Aerial photographs

• Taken from an aircraft to capture a series of images using a

large roll of special photographic film. The film is then
processed and cut into negatives.
The common size of negatives: 9" x 9" (23 x 23 cm).
The basis for aerial photography: light-sensitive chemicals in
the film emulsion.
These chemicals may react to ultraviolet, visible, and/or near
infrared portions of the spectrum, from 0.3 μm to 0.9 μm
wavelength.
• Often used as data source for updating vector data in GIS.
Air photos are especially important for applications that
require the data of very high spatial resolution
 Cameras and Aerial Photography
• Cameras are simplest and oldest of
sensors used for remote sensing of
the Earth's surface.
• Cameras are framing systems which
acquire a near-instantaneous
"snapshot" of an area (A), of the
surface. Camera systems are
passive optical sensors that use a
lens (B) (or system of lenses
collectively referred to as the optics)
to form an image at the focal plane
(C), the plane at which an image is
sharply defined.
Cameras can be used on a variety of platforms
including ground-based stages, helicopters,
aircraft, and spacecraft.

The ground coverage of a photo depends on

several factors, including the focal length of the
lens, the platform altitude, and the format and
size of the film. The focal length effectively
controls the angular field of view of the lens
(similar to the concept of instantaneous field
of view discussed earlier) and determines the
area "seen" by the camera.
 Focal Length & Angle of Coverage
Focal plane and Focal Length
• Focal plane: the flat surface where the
film is held
• Focal length: the distance from the
lens at which parallel rays of light are
focused to a point. Distance from the focal
plane to approximately the center of the
camera lens.
• Thin-lens equation:
1/f= 1/o +1/i
• f: the focal length of the camera
• o: the distance between the object and
the camera
• i: the distance between the lens and the image plane.
• In aerial photography, o can be considered infinite, so aerial cameras
are manufactured with their film plane located precisely at the fixed
• Typical focal lengths used are 90 mm, 210mm,
and most commonly, 152mm. The longer the
focal length, the smaller the area covered on
the ground, but with greater detail (i.e. larger
scale). The area covered also depends on the
altitude of the platform. At high altitudes, a
camera will "see" a larger area on the ground
than at lower altitudes, but with reduced detail
(i.e. smaller scale). Aerial photos can provide
fine detail down to spatial resolutions of less
than 50 cm.
 Angle of coverage

Angle of coverage increases as the focal length

decreases
 Vertical Aerial Photographs

• Characteristics
•Tilt no more than 3 degrees from the
vertical.
•The scale is approximately constant
throughout the photo.
•Within limitations, a vertical air photo can
be used as a map substitute.
•The most common format is a 9 by 9 inch
(approximately 23 cm * 23 cm)photograph.
 Vertical Aerial Photographs
• Frame Cameras used along flight lines or flight strips.
• Nadir line directly beneath the aircraft--and traced on the ground
during acquisition(when useful) of photography
• Endlap usually present in successive photographs
– Ensures total coverage along flight line
– 50% is essential for stereoscopic coverage
• Stereo-pairs
– Adjacent pairs of overlapping vertical photographs.
– Two different perspectives of ground area, which results in the
perception of a three dimensional stereo model
Vertical Aerial Photographs
(Continued)
 Vertical Aerial Photographs
(Continued)
Example of stereopair
acquisition

Remote Sensing and Image

Interpretation, Lillesand et al.
 The advantages of an oblique aerial
photograph

1. Can cover a much larger area on a single photo

2. Hasmore natural view and makes man made objects more
recognizable.
3. Some objects not visible on vertical photos may be seen on oblique
(e.g., caves or objects under the edge of a forest cover).
 Basic Principle of Photogrammetry
Science and technology of obtaining spatial
measurements and other geometrically derived
products from photographs.
Main topic:
• Photographic Scale
• Horizontal ground distances
• Area Measurement
• Relief Displacement of Vertical Features
• Object heights from relief displacement measurements
• Image Parallax and determination of object height and terrain
elevation
• Stereo Images
• Stereoscopic Plotting Instruments
• Flight Planning and Mapping with Aerial Photography
 Geometric Elements of a Vertical
Photograph
• Light rays from object imaged in plane of film negative.
• Since object essentially at “infinity,” inverted (negative) image
located behind lens at a distance equal to f, and non-inverted
(positive) image at distance f in front of camera.
1 1 1 1
   
o 
i f o f
• X and Y coordinates of image referenced to axes formed by straight
lines joining opposite fiducial marks recorded on positive
– Fiducial marks define frame of reference
– Fiducial marks intersect principal point
Geometric Elements of a Vertical
Photograph

(Airphoto Geometry)
 Vertical Aerial Photographs
Fiducial marks
Are optically projected geometric
figures located at either the four
corners of a photograph, or on the
four sides of a photograph.
•They define the coordinate axes and
geometric center of a single aerial
photograph.
•The x-axis most nearly defines the
direction of flight.
•The y-axis most nearly
perpendicular to the line of flight.
•The intersection of the fiducial
marks represents the “principal
point”of the photograph.
•
 Scale

Any quantitative measurement on a

photograph involves the use of scale to
convert the photograph's measurements to
the actual ground measurements

Without knowledge of scale, it is impossible

to relate the distances between 2 points (or
the size of an object) to an actual distance
(or size) on the ground.
•
 Scale
Representative Fraction (RF)
Ratio of the distance on a photograph to the same distance on the
ground, and expressed as a simple fraction.

Example: 1 / 2000 (the photo distance is 1 / 2000 times the ground

distance)

Units are the same, thus the Ratio is unit less

 Variation
Variation in Scale
in Scale
• Scale is probably not constant across a photograph.
• Within a single photograph, scale is a function of tilt
and topography.
• Therefore, RF can be re-defined as:
 Variation in Scale
Variation in Scale
Assuming flat terrain, increasing the focal length by 2
decreases the RF by half.
 Variation in Scale

Variation in Scale
Tilt causes variation
within a single
photograph.

Scales are different on

either side of the
tilt.
 Vertical Aerial Photographs
The three photo centers
Different types of distortion and
displacement radiate from each of
these points.
1
Principal point:
geometric center of the photograph,
and the intersection of the X and Y
axes.
Lens distortion is radial
from the Principal Point
Ground P Point Source
 Vertical Aerial Photographs

The three photo centers

Nadir: The point vertically beneath

the camera at the time the photograph
was taken.

Topographic displacement
is radial from the nadir

Usually difficult to locate on a single

aerial photograph
 Vertical Aerial Photographs
3

Isocenter:The
3 point that falls on
a line halfway between the
Principal Point and the Nadir.

Tilt displacement radiates

from the isocenter
 Vertical Aerial Photographs
The three photo centers
On a truly vertical aerial photograph, all three
photo centers will be located in the same place.
This place can be located by drawing lines
between opposite fiducialmarks (as when defining
the Principal Point).
 Vertical Aerial Photographs
Distortion and Displacement
Distortion: The shift in position of a landscape feature on a
photograph that alters the perspective characteristics of the photo.

• •Film and print shrinkage (negligible)

• •Atmospheric refraction of light rays (negligible)
• •Lens distortion

Displacement: Any shift in the position of a landscape feature

on a photograph that does not alter the perspective characteristics
of the image.

• •Curvature of the earth (negligible)

• •Tilt
• •Topographic relief
 Area Measurement

•
 Photographic Scale (Continued)
b´ o´ a´ Negative film

L (Exposure station)

f
Example 3.2, page 139: H Positive print
 Camera equipped with (Aircraft H´ a o b
flying height) (Height
152-mm-focal-length lens above
terrain)
to take vertical photograph
from 2780 m altitude. Ground
A O B
 Terrain flat at elevation of h (Terrain elevation)
Sea level
500 m.
 What is the photograph
f 0.152
scale? Scale  
H  h 2780  500
1
Scale  or 1 : 15000
15000
 Photographic Scale (Concluded)
• Only case an aerial photograph can be treated as a map
directly is the case of a vertical photograph imaging uniformly
flat terrain.
– Rarely the case.
– Potential geometric distortions due to tilt, scale variation,
and relief displacement.
• Failure to deal with distortions will lead to a lack of fit among
image derived and non-image derived data sources in a GIS.
• If various factors are properly addressed, extremely reliable
measurements and map products can be derived from aerial
photography.
 Vertical Aerial Photographs
Lens Distortion

Radiates from the Principal Point.

•Causes landscape features to appear either
further away, or closer to, the PrincipalPoint
than they really are.
•Most serious near the edges of a photograph.
•Can be calculated by calibrating the lens, and
developing a “distortion curve”for the
lens.
 Vertical Aerial Photographs
Tilt Displacement
Radiates from the isocenter of a photograph.

-Caused by the aircraft not being perfectly

horizontal at the time of exposure of the film.

-If the amount of tilt is known, photographs can be

rectified (expensive).

-The best solution to the problem of tilt would be

to take tilt-free aerial photographs.
 Vertical Aerial Photographs
Tilt Displacement
 Vertical Aerial Photographs
Topographic Displacement
Radiates from the nadir of a photograph.
•Varies directly with the height of the landscape feature.

•Varies directly with the radial distance from nadir to the top of a landscape feature.

•There is no displacement at nadir.

•Varies inversely with the flying height above the base of the landscape features.

•We can view in 3-dimensional images because of it.

•We can use the “similar triangles” theory to arrive at an equation to allow us to
calculate topographic displacement.

In the example that follows, we will assume that the nadir and the Principal Point are
the same (since topographic displacement is radial from the nadir, yet the nadir is
often difficult to determine, and the Principal Point is not).
 Vertical Aerial Photographs
Topographic Displacement
Displacement Units in feet or meters:
h = height of the landscape feature.

A = altitude of the aircraft above sea

level.

E = elevation of the landscape feature.

H = Flying height abovethe base of the

landscape feature at nadir

R = distance from the nadir to the

landscape feature
 Vertical Aerial Photographs

Topographic Displacement
Vertical Aerial Photographs
Vertical Aerial Photographs
 Vertical Aerial Photographs
Distortion and Displacement: Topographic Displacement:
 Air Photo Interpretation Elements
Aerial photographs need to be interpreted for most purposes in order
to simplify the complex information presented.
 SHAPE
The form of an object on an air photo helps to indentify the object.
Regular uniform shapes often indicate a human involvement.

This is a baseball diamond next to a track and field area.

 SHAPE

This is an airport. It may not be obviouse at first but there are some familiar
shapes that give us the clue.
 SHADOW
Shadow provides information about the object's height,
shape, and orientation (e.g. tree pecies)
 SHADOW

An objects shadow often gives us as much information as the object itself.

 SHADOW

SHADOWIt's easy to see the design of the steel superstructure by looking at the
shadows.
 SHADOW

Montains: Shadows help define topography on single aeril

photos.

Montains: Shadows help define topography on single aeril photos.

 SHADOW

The building on the left has a much longer shadod and therefore is much higher than
one on the right.
 PATTERN
The spatial arrangement of objects (e.g. row crops vs. pasture) is also useful to
identify an object and its usage.
 PATTERN

Pattern helps us identify trees. The spoke like branching pattern of western hemlock
is quite different from the branching pattern of pacific silver fir.
 PATTERN

The man-made patterns of fields, orchards, and roads contrast with nature's
patterns of river and forest.
 ASSOCIATION

It' s an airport because of its shape and because there are airplanes.
 ASSOCIATION / SITE
Associating the presence of
one object with another,
or relating it to its
environment, can help
identify the object
(e.g. industrial buildings
often have access to
railway, power plants
are often located beside
large bodies of water).

Small airfield. There are no buildings or airplanes associated with it so

perhaps it's a farmers private airfield.
 TEXTURE
The physical characteristics of an object will change the way they
appear on a photo (e.g. calm water has a smooth texture; a forest
canopy has a rough texture);
 TEXTURE
There's a smooth textured
area in the middle; it's a
stand of hardwoods.

Above the hardwoods is a

stand of young conifers.
Their crowns are more
pointed than hardwoods.
Such crowns cause many
shadows, giving a medium
texture.
 SIZE

House and apartments: Relative size helps us distinguish apartments from

houses even though we don't know the exact dimensions of either.
 Colour Tone

Colour, or tone on black and white photos, is another principle of photo

interpretation.
 Colour Tone
We can easily separate
conifers from
hardwoods in
winter or early
spring by their tone.

• Areas covered with

pine trees are much
darker.
 Introduction
Photogrammetry
Photos = light / Gramma = to draw / Metron = to measure
• The science and technology of obtaining spatial measurements and
other geometrically relevant information from photographs.
• Photographic analysis, using basic equipment and simple geometric
concepts, provides adequate approximations to:
–Distances and areas
–Elevations
• Sophisticated digital raster images and analytical techniques yield
precise Digital Elevation Models (DEMs):
–Thematic GIS data
–Other derived products
 Introduction (Concluded)
Photogrammetric topics:
1. Determining the scale of a vertical photograph and estimating
horizontal ground distances from measurements made on a vertical
photograph.
2. Using area measurements made on a vertical photograph to
determine the equivalent areas in a ground coordinate system.
3. Quantifying the effects of relief displacement on vertical area
photographs
4. Determining object heights from:
– Relief displacement measurements.
– Measurement of image parallax.
5. Using ground control points.
6. Mapping with aerial photographs.
7. Preparing a flight plan to acquire aerial photography.
 Photogrammatic Techniques
Single camera
• 2D information only-
Application limited to
planar object.
• Precision dependent on
image scale.
• Minimal reliability

(Working with Aerial Photographs)

 Photogrammatic Techniques
(Continued)

Stereopair
• Minimum configuration for 3D
• Widely used for aerial and close range
• Precision a function of image scale and base-to-height ratio
• Better reliability

(Working with Aerial Photographs)

 Photogrammatic Techniques
(Concluded)
Multi station
• 3D information.
• Used extensively for engineering and industrial applications.
• Precision a function of image scale, convergence, and number of
stations.
• High reliability and capable of modeling systematic errors.

(Working with Aerial

Photographs)
 The Principles of Photogrammetry
Photogrammetry assumes the camera 2D Image
produces a perfect central projection. i2
Focal
• No deviation of light rays passing Plane
i1
through lens of camera. PP

• Projection screen at focal plane of Lens

Distortion
f Camera Lens

camera must be rigid, planar

PC
surface. 3D Object
• Mathematical relationship between Ray o1
object and image known as o2 Optical
Axis
principle of collinearity.
• Collinearity embraces six degrees
PP=Principal Point f=focal length or principal
distance PC=Perspective Center
of freedom of camera. (Working with Aerial Photographs)

• Departures from central projection

modeled as systematic errors.
 Geometric Types of Aerial
Photographs
• Aerial photographs generally classified as either vertical or oblique
• Vertical photography:
– Camera axis directed as vertically as possible.
– Single-lens frame camera most commonly used in aerial remote
sensing.
– True vertical aerial photograph is rarely obtainable, but slight error
acceptable.
• Oblique photography:
– Intentional inclination.
– High oblique photographs result in image of the horizon while low
oblique photographs do not.
(Photogrammetry)
(Working with Aerial Photographs)
(Working with Aerial Photographs)
 Vertical Aerial Photographs
(Continued)
Example of stereopair
acquisition

Remote Sensing and Image

Interpretation, Lillesand et al.
 Vertical Aerial Photographs
(Concluded)
• Ground distance between photo centers at the times of exposure called
the air base
• Ratio between the air base and flying height above ground determines
the perceived vertical exaggeration
– Figure 3.3a, page 132 has base-height ratio of 0.30
– Figure 3.3b, page 133 has base-height ratio of 1.2, showing much
greater apparent relief (vertical exaggeration)
• A larger base-height ratio gives a greater vertical exaggeration.
• A given photographic mission can entail the procurement of hundreds
of exposures.
• A flight index mosaic is assembled by piecing together the individual
photographs into a single continuous picture.
 Geometric Elements of a Vertical
Photograph
• Light rays from object imaged in plane of film negative.
• Since object essentially at “infinity,” inverted (negative) image
located behind lens at a distance equal to f, and non-inverted
(positive) image at distance f in front of camera.
1 1 1 1
   
o 
i f o f
• X and Y coordinates of image referenced to axes formed by straight
lines joining opposite fiducial marks recorded on positive
– Fiducial marks define frame of reference
– Fiducial marks intersect principal point
Geometric Elements of a Vertical
Photograph

(Airphoto Geometry)
 Photographic Scale
f focal length photograph dis tan ce
Average scale = S   
H flying height ground dis tan ce

(rst)
 Photographic Scale (Continued)
Scale implies that one unit of distance on a photograph represents a
specific number of units of actual ground distance.
b´ o´ a´ Negative film
Example - a scale of
f
1/25,000 (or 1:25,000):
L (Exposure station)
 1 mm on photograph
f
represents 25 m on ground H Positive print
 1:1,000 is a larger scale (Aircraft H´ a o b
flying height) (Height
than 1:500,000 because it above
terrain)
shows ground features at a
larger, more detailed size. Ground
A O B
h (Terrain elevation)
Sea level
 Photographic Scale (Continued)
b´ o´ a´ Negative film

L (Exposure station)

f
Example 3.2, page 139: H Positive print
 Camera equipped with (Aircraft H´ a o b
flying height) (Height
152-mm-focal-length lens above
terrain)
to take vertical photograph
from 2780 m altitude. Ground
A O B
 Terrain flat at elevation of h (Terrain elevation)
Sea level
500 m.
 What is the photograph
f 0.152
scale? Scale  
H  h 2780  500
1
Scale  or 1 : 15000
15000
 Photographic Scale (Concluded)
• Only case an aerial photograph can be treated as a map
directly is the case of a vertical photograph imaging uniformly
flat terrain.
– Rarely the case.
– Potential geometric distortions due to tilt, scale variation,
and relief displacement.
• Failure to deal with distortions will lead to a lack of fit among
image derived and non-image derived data sources in a GIS.
• If various factors are properly addressed, extremely reliable
measurements and map products can be derived from aerial
photography.
 Ground Coverage of Aerial
Photographs
• Ground coverage is function of camera format size.
– 230 x 230 mm format (240 mm film) has about 17.5 times
(from (240/70)2) the ground area coverage of an image taken
with a 55 x 55 mm format (70 mm film).
• As with photo scale, ground coverage of photography is a function
of focal length and flying height above ground (H).
• For constant flying height, width of covered ground area varies
inversely with focal length.
• Photos from shorter focal length lenses have larger areas of
coverage (i.e. smaller scales) than those taken with longer focal
length lenses.
• There is a tradeoff between the ground area covered by an
image and the object detail.
 Area Measurement
• Area measurement accuracy is a function of:
– The measuring device.
– The terrain relief and tilt.
• Simple scales can measure simple shapes.
• Example:
– Rectangular field image is 8.65 cm by 5.13 cm with 1:20,000 scale.
– Ground area = 0.0865•0.0513 •20,0002 = 1,774,980 m²

(Photogrammetry)
 Area Measurement (Continued)
• Simple technique to measure irregular features employs
transparent grid overlay of rectangles or squares of known area.
• Grid placed over photograph, then rectangles or squares counted in
the irregular feature.
• Dot grid perhaps the most widely used.
– Inexpensive and requires little training, but is very tedious.
• Coordinate digitizer or digitizing table another method, interfaced
with computer.
– Traces around boundary of region and gives area readout
directly.
 Relief Displacement

• Objects not under the

principal point will lean
outward.
• As the distance from the
principal point increases, the
radial displacement
increases.
• The cooling towers closer to
the photo edge show greater
radial displacement.

(Rutgers)
 Displacement of Object Features
Cameras for aerial photography provide
instantaneous "snapshot" view of Earth
from directly overhead.
 Primary geometric distortion in
vertical aerial photographs due to
relief displacement
 Objects directly below center of
camera lens (i.e. at the nadir) will
have only their tops visible
 All other objects will appear to lean
away from the center of photo so (Relief Displacement)
that their tops and sides are visible
Impact of Variations in Terrain Elevation
• The principal point (PP) is on
ground surface directly below
the camera lens.
• The higher the elevation of an
object from the average
elevation, the farther
horizontally its image will
appear to be displaced from its
actual horizontal position away
from the PP of the photograph.
• Conversely, the lower the
elevation of an object, the more
it will be displaced toward the
principal point.
(Relief Displacement)
 Object Height Determination from Relief Displacement
Measurement

• Increase in the elevation

L
of a feature causes its
position to be displaced
radially outward from the f
principal point.
• When a vertical feature is
H
a´ o
photographed, the top of a
d r
the feature lies further
from photo center than its
Datum
base.
• When considering relief
O

displacement of a vertical A
feature, datum plane often h
A´
placed at base of feature. R

• Flying height must be A´´ D

referenced to same datum.
 Object Height Determination from Relief Displacement
Measurement (Continued)

• From similar triangles,

L
D/h=R/H
• From scaling of photograph
d/h=r/H f
or
H
h=dH/r a´ o
• Where a
d r
d = relief displacement
r = radial distance on
photograph from PP to Datum
displaced object point O

h = height above datum of A

object point h
H = flying height above same A´
R
datum for reference h A´´ D
 Object Height Determination from Relief Displacement
Measurement (Continued)
Assume relief displacement of tower at A is 2.01 mm, radial distance
from photo center to top of tower is 56.43 mm, and flying height above
tower is 1220 m. L

The height of the tower is thus: f

H
a´ o
h = d•H / r = 2.01•1220/56.43 a
d r
= 43.4 m
Datum
O

A
h
A´
R

A´´ D
 Object Height Determination from Relief
Displacement Measurement (Concluded)

Another example:

Photo relief displacement for Tank B

d = 9.5 mm
Radial distance from principal point to top of
Tank B
r = 127 mm
Flying height above terrain
H = 914 m
Height from relief displacement
d  H  9.5  914 
h    68.3 m
r  127 
(Rutgers)
 Parallax Fundamentals
• Method of measuring distance called parallax.
• Example:
– Hold pencil at arm’s length, and close each eye in turn.
– Each eye looks at pencil from slightly different direction.
– Brain determines object’s distance from slight change in
direction.

(parallax)
• For distant objects, small distance between eyes means parallax
angle too small to see change in direction.
• Military rangefinders use binoculars with lenses one meter apart to
increase perspective.
 Parallax Fundamentals
(Continued)
• Observing distant stars the distance between the two viewing points
must be even larger.
– Can use opposite sides of Earth’s orbit

(parallax)
 Parallax Fundamentals
(Concluded)
Distance from star to sun
Earth

r = radius of
γ = parallax angle
Earth’s orbit

Sun Star

d = distance to the star

d = r / tan γ = 150,000,000 km / tan 1 = 150 Gm / tan(1/36000) =

31 • 1012 km = 3.27 light-years.
Distance When not a Right Triangle

(Nick Strobel)

  1800  a  b
B D
From law of sins: 
sin   sin a 
 Image Parallax
• Applications of photogrammetry use the principle of parallax to
incorporate stereo pairs.
• Parallax is the apparent change in relative positions of stationary
objects caused by a change in viewing position.
• These displacements form the basis of three dimensional
viewing of overlapping photos.
• Parallax displacements occur parallel to line of flight.
• Image centers of preceding and succeeding photographs called
conjugate principal points.
• Line drawn through principal and conjugate principal points defines
the flight axis.
 Parallax Displacements on
Overlapping Vertical Photographs
• The parallax of any point such as +y +y´
A in terms of flight line
o o´ o o´
coordinate system: x a b
+x
xa´a´ b´
+x´
a

pa = xa – xa’
L L´
where o o´
– pa = parallax of point A a b a´ b´

– xa = measured x coordinate of
image a on left photograph (xa
B
positive) A
– xa’ = x coordinate of image a´ on
right photograph (xa’ positive)
Parallax Measurement

(Working with Aerial Photographs)

Stereoscopic Parallax

Washington Monument (Rutgers)

 Stereoscopic Parallax
• Stereopair show displacement between top and base of Washington
Monument.
• Stereoscopic parallax yields height of Washington Monument:
• p = parallax difference between
top and bottom of monument
= p1 + p2 = 2.06 - 1.46 = 0.6 in.
• H´ = flying height above lower point
= 4,600 ft ∆p1 ∆p2
p1 p2
• P = parallax of higher point P1 P2
= photo base length + p
= p + p = P1 + P2
= (p1+p1) + (p2+p2)
(Rutgers)
= 4.4 + 0.6 = 5.0 in
p  H  0.6 in  4,600 ft
h    552 ft
pa 5 in
 Stereo Images – Seeing in 3D

• Because of overlap between successive air photography along a flight,

it is possible to view airphotos stereoscopically, i.e., three dimensional
(3D) viewing.
• This is limited to area of overlap between the two images.
• Stereoscopic viewing is based on binocular vision.
• Each of our eyes sees scene from slightly different perspective.
• Brain reconstructs two images recorded by our eyes into 3D view of
the scene.
• Same thing is possible with airphoto pair provided that each photo is
viewed by each eye separately.
 Stereo Images (Continued)
• Several methods can be used to ensure that each eye sees only one of
a pair of images.
• Early 3-D movies relied on the use of anaglyphs.
– To see movie in 3-D, audience was required to wear glasses with
red and green lens.
– Colored lenses filter out different colors, so each eye sees a
different image.
– Brain reconstructs into a perspective view.
• Polarized light projectors operate in a similar way.
– By projecting each image in different polarization, e.g., vertical
and horizontal polarization, each eye with appropriate filter lens
sees a different image.
 Seeing in Three Dimensions
(Red / Green Stereo Imagery)

(NASA)

Hurricane Emilia Hurricane Andrew

Hurricane Luis

To view in 3-D, use red/green glasses with red lens on right eye
 Stereo Images (Con’t)
Pocket Stereoscope
• Overlapping airphoto pair is viewed
through lenses that force each eye to see
only one image.
• Brain reconstructs three dimensional view.
• Stereoscopic viewing usually assisted by (Airphoto Geometry)
use of pocket or mirror stereoscopes.
– Pocket-stereoscope limited by Mirror Stereoscope
approximately 5 cm dist between eyes.
– Mirror stereoscopes have advantage of
being able to view larger images than is
possible with a pocket-stereoscope.
(Airphoto Geometry)
 Stereo Images (Concluded)
• Depth perception is a function of the parallax angle.
• Parallax angle is the angle between the eyes and an object in a pair of
stereo images.
• Parallax angle decreases with distance from the object.
• Radial displacement of objects in an image makes the top of an object
appear to be at a different depth than the bottom of the object.

(Airphoto Geometry)
 Stereoscopic Plotting Instruments
• Stereoplotters made up of three basic components.
1. A projection system to create the terrain model.
2. A viewing system to enable the instrument operator to see the
model stereoscopically.
3. A measuring and tracing system for measuring elevations in the
model and tracing features onto a map sheet.
• Overlapping images projected onto a traceable table where terrain
model viewed in stereo.
• Projectors translated along and rotated about their x, y, and z axes.
• Allows instrument operator to perform a relative orientation to re-
create the position and angular orientation at time of exposure.
• Done by adjusting projectors until all conjugate image points coincide
in y direction.
• At this point, only elevation-caused x-parallax remains.
• Projectors now adjusted in tandem to arrive at absolute orientation.
• Accomplished by scaling and leveling until control points correct.
 The Earth’s Surface in 3D
Continental U.S.
• Shaded relief maps:
– Different shades of gray
on slopes depending on
elevation
• Color density slices:
– Elevations color coded
• Perspective views:
– Recreation of surfaces to
look like oblique views
• Draped views: Landsat
scene Wyoming (rst)
– “draped on DEM arrays

(rst)
Planetary Topography from
Stereo Imagery

(Smithsonian)
 Mapping with Aerial Photographs
Photogrammatic Workstations
• Stereo pair showing mature
topography in hilly terrain.
• Slight differences in shape and
shadowing of same hills
because of changed viewing
angles.
(Stereoscope would show stereo effect)

(rst)
 Flight Planning
• Objectives of photographic remote sensing project can often only
be met by procurement of new photography.
• Available photography could be outdated or in the wrong season.
• Available photography could be at the wrong scale or using an
unsuitable film type (i.e., need color film rather than black and
white).
• The requirement of new photography often necessitates that the
interpreter be involved in flight planning.
• Weather is beyond the control of even the best planners.
• Only a few days a year could be ideal for aerial photography.
 Flight Planning (Continued)
• Many jobs flown in a single day at widely separated locations.
• Flights scheduled between 10:00 and 14:00 hr. for maximum
illumination and minimum shadow.
• Mission planner provides computations and flight map to the crew,
detailing such items as:
– Flying height.
– Location, direction, and number of flight lines.
– Time interval between exposures, exposures per flight line, and
total number of exposures.
 Flight Planning (Concluded)
• Specifications spell out requirements and tolerances for flying the
mission, such as:
– Form and quality of the products.
– Ownership rights to original images.
– Mission timing.
– Ground control requirements.
– Camera calibration characteristics.
– Film and filter type.
– Exposure conditions.
– Photographic quality.
 Conclusion
• Photogrammetry is a very large and rapidly changing field.
• Most photogrammetric past operations were analog.
– Physical projection and measurement of hardcopy images.
– Precise optical or mechanical equipment.
• Photogrammetric operations today commonly use softcopy data
(digital files) and employ mathematical modeling and processing.
– Airborne digital camera/satellite data, generating digital reference
and image data.
– Softcopy workstations -- with access to GIS and image processing
software -- often represent highly integrated systems for spatial
data capture, manipulation, analysis, storage, display, and output.
• Photographic films are sensitive to light from 0.3 μm to 0.9
μm in wavelength covering the ultraviolet (UV), visible, and
near-infrared (NIR).
• Panchromatic films are sensitive to the UV and the
visible portions of the spectrum. Panchromatic film
produces black and white images and is the most common
type of film used for aerial photography. UV photography
also uses panchromatic film, but a filter is used with the
camera to absorb and block the visible energy from reaching
the film. As a result, only the UV reflectance from targets is
recorded. UV photography is not widely used, because of
the atmospheric scattering and absorption that occurs in this
region of the spectrum. Black and white infrared
photography uses film sensitive to the entire 0.3 to 0.9 μm
wavelength range and is useful for detecting differences in
 Colour and false colour (or colour infrared, CIR) photography
involves the use of a three layer film with each layer sensitive to
different ranges of light. For a normal colour photograph,
the layers are sensitive to blue, green, and red light - the same as
our eyes. These photos appear to us the same way that our eyes see
the environment, as the colours resemble those which would appear
to us as "normal" (i.e. trees appear green, etc.). In colour infrared
(CIR) photography, the three emulsion layers are sensitive to green,
red, and the photographic portion of near-infrared radiation, which

,
are processed to appear as blue, green, and red respectively.
 Supplemental References
1. Vertical Color Aerial Photograph of Liberty Island,
http://www.aerometric.com/liberty.com
2. Remote Sensing Tutorials, http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov
3. Parallax, http://www.ast.cam.ac.uk/~mjp/parallax.html
4. The Virtual Science Centre Project on Remote Sensing,
http://www.sci-ctr.edu.sg/ssc/publication/remotesense/rms1.htm
5. Smithsonian Educational Data,
http://www.nasm.edu/ceps/research/cook/topography.htm
6. 3D Mapper, http://www.3dmapper.com/3ddemos.htm
7. Nick Strobel’s Astronomy Notes,
http://www.astronomynotes.com/chap1in.htm
 Supplemental References (Concluded)
8. Photogrammetry, http://www.sli.unimelb.edu.au/nicole/lectures/lecintro.html
9. Working with Aerial Photographs,
http://www.hope.ac.uk/ebs/ebswww/www/remotewww/ppt/AERIAL/
10. Lenses, http://plabpc.csustan.edu/general/Tutorials/Optics/Lenses/
ConvergingLenses.htm
11. Working with Aerial Photographs,
http://www.hope.ac.uk/ebs/ebswww/www/remotewww/ppt/AERIAL/
12. Relief Displacement,
http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/eduref/tutorial/chap2/c2p10_i1e.html
13. Airphoto Geometry, http://www.fes.uwaterloo.ca/crs/geog165/apg.htm
14. Airphoto Interpretation, http://www.fes.uwaterloo.ca/crs/geog165/api.htm
 Supplemental References
(Concluded)
9. Working with Aerial Photographs
http://www.hope.ac.uk/ebs/ebswww/www/remotewww/ppt/AERIAL/
10. Lenses
http://plabpc.csustan.edu/general/Tutorials/Optics/Lenses/
ConvergingLenses.htm
11. Working with Aerial Photographs
http://www.hope.ac.uk/ebs/ebswww/www/remotewww/ppt/AERIAL/
12. Relief Displacement
http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/eduref/tutorial/chap2/c2p10_i1e.html
13. Airphoto Geometry
http://www.fes.uwaterloo.ca/crs/geog165/apg.htm
14. Airphoto Interpretation
http://www.fes.uwaterloo.ca/crs/geog165/api.htm