANS equations and if we drop it we talk about RANS equations TUR-47
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Incompressible RANS equations

• The RANS equations are very similar to the starting equations.
• The only difference is that all quantities are averaged.
R
• And the appearance of Reynolds stress tensor ⌧

uu uv uw
R
= uu = vu vv vw
wu wv ww

• The RANS approach to turbulence modeling requires the Reynolds stresses to be

appropriately modeled.
• It is possible to derive its own governing equations (six new equations as the tensor is
symmetric), but it is much simpler to model this term.
• Probably this is the most physically sound RANS model (RSM or Reynolds stress
model) as it avoids the use of the Boussinesq hypothesis that we will study next.
TUR-48
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Incompressible RANS equations

• A common approach used to model the Reynolds stress tensor, is to use the
Boussinesq hypothesis.
• By using the Boussinesq hypothesis, we can relate the Reynolds stress tensor to the
mean velocity gradient such that,

R 2 h i 2
R T
⌧ = ⇢ u0 u0 = 2µT D ⇢kI = µT ru + (ru) ⇢kI
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3 3
1
• In the previous equation, R
D̄ = ( u+ uT ) denotes the strain-rate tensor.
2
• I is the identity matrix.
• µT is the turbulent eddy viscosity.
1 0 0
• k=
2
u ·u is the turbulent kinetic energy.
• At the end of the day we want to determine the turbulent eddy viscosity.
• The turbulent eddy viscosity is not a fluid property, it is a property needed by the
turbulence model.
TUR-49
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Incompressible RANS equations

• In the Reynolds decomposition, the quantities of interest can be averaged as follows.
• For steady RANS we can use time averaging as follows,

t+T
¯(x) = lim 1 (x, t) dt where (x, t) = ¯(x) + (x, t)
T + T t

• For unsteady RANS or URANS we can use ensemble averaging as follows,

XN
1
¯(x, t) = lim (x, t) where (x, t) = ¯(x, t) + (x, t)
N !1 N
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i=1

• For ensemble average the number of experiments of the ensemble must be large
enough to eliminate effects of fluctuations. This type of averaging can be applied to
any flow (steady or unsteady).

TUR-50
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Incompressible RANS equations

• We just derived the incompressible RANS.
• To derive the compressible RANS equations, we proceed in a similar way but we use
Favre average (which can be seen as a mass-weighted averaging).
• If we drop the time derivative in the governing equations we are dealing with steady
turbulence.
• In the other hand, if we keep the time derivative we are dealing with unsteady
turbulence and we should use ensemble averaging.
• The derivation of the LES equations is very similar, but instead of using averaging we
filter the equations in space, and we solve the temporal scales (intrinsically unsteady).
• We will briefly address filtering and the LES equations.
• Let us take a look at the governing equations of the k ! RANS model.
• Remember, the main goal of the turbulence models is to find the turbulent eddy
viscosity to model the Reynolds stress tensor.

TUR-51
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

k ! Turbulence model overview

• It is called k ! because it solves two additional equations for modeling the
turbulence, namely, the turbulent kinetic energy k and the specific rate
of dissipation !

@k ⇤ ⇤
⇢ + ⇢r. (ūk) = ⌧ R : rū ⇢k! + r. [(µ + µT ) rk]
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@t

@! ! R
⇢ + ⇢r. (ū!) = ↵ ⌧ : rū ⇢! 2 + r. [(µ + µT ) r!]
@t k
<latexit sha1_base64="nTUl99UXxw8Y1ld54+d/1eQ4W/U=">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</latexit>

• These are the closure equations of the turbulence problem using Reynolds average.
• These are not physical quantities. They kind of represent the generation and
destruction of turbulence.
• In the k ! model, the turbulent eddy viscosity can be computed as follows,

⇢k
µt =
!
<latexit sha1_base64="ldb+0qL2C6qJC0Afa3qlDtnD+AU=">AAACBnicbVBNS8NAEN34WetX1KMgi0XwVBIR1INQ9OKxgrGFJoTNZtMu3c2G3Y1QQm5e/CtePKh49Td489+4bXPQ1gcDj/dmmJkXZYwq7Tjf1sLi0vLKam2tvr6xubVt7+zeK5FLTDwsmJDdCCnCaEo8TTUj3UwSxCNGOtHweux3HohUVKR3epSRgKN+ShOKkTZSaB/4PA81vIR+nEiEC18OBByWhS846aMytBtO05kAzhO3Ig1QoR3aX34scM5JqjFDSvVcJ9NBgaSmmJGy7ueKZAgPUZ/0DE0RJyooJn+U8MgoMUyENJVqOFF/TxSIKzXikenkSA/UrDcW//N6uU7Og4KmWa5JiqeLkpxBLeA4FBhTSbBmI0MQltTcCvEAmTy0ia5uQnBnX54n3knzounenjZaV1UaNbAPDsExcMEZaIEb0AYewOARPINX8GY9WS/Wu/UxbV2wqpk98AfW5w8yaJka</latexit>

TUR-52
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

k ! Turbulence model overview

• In its simplest form, the following equations are applied in the first cell center of the
logarithmic layer,

u⌧ u2⌧ u⌧
U= lny + C k=p ⇤ !=p ⇤ ky
 <latexit sha1_base64="W9A1Meli38lDHRoAkqxjVuyVauw=">AAACFXicbVDJSgNBEO1xN25Rj14agyCCYUYE9SCIXjxGMCpkYqjp1MQmPYvdNUIY5iu8+CtePKh4Fbz5N3aWg9uDgsd7VVTVC1IlDbnupzM2PjE5NT0zW5qbX1hcKi+vXJgk0wLrIlGJvgrAoJIx1kmSwqtUI0SBwsuge9L3L+9QG5nE59RLsRlBJ5ahFEBWapW3/STCDvBD7rdDDSLPWrlPkBVF7ptbTbkfIMH1VsG7vFe0yhW36g7A/xJvRCpshFqr/OG3E5FFGJNQYEzDc1Nq5qBJCoVFyc8MpiC60MGGpTFEaJr54K2Cb1ilzcNE24qJD9TvEzlExvSiwHZGQDfmt9cX//MaGYX7zVzGaUYYi+GiMFOcEt7PiLelRkGqZwkILe2tXNyATYdskiUbgvf75b+kvlM9qHpnu5Wj41EaM2yNrbNN5rE9dsROWY3VmWD37JE9sxfnwXlyXp23YeuYM5pZZT/gvH8BPYyfow==</latexit>

• These equations are here referred to as the standard wall function for the k !
method. They relate the local wall shear stress (through the shear velocity u⌧ ) to
the mean velocity, turbulence kinetic energy k, and rate of dissipation !.
• A small implicit system must be solved in an iterative way in order to compute the
friction velocity u⌧ .
• First we compute the friction velocity, then we compute k, and then we find !.
• By adopting a mesh where the first cell center is located in the logarithmic layer, it is
possible to use the law-of-the-wall to specify the boundary condition for the
dependent variables (u, k, and !) so that the turbulence model equations are not
solved close to the wall.
• Each turbulence model formulation has different wall function equations. TUR-53
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

k ! Turbulence model overview

• The boundary and initial conditions recommended for this model are,

U1 10U1 10 5 U1
2 2
0.1U1
< !f arf ield < < kf arf ield <
L L ReL ReL

where L is the Length of the domain.

• Alternatively, you can use the following equations:

✓ ◆ 1
⇢k µt 3
!f arf ield = kf arf ield = (U I)2
<latexit sha1_base64="CjOO40KMHpXvsnD88Mx5ox+EvsI=">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</latexit>
µ µ 2

where µt /µ is the viscosity ratio and I = u /ū is the turbulence intensity.

TUR-54
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

k ! Turbulence model free-stream initial conditions

• At the walls, you can use the following values

6⌫
!wall = 10 2 kwall = 0
y

where = 0.075 and y is the distance to the first cell center normal to the wall.

• The values are the same stated in the original reference.

• If you use a different turbulence model, just refer to the original reference or visit the
following site:

https://turbmodels.larc.nasa.gov/

• You can also visit our website and use the calculator to estimate turbulence
quantities,
http://www.wolfdynamics.com/tools.html?id=110
TUR-55
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Short description of some RANS turbulence models

Model Short description

This is a one equation model. Suitable for external aerodynamics, tubomachinery and high
speed flows. Good for mildly complex external/internal flows and boundary layer flows under
Spalart-Allmaras pressure gradient (e.g. airfoils, wings, airplane fuselages, ship hulls). Performs poorly with flows
with strong separation.

This is a two equation model. Very robust and widely used despite the known limitations of the
model. Performs poorly for complex flows involving severe pressure gradient, separation, strong
Standard k–epsilon streamline curvature. Suitable for initial iterations, initial screening of alternative designs, and
parametric studies. Can be only used with wall functions.

This is a two equation model. Suitable for complex shear flows involving rapid strain, moderate
swirl, vortices, and locally transitional flows (e.g. boundary layer separation, massive separation,
Realizable k–epsilon and vortex shedding behind bluff bodies, stall in wide-angle diffusers, room ventilation). It
overcome the limitations of the standard k-epsilon model.

This is a two equation model. Superior performance for wall-bounded boundary layer, free
shear, and low Reynolds number flows compared to models from the k-epsilon family. Suitable
Standard k–omega for complex boundary layer flows under adverse pressure gradient and separation (external
aerodynamics and turbomachinery).

This is a two equation model. Offers similar benefits as the standard k–omega. Not overly
sensitive to inlet boundary conditions like the standard k–omega. Provides more accurate
SST k–omega prediction of flow separation than other RANS models. Can be used with and without wall
functions. Probably the most widely used RANS model.

TUR-56
 Introduction to turbulence modeling

Final remarks on RANS turbulence models

• In terms of meshing requirements, RANS simulations are not computational
expensive.
• Therefore, it is recommended to use a low-RE approach for steady
simulations.
• If you are conducting URANS simulations (unsteady runs), low-RE meshes
can impose strict time-step restrictions. Therefore, high-RE meshes are
recommended.
• Nevertheless, you can use large CFL numbers in URANS simulations.
• If you are dealing with thermal boundary layers, it is recommended to use a
low-RE approach.
• Remember, avoid s much as possible the buffer layer 10 < y + < 30
• Use RANS simulations as starting point for LES/DES.

TUR-57
 Turbulence modeling in OpenFOAM®

RANS/URANS Turbulence models available in OpenFOAM®

• In OpenFOAM ®, you will find the following family of RANS turbulence models:

• LRR • kEpsilon
• LamBremhorstKE • kOmega
• LaunderSharmaKE • kOmegaSST
• LienCubicKE • kOmegaLM
• LienLeschziner • kOmegaSSTSAS
• RNGkEpsilon • kkLOmega
• SSG • qZeta
• ShihQuadraticKE • realizableKE
• SpalartAllmaras • v2f

• The name of the models is given using OpenFOAM® jargon.

• Our task is to choose the less wrong model!

TUR-58
 Turbulence modeling in OpenFOAM®

DES/LES Turbulence models available in OpenFOAM®

• In OpenFOAM ®, you will find the following family of DES/LES turbulence models:

• DeardorffDiffStress • WALE
• Smagorinsky • dynamicKEqn
• SpalartAllmarasDDES • dynamicLagrangian
• SpalartAllmarasDES • kEqn
• SpalartAllmarasIDDES • kOmegaSSTDES

• And if you are interested in doing laminar simulations (simulations with no turbulence
model or what some people call DNS), you can use the following model:

• laminar (DNS)

• The name of the models is given using OpenFOAM® jargon.

• Our task is to choose the less wrong model!
TUR-59
 Turbulence modeling in OpenFOAM®

DES/LES Turbulence models available in OpenFOAM®

• In you are working with DES/LES turbulence models, you will find the following delta
functions:

• cubeRootVolDelta • PrandtlDelta
• IDDESDelta • SmoothDelta
• maxDeltaxy • vanDriestDelta

• In you are working with LES dynamic turbulence models, you will find the following
filter functions:

• anisotropicFilter
• laplaceFilter
• simpleFilter

TUR-60
 Turbulence modeling in OpenFOAM®

Turbulence models available in OpenFOAM®

• As you can see, there is a cornucopia, plethora, fullness, abundance of turbulence
models implemented in OpenFOAM®, from RANS to LES.
• You can also implement yours!
• You can find the turbulence models implementations in the following directories:
• $WM_PROJECT_DIR/src/TurbulenceModels

• You can find the turbulence models hardwired for multiphase flows (dispersed flows),
in the following directories:
• $WM_PROJECT_DIR/src/TurbulenceModels/phaseCompressible/RAS
• $WM_PROJECT_DIR/src/TurbulenceModels/phaseCompressible/LES

TUR-61
 Turbulence modeling in OpenFOAM®

Turbulence models available in OpenFOAM®

• If you have absolutely no idea of what model to use, we highly recommend you the
family models k ! or the realizable k ✏ .
• Remember, when a turbulent flow enters a domain, turbulent boundary conditions
and initial conditions must be specified.
• Also, if you are dealing with wall bounded turbulence you will need to choose the
near-wall treatment.
• You can choose to solve the viscous sub-layer (low-Re approach) or use wall
functions (high-Re approach).
• You will need to give the appropriate boundary conditions to the wall treatment.
• Always define the wall patches as wall type in the dictionary file
constant/polyMesh/boundary., otherwise you will not be able to activate the wall
functions (this applies for fixed and moving walls).
• Remember, every turbulence model have different requirements when it comes to
choosing the boundary conditions and initial conditions, so read the theory and get
familiar with the models.

TUR-62
 Turbulence modeling in OpenFOAM®

Turbulence models available in OpenFOAM®

• The initial conditions and boundary conditions change from model to model and
depends on the physics involve, so get familiar with the theory.
• Remember, there is no universal turbulence model.
• To set the initial conditions and boundary conditions, our best advise is to find and
read the original reference used to implement the turbulence model.
• For instance, if you are interested in the k ! turbulence model, you can go to
the directory:
• $WM_PROJECT_DIR/src/TurbulenceModels/turbulenceModels/RAS/kO
mega
• Open the file kOmega.H, and in the header you fill find the references used to
implement the model in OpenFOAM® and a short description, in this case:
Wilcox, D. C. (1998).
Turbulence modeling for CFD. (Vol. 2, pp. 103-217).
La Canada, CA: DCW industries.

• You have the source code, so take your time and try to read it.
TUR-63
 Turbulence modeling in OpenFOAM®

Near-wall treatment and wall functions

• To deal with wall bounded turbulence, several wall functions are available in OpenFOAM®,

• alphatWallFunction • kLowReWallFunction
• epsilonWallFunction • nutWallFunction
• fWallFunction • omegaWallFunction
• kqRWallFunction • v2WallFunction

• The source code of the wall functions is located in the following directories:
• $WM_PROJECT_DIR/src/TurbulenceModels/turbulenceModels/derivedFvPatc
hFields/wallFunctions
• $WM_PROJECT_DIR/src/TurbulenceModels/compressible/turbulentFluidThe
rmoModels/derivedFvPatchFields/wallFunctions
• $WM_PROJECT_DIR/src/TurbulenceModels/incompressible/turbulentTransp
ortModels/derivedFvPatchFields/wallFunctions
• $WM_PROJECT_DIR/src/regionModels/surfaceFilmModels/derivedFvPatchFi
elds/wallFunctions

TUR-64
 Turbulence modeling in OpenFOAM®

Near-wall treatment and wall functions

• You will find the following turbulent viscosity boundary conditions:

• nutkAtmRoughWallFunction • nutURoughWallFunction
• nutkRoughWallFunction • nutUSpaldingWallFunction
• nutkWallFunction • nutUTabulatedWallFunction
• nutLowReWallFunction • nutUWallFunction

• The source code of the nut wall functions is located in the following directories:
• $WM_PROJECT_DIR/src/TurbulenceModels/turbulenceModels/derivedFvPatc
hFields/wallFunctions/nutWallFunctions

• You will find the following turbulent thermal diffusivity boundary conditions:

• alphatJayatillekeWallFunction
• alphatWallFunction

• The source code of the nut wall functions is located in the following directories:
• $WM_PROJECT_DIR/src/TurbulenceModels/compressible/turbulentFluidThe
rmoModels/derivedFvPatchFields/wallFunctions/alphatWallFunctions
TUR-65
 Turbulence modeling in OpenFOAM®

k ! Turbulence model free-stream initial conditions

• Let us use the k ! turbulence model to illustrate how to choose the free-stream
initial conditions.
• The initial value for the turbulent kinetic energy k can be found as follows

3
k = (U I)2
2
• The initial value for the specific rate of dissipation ! can be found as follows
✓ ◆ 1
⇢k µt
!=
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µ µ

• Where µt /µ is the viscosity ratio and I = u /ū is the turbulence intensity.

• The specific kinetic energy can be related to the turbulent dissipation and the
turbulent kinetic energy as follows,
✏
!=
Cµ k
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 Turbulence modeling in OpenFOAM®

k ! Turbulence model free-stream initial conditions

• If you are totally lost, you can use these reference values. They work most of the
times, but it is a good idea to have some experimental data or a better initial estimate.

Low Medium High

I 1.0 % 5.0 % 10.0 %

µt /µ 1 10 100

• By the way, use these guidelines for external aerodynamics only.

• Follow these guidelines if you are struggling to find the boundary conditions for the
near-wall treatment.
• We highly recommend you to read the source code and find the references used to
implement the model.

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 Turbulence modeling in OpenFOAM®

k ! Turbulence model boundary conditions at the walls

• As for the free-stream boundary conditions, you need to give the boundary conditions
for the near-wall treatment.
• When it comes to near-wall treatment, you have three options:

• Use wall functions (values up to 600 are also acceptable):

30  y +  300

• Use scalable wall functions, this only applies with the k ! SST model:

1  y +  300

• Resolve the boundary layer (no wall functions):

y+  6
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 Turbulence modeling in OpenFOAM®

k ! Turbulence model boundary conditions at the walls

• If you are planning to use wall functions ( 30  y +  300 ),
the following values are good choices.
• For  you can use the wall function kqRWallFunction with the following value:

kwall = k or kwall = 1e 10

• For ! you can use the wall function omegaWallFunction with the following value:

6⌫
!wall = 10 2 or the free-stream value
y
where = 0.075 and y is the distance to the first cell center normal to the
wall.
To avoid potential erroneous arithmetic operations, it is recommended to use a small
value instead of 0
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 Turbulence modeling in OpenFOAM®

k ! Turbulence model boundary conditions at the walls

+
• If you are planning to use scalable wall functions ( 1  y  300 ),
the following values are good choices.
• For  you should use the wall function kqRWallFunction or kLowReWallFunction
with the following value:

kwall = 1e 10

• For ! you should use the wall function omegaWallFunction with the following value:
6⌫
!wall = 10 2 or the free-stream value
y

where = 0.075 and y is the distance to the first cell center normal to the
wall.
• To avoid potential erroneous arithmetic operations, it is recommended to use a small
value instead of 0 TUR-70
 Turbulence modeling in OpenFOAM®

k ! Turbulence model boundary conditions at the walls

• If you are planning not to use wall functions ( y +  6 ),
the following values are good choices.
• For k you should use fixedValue with the following value:

kwall = 1e 10

• For ! you should use fixedValue with the following value:

!wall = 1e 10
• To avoid potential erroneous arithmetic operations, we like to use a small value
instead of 0.
• To properly resolve the boundary layer, it is recommended to cluster at least 10 layers
close to the walls.

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 Turbulence modeling in OpenFOAM®
Setting nut boundary conditions for the k ! Turbulence model

• As we are solving a boundary condition – initial condition problem (BCIC), we need

to define boundary and initial conditions for nut as well.
• Remember, all this fancy treatment for the closure equations is done only to compute
nut, or the turbulent viscosity (which is not a physical property).
• We only define nut boundary conditions at the walls.
• The free stream values are computed from k and ! (calculated boundary condition
using OpenFOAM® jargon).
• The source code of the nut wall functions is located in the directory:

• $WM_PROJECT_DIR/src/TurbulenceModels/turbulenceModels/de
rivedFvPatchFields/wallFunctions/nutWallFunctions

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 Turbulence modeling in OpenFOAM®
Setting nut boundary conditions for the k ! Turbulence model

• If you are using the k ! SST turbulence model and you are interested in using
continuous wall functions, you need to use the following wall function:
• nutUSpaldingWallFunction
• nutUSpaldingWallFunction is a generic wall function that uses U instead of k. It
can be used with all low-Re and high-Re turbulence models.
• A low-Re turbulence model solves the boundary layer ( y +  6 ).
• A high-Re turbulence model uses wall functions ( 30  y +  300 ).
• Other nut wall function options are:
• nutkRoughWallFunction (high-Re)
• nutkWallFunction (high-Re)
• nutLowReWallFunction (low-Re)
• nutUWallFunction (high-Re)

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 Turbulence modeling in OpenFOAM®
Typical wall functions boundary conditions
• Remember, you can only use wall functions if the primitive patch (the patch
type defined in the boundary dictionary), is of type wall.

Field Wall functions – High RE Resolved BL – Low RE

nutUSpaldingWallFunction** or
nut(–)WallFunction* or
nut nutLowReWallFunction or
nutUSpaldingWallFunction**
fixedValue 0 (or a small number)

kqRWallFunction or kLowReWallFunction or
k, q, R
kLowReWallFunction fixedValue 0 (or a small number)

epsilonWallFunction or
epsilon epsilonWallFunction zeroGradient or fixedValue 0
(or a small number)

omegaWallFunction** or
omega omegaWallFunction
fixedValue 0 (or a small number)

nuTilda – fixedValue 0 (or a small number)

* $WM_PROJECT_DIR/src/TurbulenceModels/turbulenceModels/derivedFvPatchFields/wallFunctions/nutWallFunctions
** For scalable wall functions TUR-74
 Turbulence modeling in OpenFOAM®
y + wall distance units
+
• We never know a priori the y value (because we do not know the friction velocity)
• What we usually do is to run the simulation for a few time-steps or iterations, and then
+
we get an estimate of the y value.
• After determining where we are in the boundary layer (viscous sub-layer, buffer layer
or log-law layer), we take the mesh as a good one or we modify it if is deemed
necessary.
• It is an iterative process and it can be very time consuming.
+
• Have in mind that it is quite difficult to get a uniform y value at the walls.
+
• Usually, try to get a y mean value as close as possible to your target.
+
• Also check that you do not get very high maximum values of y (more than a 1000)
+
• Use common sense when accessing y value.

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 Turbulence modeling in OpenFOAM®

Estimating normal wall distance

• To get an initial estimate of the distance from the wall to the first cell center y ,
without recurring to a precursor simulation, you can proceed as follows

⇢⇥U ⇥L
1. Re =
µ
(Skin friction coefficient of a flat plate, there are
2. Cf = 0.058 ⇥ Re 0.2
similar correlations for pipes)

1
3. 2
⌧w = ⇥ C f ⇥ ⇢ ⇥ U 1
2
r
⌧w
4. U⌧ =
⇢
µ ⇥ y+ You desired value
5. y=
⇢ ⇥ U⌧

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 Turbulence modeling in OpenFOAM®

Wall distance units and some rough estimates

• Similar to y +, the wall distance units can be computed in the stream-wise

( x+) and span-wise (. z + ) directions.
• Typical requirements for LES are:

x+ < 40, z + < 40 for y + < 10

x+ < 4 y + , z+ < 4 y+ for 10  y +  300

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 Some applications using OpenFOAM®

Some applications – LES simulation

Iso-surfaces of Q criterion. Walls colored by instantaneous pressure.

http://www.wolfdynamics.com/training/turbulence/image12.gif

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Some applications using OpenFOAM®

Some applications – LES simulation

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Some applications using OpenFOAM®

Some applications – DES simulation

Iso-surfaces of Q criterion.
http://www.wolfdynamics.com/training/turbulence/image13.gif

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 Final remarks – General guidelines

References
• Turbulent Flows
S. B. Pope
• Turbulence Modeling for CFD
D. C. Wilcox
• Turbulence: An Introduction for Scientists and Engineers
P. A. Davidson
• Large Eddy Simulation for Incompressible Flows
P. Sagaut
• A First Course in Turbulence
H. Tennekes and J. L. Lumley
• Boundary-Layer Theory
H. Schlichting
• https://turbmodels.larc.nasa.gov/

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