NOTES ON CRIME DETECTION AND INVESTIGATION

SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION

INTRODUCTION

Special Crime Investigation deals with the study of major crimes based on the
application of special investigative technique.
The study concentrates more on physical evidence, its collection, handling,
identification and preservation in coordination with the crime laboratory. Special Crime
Investigation involves a close relationship between the prober in the field and the crime
laboratory technician. They work together as a team, reacting to and extending one
another’s theories and findings both working patiently and thoroughly to solve a crime
from their investigative discoveries.
The present criminal justice system in our country, the court relies more on
physical evidence rather than extra-judicial confession.

HOMICIDE INVESTIGATION

Homicide Investigation is the official inquiry made by the police on the facts and
circumstances surrounding the death of a person which is expected to be unlawful.

Primary Job of the Investigator

1. To discover whether an offense has been committed under the law.
2. To discover how it was committed
3. Who committed it and by whom it was committed
4. When it was committed
5. And under certain circumstances why it was committed

Responsibilities of a Homicide Investigator

1. When called upon to investigate violent death, he stands on the dead man’s
shoes to produce his instincts against those suspects.
2. The enthusiasm and intelligence the investigator brings in the case marks the
difference between a murderer being convicted and set free.
3. If he interprets a criminal death accidental or natural, a guilty person is set
free.
4. Remember that the police is the first line of defense in the effective
application of criminal justice.

Mistakes in the Homicide Investigation

1. The mistakes of the homicide investigator cannot be corrected.
2. The homicide investigator should not cross the three bridges which he burns
behind him. It is important that competent personnel adequately handle the
case.

Three Bridges:
a. The dead person has been moved

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 b. The cadaver is embalmed
c. The body is burned or cremated

Basic Guide for the Investigator to look upon is to establish the following:
1. Corpus delicti or facts that crime was committed
2. Method of operation of the suspect
3. Identity of the guilty party

Title Eight
CRIMES AGAINST PERSON
(Destruction of Life)

Art. 246. Parricide – Any person who shall kill his father, mother, or child, whether
legitimate or illegitimate, or any of his ascendants or descendants, or his spouse, shall
be guilty of parricide.

Penalty: Reclusion Perpetua (20 years and 1 day to 40 years imprisonment) to death.

Elements:
1. That a person is killed.
2. That the deceased is killed by the accused.
3. That the deceased is the father, mother, or child, whether legitimate or
illegitimate, or a legitimate other ascendant or other descendant, or the legitimate
spouse, of the accused.

Art. 247. Death or physical injuries inflicted under exceptional circumstances–

Any legally married person who, having surprised his spouse in the act of committing
sexual intercourse with another person, shall kill any of them or both of them in the act or
immediately thereafter, or shall inflict upon them any serious physical injury, shall suffer
the penalty of destierro.
If he shall inflict upon them physical injuries of any kind, he shall be exempt from
punishment.
These rules shall be applicable, under the same circumstances, to parents, with
respect to their daughters under eighteen years of age, and their seducer, while the
daughters are living with their parents.
Any person who shall promote or facilitate prostitution of his wife or daughter, or
shall otherwise have consented to the infidelity of the other spouse shall not be entitled
to the benefits of this article.

Penalty: Destierro (prohibition to enter the place or places designated in the sentence,
nor within the radius therein specified, which shall be not more than 250 and not less
than 25 kilometers from the place designated.

Art. 248. Murder– Any person who, not falling with the provisions of Article 246, shall kill
another, shall be guilty of murder and shall be punished by reclusion Perpetua to death,
if committed with any of the following attendant circumstances:
1. With treachery, taking advantage of superior strength, with aid of armed men, or
employing means to weaken the defense or of means or persons to insure or
afford impunity;
2. In consideration of a price, reward or promise;

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 3. By means of Inundation, fire, poison, explosion, shipwreck, stranding of vessel,
derailment or assault upon a railroad, fall of an airship, or by means of motor
vehicles or with the use of any other means involving great waste and ruin;
4. On occasion of any of the calamities of an earthquake, eruption of a volcano,
destructive cyclone, epidemic or other public calamity;
5. With evident premeditation;
6. With cruelty, by deliberately and inhumanly augmenting the suffering of the
victim, or outraging or scoffing at his person or corpse.

Penalty: Reclusion Perpetua (20 years& 1 day to 40 years imprisonment) to death.

Elements of murder:
1. That a person is killed.
2. That the accused killed him.
3. That the killing was attended by any of the qualifying circumstances mentioned in
Article 248.
4. The killing is not parricide or infanticide.

TREACHERY
Plain and simple, there is treachery if the offended party was not given
opportunity to make a defense.

MEANING OF PREMEDITATION
Premeditation is the act of mediating in advance; deliberation upon a
contemplated act; a design form to do something before it is done.
The essence of premeditation is that the execution of the criminal act must be
preceded by COOL THOUGHT and REFLECTION upon the resolution to carry out the
criminal intent during the space of time SUFFICIENT to arrive at a calm judgment.
There is no evident premeditation without proof of planning.

EVIDENT – Clear to the eye or judgment.

ART. 249. Homicide – Any person who, not falling within the provisions of Article 246
(Parricide) shall kill another, without the attendance of any of the circumstances
enumerated in the next preceding article (Article 248), shall be deemed guilty of
homicide.

Penalty: Reclusion temporal (12 years& 1 day to 20 years imprisonment)

ART 255 .Infanticide

The killing of a child less than three days of age, whether the killer is the parent
or grandparent, any other relative of the child, or a stranger.

Penalty:
1. The penalty provided in parricide and murder shall be imposed.
2. If the crime penalized in this article be committed by the mother of the child to
conceal dishonor, she shall suffer the penalty of prision mayor (6 years & 1 day to 12
years imprisonment) in its medium and maximum periods. If committed by maternal
grandparents or either of them, the penalty shall be reclusion temporal (12 years& 1 day
to 20 years imprisonment).

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HOMICIDE INVESTIGATION PROCEDURES

Criminal Investigation of homicide is a discovery process. The investigator seeks

to discover and document such facts as type of death, identity of the deceased, cause of
death and motivation and identity of the perpetrator. In order to resolve these
fundamental questions, the investigation will focus on the cadaver, crime scene and post
mortem examination.
The cadaver is often of prime importance as an investigative factor. The victim’s
body can reveal much through examination of wounds and other types of tracing clues
that may be present.

Establishing the Facts of Death

The first essential step of the homicide investigation is to establish that the victim
is, indeed, dead. Police officers do not have the legal authority to pronounce death, only
physicians/medical doctor can establish the fact of death. For this reason, the police
officer should never assume death unless the condition of the victim’s body
demonstrates death in a totally obvious manner.

A. Death – death is defined as the absence of life in a living matter.

B. Kinds of Death
1. Somatic Death – Clinical Death
It is a complete, continuous, persistent cessation of respiration, circulation
and almost all brain functions of an organism. It is usually pronounced by a
physician or other members of the family.
2. Molecular Death- Cellular Death
It is the cessation of life of the individual cells in the whole body, which occurs
one at a time after somatic death.
3. Apparent Death – State of Suspended Animation
It is the state of temporary cessation of vital activities of the body or vital
processes were depressed to the minimum compatible with life. This
condition is not actually death although classified under the kinds of death,
because the person or organism is still alive although it seems that there are
no signs of life.

C. Signs of Death
1. Cessation of respiration
2. Cessation of Heart Beating and Circulation
3. Cooling of the body
4. Insensibility of the body and loss of power to remove
5. Changes in the eyes
6. Changes in the skin

Identifying the Cadaver

Establishing the identity of the victim is important, it will provide tracing clues to
the motive and identity of the perpetrator, with the identity known, the investigator can
focus attention on the victim’s background and establish a possible motive through such
information. Victims encountered in indoor scenes will normally have identifying data on
the body, or such data will be available throughout the crime scene. In outdoor scenes,
such evidence is normally not as readily available, since the victim is removed from the

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personal environment and also outdoor scene may not be discovered for long period of
time; thus evidence may be destroyed by elements of nature or will be lost. If there are
no identifying papers on the victim’s person, fingerprint should be used as means of
identification. If fingerprint identification is unsuccessful, the investigator must rely on
other methods to establish identity.
Dental structures are highly resistant to destruction, and are frequently useful
when the other portions of the body are totally decomposed (Forensic Odontology). The
skeletal remains of the victim may also help to determine identity, as well as yield other
types of information. If bone fractures are noted, they may be used to identify the
deceased, but if only corresponding medical records can be located. The widths of the
pelvic bones are excellent indicators of the victim’s sex; Determination of the victims age
maybe more difficult, in that the victims past the age of eighteen years have generally
achieved their maximum skeletal growth. However, general age determination can be
established via dental structure.

A. Points Taken into Consideration when Finding Human Dead Body Elsewhere:
1. Place where the body was found
2. Date and time when found
3. Cause of death
4. Time when death occurred
5. Approximate age
6. Possible occupation
7. Complete description of the body

B. Points to be Considered in Identifying a Person

1. Face
2. Eyes
3. Nose
4. Head
5. Condition of hair
6. Mouth
7. Body built
8. Height
9. Weight
10. Complexion
11. Hands and feet
12. Teeth
13. Clothing
14. Ornamental
15. Personal belongings
16. Identification from spouse, parents, relatives and friends
17. Files from the police and other law enforcement agencies
18. Occupational mark
19. Race
20. Tattoo marks
21. Deformities
22. Birth marks
23. Physical defects leaving permanent results such as amputation and improper
union of the fractured bones
24. Moles
25. Scars

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 26. Tribal marks
27. Sexual organ
28. Blood grouping

Determination of Time of Death (Death Estimates)

A determination of the time of death should be attempted in all homicide
investigations. This fact is significant because of its investigative importance in
corroborating or disputing alibis, or in establishing the victim’s movements prior to death.
Determining death is not an exact science.
POST-MORTEM CHANGES

1. POST-MORTEM LIVIDITY (Livor Mortis)– Discoloration of the body after death;

setting of blood in the dependent portions of the body following death).
It is a reddish purple to purple coloration in dependent areas of the body due to
accumulation of blood in the small vessels of the dependent areas secondary to gravity.
This pooling of blood begins immediately after death and becomes fixed in
approximately 8-12 hours. The investigator can press on the skin in the dependent
regions and if the skin blanches, death has probably occurred less than 12 hours. This
becomes fixed after a while and can tell if the body has been moved. This is not a
reliable indicator of time of death. This is a better indicator of whether the body has been
moved since death.

The Color of Lividity may indicate the Cause of Death:

1. Carbon monoxide poisoning/ cyanide – cherry red to pinkish color
2. Asphyxia – dark lividity
3. Phosphorous poisoning – dark brown

TYPES OF LIVIDITY
1. Hypostatic – Blood is still in fluid form inside blood vessel; change as position of
the body changes. Blood remains fluid in the blood vessel for 6- 8 hours.

2. Diffusion– Coagulated inside blood vessel; Change in position will not change its
location.

Importance of Post-Mortem Lividity

1. It is a sign of death
2. It enables the investigator to estimate the time of death
3. It determines the position of the body after death
4. It may indicate the cause and manner of death

Characteristics of Post-Mortem Lividity

1. It occurs in the most extensive areas of the most dependent portion of the
body.
2. It involves the superficial layer of the skin, lungs, intestines, kidneys, and
brain.
3. Color is uniform in the tissues.
4. It is not elevated from the skin, lungs, intestines, kidneys and brain.
5. There is no injury to the tissues.
6. The color may appear and disappear in the tissues by shifting the position of
the body in the earlier stages of death.

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 2. POST MORTEM RIGIDITY (Rigor Mortis)
Stiffening of the body which occurs 2-6 hours after death and is characterized by
hardening of the muscles; the chemical reaction that causes rigidity in the muscle groups
or stiffening of the body after death due to the disappearance of Adenosine Triphosphate
(ATP) from the muscle.
-  Rigor mortis disappears with decomposition.
- Cold and/or freezing will delay the onset of rigor mortis as well as prolong
its presence
- Involves all muscles the same time at the same rate. It appears first in the
smaller muscles such as the jaw and then gradually spread to upper and lower
extremities.
-  Instantaneous rigidity can also be found following ingestion of cyanide and
strychnine poison.
Rigor Mortis has duration of 24 to 48 hours in the Philippines and other tropical
countries and 36 to 48 hours during summer in the same.

3. ALGOR MORTIS(Cooling of the body)

The body cools following death at approximately 1.5 degrees F per hour, under
normal conditions and assuming the body’s temperature at death is 98.6 degrees F (37
degrees C).

Factors Affecting Algor Mortis:

1. Illness
2. Clothes
3. Obesity
4. Room temperature

4. ONSET AND STAGE OF DECOMPOSITION

Decomposition is the action of bacteria on the dead body. The onset of
decomposition is 1 to 2 days after death and then finally the dead body becomes
skeletal remains in months considering the factors that influence the rate of putrefaction.

5. LIFE CYCLE OF FLIES

The eggs of ova laid by the flies on the dead body will hatch to form maggots
within 24 hours. The maggots will feed vigorously on the damaged dead body, then
transform into pupal stage and finally into adult flies within a few days.

6. CHANGES IN THE BLOOD

The blood remains fluid in the body after death after 6-8 hours. After which it
gradually clotted or coagulated in a slow process until 12 hours wherein the lividity is
already fully developed.

7. CHANGES IN STOMACH
It usually takes three to four hours for the stomach to empty its contents after
meals.

Examination of the Cadaver at the Crime Scene

External post mortem appearances are very informative. The areas of the body
showing lividity indicate the position after death. Wounds and their appearance are
particularly significant as they often assist in reconstructing the circumstances of a
crime, the nature of the murder weapon and the manner of its use.

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 Defense wounds are the result of a person’s instinctive reaction of self-
protection. It may be found on the hand in the effort of the victim to grasp the wounding
instrument or by raising the hand to protect the vital parts of the body. Absence of
defense wound does not eliminate the possibility that the victim made some form of
defense.

Common External Injuries Sustained by the Victim from Homicidal Attack

a. Contusion – an injury in the substance of the skin, discoloration of the surface
due to extravasation of blood. This is due to the application of a blunt instrument.
b. Hematoma – this is the extravasation of blood in the newly formed cavity.
c. Abrasion – an open wound characterized by the removal of the epithelial layer of
the skin brought about by the friction against hard, rough object.
d. Incised wound – produced by forcible contact on the body by sharp edge
instrument.
e. Stab wound – produced by the forcible application and penetration of a sharp
instrument.
f. Punctured wound – penetration of a sharp pointed weapon
g. Lacerated wound – tearing of the skin due to forcible contact of a blunt
instrument.

Evidence to Show the Fatal Effects of the Wound

1. Amount of hemorrhage
2. Size of the injury sustained
3. Organs and parts of the body involved
4. Mechanical effects on vital organs

Gunshot Wounds
All gunshot wounds result from the entry of a projectile into the body, and the
frequent presence of undispersed explosive gases. The relative size and appearance of
the wound will be affected by the distance from which the weapon was discharged.
Generally, the closer the discharged to the skin, the greater the damage. This damage is
due to explosive gases which precede the projectile at close range. In some
investigations involving firearms, a determination of whether the death was a homicidal,
suicide or accidental is difficult. In making such determination, the distance of the
discharge is of great importance. Majority of suicidal and accidental gunshot cases,
arm’s length discharges are involved. Accordingly, if the wound indicates discharge
beyond the victim’s length, homicide is indicated.
The location of the wound may also serve to rule out suicide. If the wound is
located in an area of the body that is relatively inaccessible to the victim, homicide is
indicated. It is also unusual for a suicide wound to be inflicted in an area other than the
head of chest. However, there have been a number of suicide cases involving wounds in
extremities. The presence or absence of a “suicide note” is a poor indicator of suicide or
homicide.

Two Types of Wounds:

1. entrance wound (POE)
2. exit wound (POX)

Determination whether the wound is suicidal, homicidal, or accidental

A. Evidence to prove that gunshot wound is suicidal:

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 1. The fire is usually in contact or near contact, as shown by the presence of
burning, singeing and tattooing of the area around the gunshot wound.
2. The presence of usually but one gunshot wound. In most cases, after a shot,
especially at the head, the victim can no longer voluntarily act to inflict another
shot.
3. Portions of the body involved are those accessible to the hand of the victim
utilized in committing suicide, he will not think of the difficult way of ending his life
unless he has the intention of deceiving the investigators.
4. History of despondency, family problem which may cause him to commit suicide.
B. Evidence to show that the wound is accidental:
1. Usually there is but one shot.
2. There is no special area of the body involved
3. Testimony of the witnesses

C. Evidence to show that the wound is homicidal:

1. The site or sites of the wound of entrance has no point of election.
2. The fire is made when the victim is usually some distance away from the
assailant
3. Signs of struggle/ defense wound maybe present in the victim.
4. There may be disturbance of the surrounding on the account of the previous
struggle.
5. Wounding firearm is usually not found at the scene of the crime
6. Testimony of the witnesses

DEATH BY HANGING AND STRANGULATION

Determination whether hanging is suicidal, homicidal, or accidental

1. Hanging – is a state of injury or death of the body whereby the ligature tightened
around the neck by the suspension of the body.

A. Suicidal Hanging – in death by hanging, it is usually suicidal unless proven

otherwise. Some evidence to prove are the following:
1. Accessible materials used for ligature like rope, rolled beddings, or wires.
2. Identification of the fibers from the rope in the hands of the victim.
3. Evidence of movement of the rope on the beam or anchorage from upward
and downward as the body has been suspended.
B. Homicidal Hanging
1. Presence of defense wound in the body of the victim.
2. Presence of blood stains and other injuries to the body of the victim.
3. Presence of signs of struggle in the clothing, furniture, beddings, and others.
4. Nature of the window, curtains, and doors.
C. Accidental hanging is not common.

2. Strangulation
Strangulation by ligature is usually homicidal and is done by tying the ligature
around the neck and the two ends pulled in the opposite direction in such a manner that
tightens the ligature. Ligature used may be rope, chain, wires, vines, rolled clothing.
SUICIDES

Ways of Committing Suicide

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 1. By cut-throat
2. By puncturing the left breast
3. By gunshot
4. By hanging
5. By drowning
6. By poisoning

ACCIDENTAL DEATH
Is death which occurs beyond the sway of ones will and although it comes about
through some act of will, lies beyond the bounds of human forceable consequences.
How Accidental Deaths Occur
1. Examination of the body revealed marked tearing of the wearing apparel, burns
of different degrees on the skin surface, wounds of almost any description and
almost the whole body is affected by the injury.
2. History of a thunderstorm that took place in the area.
3. Evidence of the effects of lighting are found in the vicinity, like damages to
house, tress, etc.
4. Metallic articles are fused or magnetized.
5. Absence of wound or other injuries indicating suicidal or homicidal death.
6. Fusion of glass materials in the neighborhood on account of extreme heat.

ELECTROCUTION
Accidental Electrocution
1. Presence of high voltage wire at the scene of death.
2. Body surface injuries as probably site of entrance and exit of electric current.
3. Death develops suddenly as victim not able to get away from the place of
electrocution.
4. Absence of evidence to show suicidal or homicidal.

ROBBERY INVESTIGATION

Article 293 – Robbery in General

Any person who, with intent to gain, shall take any personal property belonging to
another by means of violence or intimidation of any person, or by using force upon
anything shall be guilty of robbery.

Elements of Robbery
1. That there be personal property belonging to another;
2.  That there is unlawful taking of that property;
3. That the taking must be with intent to gain; and
4. That there is violence against or intimidation of any person, or force upon
things.

How robbery with force upon things is committed?

The malefactors shall enter the house or building in which the robbery was
committed by any of the following means:
1. Through an opening not intended for entrance
2. By breaking any wall, roof, floor or breaking any window or door.

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 3. By using false key or picklocks
4. By using fictitious name or pretending the exercise of public authority
5. By breaking of doors, wardrobes, closets or any kind of locked or sealed
furniture or receptacle
6. By taking such furniture or objects away to be broken or forced open outside
the place of robbery.

General Types of Robbers

1. Amateurs – motivated by greed, the desire for a thrill and self-testing.
2. Professionals – are those person who worked as robbers as a trade making it
their living and having no other means of income.

Note: Robbery – This is the taking or personal property belonging to another, with intent
to gain, by means of violence against, or intimidation of any person, or using force upon
anything.

Two Kinds of Robbery:

1. Robbery with violence or intimidation; and
2. Robbery with force upon things.
a. Belonging to another – person from whom property was taken need not
be the legal owner, possession is sufficient. The property must be
personal property and cannot refer to real property.
b. Name of the real owner is not essential so long as the personal property
taken does not belong to the accused except if crime is robbery with
homicide.
c. Taking of personal property – must be unlawful; if given in trust – estafa.
d. As to robbery with violence or intimidation – from the moment the
offender gains possession of the thing even if offender has had no
opportunity to dispose of the same, the unlawful taking is complete.
e. As to robbery with force upon things – thing must be taken out of the
building.
f. Intent to gain – presumed from unlawful taking – intent to gain may be
presumed from the unlawful taking of another’s property. However, when
one takes a property under the claim of ownership or title, the taking is
not considered to be with intent to gain. (U.S. vs. Manluco, et. al., 28
Phil.360)
g. When there’s no intent to gain but there is violence in the taking- grave
coercion.
h. Violence or intimidation must be against the person of the offended party,
not upon the thing.
i. General rule: violence or intimidation must be present before the “taking”
is complete.
Exception: when violence results in-homicide, rape, intentional mutilation
or any of the serious physical injuries in par. 1 and 2 of ART. 263, the
taking of property is robbery complex with any of this crime under ART.
294, even if taking is already complete when violence was used by the
offender.
j. Use of force upon thing – entrance to the building by means described
and ART. 299 and 302 (Offender must enter). The other kind of robbery
is one that is committed with the use of force upon anything in order to

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 take with intent to gain, the personal property of another. The use force
here must refer to the force employed upon things in order to gain
entrance into a building or a house. (People vs. Adorno, C.A. 40
0.G.567).
k. When both violence or intimidation and force upon things concur – it is
robbery with violence.

Robbery and Theft, compared.

a. Both robbery and theft involved unlawful taking as an elements;
b. Both involve personal property belonging to another;
c. In both crimes, the taking is done with intent to gain;
d. In robbery, the taking is done either with the use of violence or intimidation of
person or the employment of force upon things; whereas in theft, the taking is
done simply without the knowledge and consent of the owner.

Investigative Techniques in Robbery cases:

a. The investigator must initiate similar preliminary steps upon reaching the
crime scene.
b. Determine the point of entrance and point of exit by the perpetrator.
c. Determine the value of stolen articles.
d. The full and detailed description of the stolen articles.
e. Gather physical evidence.
f. Determine the modus operandi of the perpetrator as it would give leads in the
identification and arrest of the suspect.
g. Full and detailed description of a get-away vehicle if any, or vessel, boat in
cases of piracy.
h. Coordinate with other law enforcement agencies.
i. Exploit investigative leads.
j. Written testimony of the complainant witness.
k. Accumulate clues and traces at the scene of a crime which will serve to
identify the offender.
l. Develop informants in the local underworld who are aware of the activity of
robbery, particularly the activity of the semi-skilled amateur groups. (usually
the addict-robber)
m. Conduct a surveillance of likely fences and uncover and trace back stolen
property from its receiver to the robber.
n. Conduct surveillance of known burglars to ascertain if they are presently
committing robbery.
o. Accumulate information on various types of robber, the known and
newcomers whether they are in or out of prison, whether they are active.
p. Be alert on a modified modus operandi.
q. In cases where homicide is committed, follow the pattern of homicide
investigation.

Physical Evidence to be collected:

1. Footprints
2. Fingerprints
a. Areas of break
b. Closets – prints may be found in door and jams

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 c. Door knobs
d. Dressers
e. Pieces of furniture
f. Bottles and glasses
g. Walls
h. Tools
i. Desks
3. Clothing – sometimes the robbers exchange their own jackets with that one
found.
4. If a window was broken in effecting entry, glass particles maybe presents in
the trouser cuffs and pockets of suspect. Samples of broken glass should be
collected for possible future comparison in the event that a suspect is picked
up.
5. Paint- if a crowbar has been used to force the window, paint may adhere to
the tool. Paint samples should be taken for future comparison.
6. Tool marks
7. Tools
8. Observed odd behavior patterns in the crime scene
9. Cords and ropes used
10. Firearms used
11. Means of escape

Anti-Piracy and anti-highway robbery law of 1974 (P.D. 532)

Piracy – any attack upon or seizure of any vessel, or taking away of the whole or
part thereof or its cargo, equipment or the personal belonging of its complements or
passengers, irrespective of value thereof, by means of violence against or intimidation of
persons or force upon things, committed by any persons, including a passengers or
member of the compliments of said vessels in Philippine waters.

Highway Robbery/ Brigandage – the seizure of any person for ransom,

extortion or other unlawful purposes, or the taking away of the property of another by
means of violence against or intimidation of persons or force upon things of other
unlawful means committed by any person or any Philippine highway.

Anti-Cattle Rustling Law of 1974 (P.D. 533)

Cattle Rustling – Is the taking away by any means, methods or scheme, without
the consent of the owner/raiser, or any of the above animals (cow, carabao, horse, mule
or other domesticated member of the bovine family) whether or not for profit or gain, or
whether committed with or without violence against or intimidation of any person or force
upon things. It includes the killing of large cattle, or taking its meat or hide without the
consent of owner/raiser.

Anti-fencing law of 1979 (P.D. 1612)

Fencing – is the act of any person, who, with intent to gain, for himself or for
another shall buy, possess, keep, acquire, concealed, sell or in any other way, deal on
any articles, items, objects, or anything of value which he knows to have been derived
from the proceeds of crime or robbery or theft.
Fence – includes any person, firm, organization, association or corporation or
partnership and other organization who/ which commits the act of fencing.

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Article 267 – Kidnapping and Serious Illegal Detention

Elements:
1. That the offender is a private individual;
2. That the kidnaps or detains another, or in any other manner deprives the
latter of his liberty;
3. That the act of detention or kidnapping must be illegal;
4. That in the commission of the offense, any of the following circumstances is
present:
a. That the kidnapping of detention lasts for more than 3 days
b. That is committed simulating public authority
c. That any serious physical injuries are inflicted upon person kidnapped
or detained of threats to kill him are made; or
d. That the persons kidnapped is a minor, female, or a public officer.

Any private individual who shall kidnap or detain another, or in any other manner
Deprives him of his liberty.

The perpetrator shall suffer the penalty of reclusion Perpetua to death if:
1. The kidnapping or detention shall have lasted for more than five days.
2. Committed by simulating public authority.
3. Any serious physical injuries shall have been inflicted upon the person
kidnapped or detained or if threat to kill shall have been made.
4. The person kidnapped or detained shall be a minor, female or public officer.

The penalty shall be death where the kidnapping or detention was committed for
the purpose of extorting ransom from the victim or any other person, even if none of the
circumstances above mentioned were present in the commission of the offense.

Important factors in Kidnapping Cases:

1. The safe return of the victim
2. Identification and apprehension of the suspect

Initial Investigative Procedures:

1. Thorough interview of the victim if already released.
2. Search of the crime scene
3. Interview of the possible witnesses
4. Checking the modus operandi
5. Possible identification through the photographic files
6. Coordination with other law enforcement agencies

Kidnapping where ransom is involved:

Phase I.
When a complaint is received, the family of the victim is requested to remain in
touch to accumulate information needed. The following types of information must be
taken:
1. How the demand was made

14
 2. Request the family to refrain from divulging the contents of the letter, note or
call to anyone except to the police authorities.
3. Emphasize the importance of news blackout as essential to the victim’s
safety
4. Obtain and preserve the ransom note for laboratory examination.
5. Determine if the family intends to pay the ransom, investigators should avoid
giving the opinion as to ransom payments
6. Find ways and means to verify if the victim is still alive.
7. Conduct family background investigation
8. Conduct covert investigation of household helpers
9. Arrange for wiretapping operations in accordance with RA 4200
10. Establish possible motives

Phase II. After the victim has been returned or the body has been located.
After the victim has been returned dead or alive, the investigation changes, an
all-out investigation are conducted in accordance with the second objective, to identify
and apprehend the suspects. Investigative procedure includes:
1. Thorough interview of the victim. All details should be obtained.
3. Re interview all witnesses
4. Conduct surveillance
5. Determine whether the kidnapper is familiar with the victims, residential area,
habits and financial status.
6. If the victim is dead follow the pattern of homicide investigation

Pointers to be considered in Kidnapping Cases:

1. Remember that kidnap for ransom gang must be treated as witty,
experienced and dangerous armed criminals.
2. Any slightest mistake on the part of the police would mean death of the victim
3. Initiate secrecy discipline not only on the victim’s family but also within the
police.
4. Experienced, trusted personnel must be utilized
5. Equipped with sophisticated communication system

Problems in the Investigation of Kidnapping Cases:

1. Out of fear, the family of the victim does not want to cooperate with the
police.
2. The case is only reported after payoff of the ransom money or the victim had
been found dead.

SPECIAL CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION

Basic Definition of Terms

Criminal Investigation- is an art which deals with the identity and location of the
offender and prove his guilt in a criminal proceeding. (Dr. Pedro S. Solis)

Criminal Investigation- it is the systematic method of inquiry that is more a science

than an art. The logic of scientific method must however, be supplemented by the

15
investigator's initiative and resourcefulness. The sequences of the investigation should
be regarded by scientific, operating framework that requires improvising on the part of
the investigator. (Charles Swanson Jr., Neil Chamelin and Leonard Territo)

Art- Intuition, felicity of inspiration or by chance

Science- adequate professional preparation and abundance of certain qualities

Investigator- is the person who is charged with the duty of carrying out the objectives of
criminal investigation.
- is an individual who gathers documents and evaluates facts about crime

Special Crime Investigation- deals with the study of major crimes based on the
application of special investigative techniques.
- the study concentrates more on physical evidence; it’s collection,
handling, identification and preservation in coordination with the various
criminalists in the crime laboratory. Special crime investigation involves
close relationship between the investigator in the field and the
investigator in the laboratory- the Criminalist.

Duty of Criminal Investigator- By Solis

1. Establish that, in fact, a crime was committed under the law.

2. Identify and apprehend the suspect.
3. To recover stolen property.
4. To assist the state in prosecuting the party charged with the offense.

Job of the Criminal Investigator- By Solis

1. Discover whether or not an offense has been committed under the law.
2. After determining what specific offense has been committed, he must discover how,
when, where, why, what offense was committed.

Tools in Criminal Investigation

1. Information (Interview)- knowledge which the investigator gather and acquire from
different sources.

Ability to secure information is attained and developed in the following:

a. By becoming acquainted with different kinds of people.

b. By being friendly with other peace officers in the area.
c. By making the habit of jotting down and keeping permanent record of potential
and actual offenders and informers.
d. By learning not to overlook chance memoranda or haphazard notations.

Kinds of Information depend on who give the information where the information is
collected.

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Sources of Information

Person - Place - Thing

Informant and Informer

a. Incidental- no specific intention of imparting subsequent information

b. Automatic- provide information by virtue of his official function/duties
c. Casual- characterized by infrequent but continuous delivery of
information
d. Recruited- spotted, selected, cultivated and developed as continuous
source of information
e. Double- informant – person who provide information to opposing visit
or organization
f. Dual/multiple- person who provide information to two or more friendly
organization.
g. Intelligence Broker- person who provide information for fee.
h. Paid Informant-same as intelligence broker

Conception of gathering information (Police Manual)

Overt – Covert - Semi overt or semi covert

2. Interrogation- this is the process of questioning witnesses and suspect to obtain

further information.
- Its effectiveness depends with the craft, logic and psychological insight
with the information relevant to the case as they were discovered.

Kinds of Interrogation/interview

1. Custodial 2. Tactical

Purposes of Interrogation

1. To obtain confession to the crime

3. To induce subject (suspect/witnesses) to make admission
4. To extract facts and circumstances surrounding the crime.
5. To develop information which will lead to the recovery of the fruits of the crime
6. To discover the details of other crime where suspect participated.

3. Instrumentation- application of instrument and methods of physical science to the

detection of crime. The sum total of all sciences in crime-detection known as
Criminalistics.

Various ways in which criminalistics is useful to criminal investigation:

1. by supplying one or more missing link in the chain of evidences

2. by strengthening a weak link, or links in the chain of evidence
3. by checking the accuracy of the statement made by suspects and/or witnesses

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4. by clearing out doubtful points in the preliminary stages of investigation which may or
may not be significant at a later stage
5. by assisting in the rapid clearing of the case and routine inquiries.

Phases of Criminal Investigation

1. Identifying the criminal

2. Tracing, locating and arresting the criminal
3. Gathering facts and evidence to prove guilt in criminal proceeding
Methods of Identifications of Criminals

Criminal are identified thru the following:

1. Confession and Admission

2. Statement of witnesses
3. Circumstantial Evidence
4. Associative Evidence

A. Confession- this is an expressed acknowledgement by the accused in criminal

cases of the truth of his guilt as to the crime charged or of some of the essential part
there of. There is no implied confession for it is positive and direct acknowledgement of
guilt. It is the best means of identifying criminal.

Rules in Confession

a. Confession need not to be in writing

b. Confession may be written in a language which the accused does not speak
c. Confession must be freely and voluntarily made

Voluntarily – means that the accused speak of his free will and accord, without
inducement of any kind and with the full and complete knowledge of the nature and
consequences of the confession.

Freely- when the speaking is so free from the influence affecting the will of the accused
at the same time the confession was made.

Requirement for confession as proof of guilt

1. Other corroborative evidence must support it.

2. Corpus delicti- must be established separately (the actual commission of the crime
charged. It refers to a particular crime and signifies that specific offense had been
actually committed by someone being composed of two elements:)

a. That certain results were produced.

b. That someone is criminally responsible
3. Confession must be made voluntarily.

B. By EYE-WITNESS TESTIMONY- description made by eyewitness

Value of identification by eyewitness testimony depends on the following:

(credibility-bringing honor)

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1. the ability of the eyewitness testimony to observe and remember the relative
“distinctiveness” of the accused appearance
2. The prevailing conditions, visibility and observation
3. The lapse of time between the criminal event and identification

Methods of Identification made by eyewitness

1. Verbal Description- portrait parley vividly describing in words the appearance of a

person by comparing and thru personal appearance.
2. Photographic files (rogues gallery)
3. General photograph- files of photograph in any given establishment.
4. Artist Assistance or composite sketches- drawing or sketching the description of a
person’s face by the cartographer
5. Police line-up- selecting the suspect from a group of innocent persons to eliminate
the power of suggestions as factor of identification

Cartography- the art of sketching the image of a person or the art of making map

Bases of the eyewitness in the identification of criminal

1. Face-forehead, eyebrow, mustache, eyes, ears, cheeks, mouth, lips, teeth, chin, jaw,
etc.
2. Neck- shape, length, Adam’s apple
3. Shoulder- width and shape
4. Waist- size, shape of the abdomen
5. Hands- length, size, hair, condition of the palms
6. Fingers- length, thickness, stains, shape of nails and condition
7. Any deformities (cross eyed, limping and etc.)
8. Teeth-
9. Gait

 Personal appearance- is the verbal or physical description of the appearance of an

individual.

Bases of Physical Description of Physical Appearance

1. Mug Shot
2. Artist Drawing
3. Composite Sketches
4. Verbal description or Portrait Parley

Homicide Investigation

It is the official inquiry made by the police on the facts and circumstances
surrounding the death of the person which is expected to be criminal or unlawful.

The Primary Job of the Investigator

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1. To discover whether an offense has been committed under the law.
2. To discover how it was committed.
3. Who committed it and by whom it was committed.
4. When it was committed.
5. And under certain circumstances why it was committed.

Responsibilities of a Homicide Investigator

1. Homicide investigator when called upon to investigate a violent death, stand

on the dead man’s shoes, to produce his instincts against those suspects.
Consequently, the zeal, enthusiasm, and intelligence the investigator
brings in the case marks the difference between murderer being
convicted or set free.

2. If the investigator interprets an intentional death as due to natural death the

family may be deprived of benefits and other properties which the deceased
have sacrificed to obtain.

3. If he interprets a criminal death was accidental death or natural, a guilty

person is otherwise set free.

Mistakes in Homicide Investigation

1. The mistakes of the homicide investigator cannot be corrected.

2. The homicide investigator should not cross the three bridges, which he burns behind
him. It is important that competent personnel adequately handle the case.
The following are the three bridges:

A. The dead person has been moved.

It is therefore necessary that photographs be taken, measurements made,
fingerprints taken and other necessary tasks to be first carried out.

B. The second bridge is burned when the body is embalmed.

Embalming destroys traces of alcohol and several kinds of poison. If poisoning is
suspected, the internal organs should be removed.

C. The third bridge is burned when the body is burned or cremated.

The exhume body is difficult and expensive. The lapse of time make s the
examination doubtly difficult and a conclusion is hard to arrive at. Cremation
destroys body itself.

The Medico-Legal Autopsy

1. The real beginning of any homicide investigation should be to establish the cause of
death accurately.
2. An autopsy should be performed at once when there is the slightest reason to
suspect the probability of homicide.
3. In general, it maybe stated that death has been caused by violence, an autopsy is
always performed unless there is adequate proof to the contrary.

The value of the Investigator in attending autopsies.

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 During the conduct of autopsy, an investigator can observe first hand and ask
questions pertinent to the case under investigation. The medico-legal officer can explain
the autopsy findings as they progress. As the results of the autopsy are received by the
investigator such information, if pertinent and requiring expeditious investigative
attention, can be passed along to the other investigators for immediate handling. When
the investigator has a suspected weapon, comparison of the weapon with the wound can
be made. The officer present at the autopsy can be the liaison with the investigation
team working on the case and see that all evidence is obtained during the examination.

The Role of the Medico-Legal officer in Homicide Investigation

The determination of criminal responsibility in death has been developed into a
specialized field of medical science called forensic pathology. A pathologist can assist in
homicide investigation by:
1. Documentation of all wounds, bruises, scratches, scars or other marks at the
time of the autopsy.
2. Interpretation of findings based on medical facts.

Necropsy Report- It is a document stating the cause of death of the victim. This is the
medico-legal report.

The Facts of Death

1. The first action of an investigator upon arriving at the crime scene of the homicide is
the verification of death.
2. An individual is said to be dead in the medical sense when one of the three vital
function is no longer performing within the body:
a. Respiratory system
b. Cardiac Activity
c. Central nervous system activity
3. In the legal sense, death is considered to occur when all of the three above vital
functions have ceased.

Presumptive signs and Test of Death

1. The following are few of the signs indicative of death:
A. Cessation of breathing and respiratory movement
B. Cessation of heart sounds
C. Loss of placing of nail beds when pressure is applied in the fingernails is
released.

Suspended Animation
1. Cardiac activity, breathing and functioning of the nervous system may reach such a
low-level activity that a homicide investigator maybe deceived into an assumption of
death.
2. The following conditions produced simulated appearance of death:
1. electric shock
2. prolonged emersion
3. poisoning from narcotic drugs
4. barbiturate poisoning
5. certain mental diseases

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The Importance of Establishing the Identification of Homicide Victims.
The identification of the victim is an important investigative step for the following
reasons:
1. It provides an important basis for the investigation processes since it may lead the
investigator directly to other important information leading to the solution of the
crime.
2. The identity of the dead person provides the focal point/starting point for the
investigators can then center their attention on associates and haunts of the
deceased.
3. The identity of the deceased may arouse suspicion in mysterious death since the
victim maybe a person whose life had been threatened or whose death was desired
for criminal purposes.
4. The identification of the deceased can be traced or related to wanted persons or
missing one.

Methods of Identification

a. Fingerprints
Fingerprint identification is the most positive and quickest method of ascertaining
identity. However the prints of the deceased may not be on file or may not be
obtainable because of trauma, mutilation, incineration or decomposition. The sole
clue maybe bone, a skull or a few teeth.
b. Skeletal Studies
Examination of the skeleton may provide a basis for identification because of
individual peculiarities such as old fractures and presence of metal pins. Bones
may also provide information about age, sex, and race.
c. Visual Inspection
Someone knowing the deceased person may recognize the victim. However,
trauma, incineration, or decomposition may render the features unrecognizable.
In addition, a visual inspection without further verification has the advantage of
possible subjective error or deliberate false identification. Visual inspection
combined with fingerprint evidence is a favored method for rapid identification.
d. Personal Effects
Identification of a victim by personal effects such as Jewelry, I.D. card, wallets,
belts, shoes etc.
e. Tattoo and Scars
Identification scars, moles, tattoos, pockmarks or other markings may be helpful
in identification, particularly in conjunction with other findings.
f. Dental Evidences (Forensic Odontology)
Identification based on the examination of teeth (teeth charts, fillings, inlays
crowns, bridgework, dentures etc.) is valuable inasmuch as the teeth are
probably the most durable part of the human body. There are probably no two
people alive with dentures that are completely identical in all respects. Dental
evidence is legally recognized and accepted, if properly presented in court.
g. Clothing
Articles of clothing containing cleaner’s mark, labels, initials, size, color, texture
knitting, etc. have provided investigators with the leads and even identification in
most instances.

22
h. Photographs
Identification of victims has been made by publication in bulletins, circulars,
television and other distribution media, artist sketches, death mark and casts
have likewise aided the police in identifying unknowns.

Investigative Leads

The problem of who did it is a simple on when the offender is caught in the act or
apprehended in flight from the scene the scene shortly after the crime. When the
perpetrator is not promptly arrested, the direction of the investigation varies according to
whether the case falls into one of the two categories- known identities or unknown
identity. Whenever investigators encounter cases of the later, investigative leads now
are necessary to attain the objective of criminal investigation.

Establishment of Motive to the killing

This will furnish a good clue in the solution of the crime. The investigator drawing
from his ingenuity, experience and availability of data, must base his
investigation on a theory that rationally explains the fatal act.
Victims Background
Very promising leads can be developed from the review of the background of the
victim that can provide the background of the victim which can give the pursuit
defined goals.
Modus Operandi
The choice of particular crime to commit and the selection of a method of
committing a criminal act that forms the signature of the criminal give a clear lead
on who might have committed the crime.
Informants
Informants are a traditional starting point in seeking basic leads. In fact
informants sometimes offer data about an unreported or undiscovered crime or
one in its planning stage.
Benefits
The question of who might benefit from the crime provides an excellent focus for
making inquiry. The “benefit factor” can provide investigative leads.
Opportunity
Knowledge
Simply determining who might have knowledge of the crime to establish farther
information about the case.
A. Approximate time of death
B. Composite Sketches
C. Photographs of Known criminals
D. Psychics
E. Voice Identification
F. Polygraph testing
Fingernail Scrapings
G. Signs of Struggle
H. Field Contact Report
I. Motor Vehicle

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 TRAFFIC MGMT
& ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

THE FIVE PILLARS OF TRAFFIC

A. TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
 Is the science of measuring traffic and travel the study of the basic laws relative to the
traffic law and generation. The application of this knowledge to the professional practice
of planning, deciding, and operating traffic system to achieve safe and efficient
transportation of persons and goods.

Function of Traffic Engineering

1. Fact finding survey and recommendation of traffic rules and regulations
2. Supervising and maintenance to the application of traffic control devices.
3. Planning of traffic regulations

Objectives of Traffic Engineering

1. To achieve traffic efficiency free and rapid flows of traffic.
2. To prevent traffic accident
3. To simplify police enforcement actions and performance.
4. To show that good police actions and performance make engineering plans effective.
5. To present the close relationship of the pillars of traffic in the improvement of traffic
problems.

Methods in Achieving the Objectives of Traffic Engineering

1. Planning and Geometric Design
 Composition of traffic streams
 Traffic volumes for capacity
 Origin and destination
2. Factors Influencing Design
 Composition of traffic
 Volume of traffic
 Speed of vehicles
 The turning, stopping abilities of traffic units.
 Performance values.
3. Regulations and Control
 Base and confined within the boundaries of safety, public welfare and convenience.
 Limitations impose on road users and their load.
 Basic general rule of road use and conduct.
1. Speed
2. Overtaking and passing
3. Right of way
4. Lateral placement
5. Pedestrian rights and duties
6. General parking rules and regulations

 Prohibition and restrictions.

1. One way regulation

2. Speed control
3. Curb parking control
4. Turning regulation
5. Stop rules and others

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TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES AND AIDS

Types of Traffic Devices and Aids

1. Traffic Signs
 A device mounted or on portable support where a message is conveyed by
means of words or symbols, officially erected or installed for the purpose of
regulating, warning or guiding traffic.
2. Pavement Markings or Markers
 All lines, patterns, words, colors, or other gadgets except, signs, set into the
surface of applied or attached to the pavement of curbing, or to objects within
or adjacent to the roadway, officially placed for the purpose of regulating,
warning or guiding traffic.
3. Traffic Light Signals
 Is defined as a signal operated manually, electrically by which traffic is
alternatively commanded to stop and permitted to proceed.
4. Traffic Island
 Areas within the roadway construct in a manner to establish physical
channels through which vehicular traffic is guided.

The Three Primary Aims of Signal Control

1. To reduce traffic conflicts and delay.

2. To reduce accidents
3. To economize police time

Elementary Requirements
1. They should compel attention
2. They should convey a simple, closer meaning at a glance
3. They should allow time for response
4. They should command respect

Fundamental Traits
1. Design and outward aspect of the device
2. Position or placement with respect to the normal line of vision of road users
3. Maintenance of the condition, appearance and visibility

Criteria for signal volume

1. Minimum vehicular volume

2. Interruption of continues traffic
3. Minimum pedestrian volume
4. School crossing
5. Progressive movement
6. Accident experience
7. System
8. Combination of warrant

B. TRAFFIC EDUCATION

 The process of giving training and practice in the actual application of traffic safety
knowledge.

25
Four Basic Types of Instruction Methods Used in Driver Education Program

1. Comprehensive
 This method places the student into real life of driving situations from the beginning.
2. Traditional Instruction
 This type of instruction depends on instructor student communication.
3. Commentary Driving Method
 The instructor has to give commentary on his driving.
4. Simulated Conditions and Off the Road Training
 The subject is placed in condition will be relatively analogous to normal behavior.

Essential Component of the Driving Task

1. Collection of Information
 Perceptual Scanning
 Identification
2. Processing of Information
 Predicting
 Decision Making
3. Action
 Motor Skills and Control of Vehicles
4. Knowledge and Subjective Interpretation

C. TRAFFIC ENFORCEMENT

Why people violate traffic laws?

The reason are varied and complex, some of these are
1. Physical disabilities and infirmities
2. Ignorance of traffic laws, rules and regulations
3. Mental Disorder
4. Lack of training and experience
5. Wrong attitude towards driving
6. Habitual traffic violator
7. Drivers of public utility vehicles for increase compensation

Consideration which act as deterrent to motorist and pedestrian

1. Fear of fine and punishment
2. Loss of driving privilege
3. Possibility of being involved in accident
4. Positive area of good citizenship, doing what is right and setting an example

Decision of Enforcement Action

1. Necessity of establishing policies including tolerance
2. Factors considered
 Degree of violation
 Accuracy of observation
 Continuous or momentary action
 Traffic and weather condition
 Evidence gathered
 A new law or not

26
ENFORCEMENT THEORY:

1. Traffic Law Enforcement:

 Is the action taken by the police and the court to compel obedience to traffic laws and
ordinances regulating the use and movement of motor vehicles for the purpose of
creating a deterrent to unlawful behavior by all potential violators.
2. Enforcement of Traffic Enforcement
 Is the area of activity aimed at controlling road user behavior by preventive, persuasive,
and punitive methods in order to effect the safe and efficient movement of traffic.

Functions of Traffic Enforcement

1. Police Traffic Law Enforcement
 The part of traffic law enforcement performed by the police and other agencies with
police power including deterrent to law violation created by the presence of uniformed
police officers and their special equipment, special assistance to courts and prosecutors
and incidental services t highway users.

2. Court Traffic Law Enforcement

 The part of traffic law enforcement performed by the court by adjudication and
penalization.

3. Police Court Enforcement Process

 Involves five essential steps to which the police provides varying responsibilities and
influence:
A. Detection
B. Apprehension
C. Prosecution
D. Adjudication
E. Penalization

Objectives of Traffic Law Enforcement

1. Preventive Activities
 Such as preventive patrol, directing, supervising, investigating accidents and eliminating
road hazards.
2. Persuasive Activities
 Such as oral, written warning or visible patrols
3. Punitive Activities
 Normally dealt with by the courts, police or traffic authorities.

Traffic Enforcement System

 The major elements in the traffic enforcement system are:

1. The Enforcement System

 Consist of the legislation, police, courts and penalties.
2. Road User
 Include pedestrians, drivers and passengers.
3. Traffic System
 Consist of the entire road and vehicle complex.

Goals of Enforcement Activities

1. To increase safety level

2. To increase traffic efficiency
3. To insure harmonious and comfortable environment

27
Police Traffic Enforcement Action
1. Prevent such violation from endangering persons or property.
2. Prevent continued violation
3. Discourage future violation

Kinds of Enforcement Action

1. Traffic Arrest
 Is an enforcement action that consists of taking a person into custody for the purpose of
holding or detaining him to answer a charge of law before a court.
2. Traffic Citation
 Is made of having a violator appear in court without physical arrest
3. Traffic Warning
 Is an enforcement action which does not contemplate possible assessment of penalty by
the court or otherwise a s a result of warning alone.

Traffic Patrol
 Is commonly by mobile and foot patrol to provide traffic patrol services for the safety of
the motorist, pedestrians, and the public in general.

Objectives of Traffic Patrol

1. Detecting and apprehending violators
2. Deterring violators and dangerous driving
3. Observing and reporting traffic conditions
5. Maintaining order and traffic disciplines
6. Handling traffic emergencies

Types of Traffic Patrol

1. Line Patrol – Moving patrol or stationary observation on a specified road between two points
usually on one City Street.
2. Area Patrol – Stationary observation in an area or beat, which includes a number of streets.
3. Stationary Patrol – Traffic observation at a selected place usually one with an unfavorable
accident experience and traffic flow problem for traffic law enforcement purposes to detect
violations and deter violators.
4. Conspicuous Patrol – Stationary observation in which the observer tries to attract attention by
keeping in full view of traffic.
5. Visible Patrol – Traffic observation in which the observer is in full view but so located, for
instance on a side street, as to require effort on the part of the traffic to discover the observer.
6. Concealed Patrol – Stationary observation in which observer is not visible to persons using
ordinary powers of observation from the roadway being observed.

Traffic Road Check

 The conducting of actual inspection of vehicles, and motorist on the road.
 To detect or inspect the following:

1. Faulty vehicle equipment

2. Registration and licensing violation
3. Intoxication and cargo of commercial transportation for load weight.

Types of Road Check

1. Physical Barrier
2. Officer-Directed Road Check

28
Considerations during Road Check

1. Minimum delay to motorist

2. Thorough checking procedure
3. Protection and safety of both motorist and officer
4. Timing, location and frequency

D. TRAFFIC ECOLOGY/ENVIRONMENT
 The study with potentially disastrous population explosion, changes in urban environment
due to the scale and density of new urban concentration and new activities carried out,
air pollution, water pollution and crowding, especially transport congestion that result
therein.

Kinds of Environmental Effects of Urban Transportation

1. Noise 7. Changes in the amount of light
2. Vibration 8. Neighborhood Severance
3. Air Pollution 9. Relocation
4. Dirt 10. Distraction during planning, and construction
5. Visual Intrusion 11. Pedestrian Journey
6. Loss of Privacy 12. Congestion

External Factors That Influences the existing and future behavior of population:
1. Rapidly increasing population growth.
2. Rapidly increasing urbanization.
3. Rapidly increasing motorization.
4. Industrialization and technical modernization.
5. Improvement of the transportation network.

Presidential Decree 1181

 Providing for the prevention, control and abatement of Air Pollution from Motor Vehicles
and for other purposes.

Letter of Instruction 551

 Directing the Law enforcement Agencies to implement the pollution control program.

E. TRAFFIC ECONOMY

 It deals with the benefit and adverse effects of traffic to our economy. Traffic operation is
designed to expedite the movement of traffic. However, with the prevailing traffic
congestion during rush hours in any given locality adversely affect the economic status of
the commuting public.

TRAFFIC SUPERVISION, DIRECTION AND CONTROL

Traffic Supervision
 Keeping order on the street and highway within existing regulations to make their
use safe and expeditious.

Police Traffic Direction

 That part of police traffic supervision that involves telling drivers and pedestrians
how and where they may or may not move or stand at a particular place,
especially during periods of congestion or emergencies, it generally involves all
police activity that is necessary to insure the smooth flow and orderly flow of
traffic.

29
Point/Area Traffic Control
 That part of police direction that is concerned with the control of vehicular and
pedestrian movement at a particular area or point on the street or highway, such
as an intersection.

Police Traffic Escort

 That part of police traffic direction that involves mobile supervision of the
movement of one or more traffic units from one point to another.
 This may include directing the movement of surrounding vehicles and pedestrian
by means of audible and visible signals in such a manner as to permit free and
safe movement of the vehicle or vehicles being escort.
Traffic Direction and Control
 An activity of a traffic by which the movement of traffic units at a particular
intersection are controlled and allocated according to proportionate time to
prevent traffic accident and to maintain the smooth flow of traffic.

ROAD SIGNS

The messages and type of responses that road signs convey to the drivers as well as to
the pedestrians alike fall under different categories. They are as follows:

1. CAUTION SIGNS, WARNING SIGNS, AND DANGER SIGNS:

 These signs convey messages that certain road conditions exist on a certain stretch of
the road or on street requiring the driver to more ATTENTIVE and are prepared for such
road conditions.
 Warn motorist of approaching hazardous road conditions.
 Seek caution for approaching road hazards.
 Call the reduction of speed.
 These signs have an equilateral triangular shape with one shape horizontal.
 Triangular in shape and have a red colored border.

Examples:
1. Dangerous bend 10. Steep Ascent
2. Turn Left/Right 11. Rail Road Crossing
3. Double Left bends 12. Falling Rocks
4. Double Right Bend 13. Two Way Traffics
5. Animal Crossing 14. One Way Traffic
6. Pedestrian Crossing 15. Driver/Water way Ahead
7. Road Works 16. Rotunda Ahead
8. Slippery when wet 17. Intersection Ahead
9. Road Narrow

2. GUIDE SIGNS, INFORMATION SIGNS AND DIRECTION SIGNS

 These signs are modified signs that actually give spatial or DIRECTIONAL
INSTRUCTIONS for the driver to take.
 These signs are designed to provide the driver with information that MAY OR MAY NOT
use but will assist him in one-way or another.
 Guide motorist along established routes.
 Inform the driver of the proper routes.
 Help motorist along the way in the most simple and direct method.
 Round/Rectangular, white on blue background.

Division of Informative Signs:

1. Advance Sign

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  These are the names and distances of the principal destination served by the intersecting
road.
2. Direction Signs
 Direction sign shall be placed at the right of intersections to show the direction and
destination of a route.
3. Place Identification Signs
 These maybe used to show the frontier between two countries or for the purpose of
showing the beginning and or end of built-up areas.
4. Confirmatory Signs
 These are used to confirm the direction of a road. They shall bear the name of one or
more places. Where distances are shown, the figures expressing them shall be placed
after the name of the locality.

Examples:
Bus Stop - Jeepney Stop - Pedestrian Crossing - Distance/ Destination Sign

3. INSTRUCTION SIGNS OR REGULATORY SIGNS

 These signs require the driver not only to be more attentive as in caution signs but also
require the driver to ACTUALLY PERFORM OR NOT TO PERFORM a specified act.
 Intended to inform the road user of special obligations, instructions or PROHIBITIONS
which they must comply.
 Round, Inverted Triangle or Octagonal and color are Red.

Division of Regulatory Signs:

1. Priority Signs
 These are intended to regulate priority over a particular road section of roadway
intersection.
2. Prohibitory Signs
 These signs can be used on specified section of the road, which will be easily seen by
motorist to indicate regulation, which is prohibitive or restrictive in nature.
3. Mandatory Signs
 These signs are intended to notify the road users of special rules in which they must
comply for the safety and convenience and smooth flow of traffic.
Examples:
Stop - Speed Limit – Yield - No Blowing of Horns - No Entry - No Parking - No Left/Right Turn
- Width, Length, Height, Weight Capacity - No U Turn - No Overtaking

The color and shape symbolism of international standard signs are based largely on the
following principles:

1. Signs surrounded by a red triangle gives waning of some hazards.

2. Signs surrounded by a red ring sometimes also with a red diagonal bar, normal indicate
prohibition.
3. Signs on blue and green rectangular background give information.
4. Signs on blue disc give positive instruction.

PAVEMENT MARKINGS AND MARKERS

Types of pavement markings:

1. Pavement Markings
2. Curb Markings for Restriction
3. Object Markings
4. Reflectories Markings

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PAVEMENT MARKINGS

All lines, patterns, words, colors, or other gadgets except signs set into the surface or
applied upon or attached to the pavement or curbing or to objects within or adjacent
to the roadway, officially placed for the purpose of regulating, warning or guiding
traffic.

1. SINGLE WHITE DOTTED LINE

 On two-lane road, separates traffic moving in separate directions.
 On a one-way street, separates traffic moving in one direction.
 Overtaking is possible when other lane is clear of oncoming vehicle.

2. SINGLE WHITE CONTINUOUS LINE

 Separates traffic moving in opposite direction.
 Could be find in road sections that are dangerous.
 Passing and overtaking can be made but only after under circumstances when
there are no oncoming vehicles.
3. DOUBLE YELLOW LINE
 Absolutely no parking.
 Overtaking is extremely dangerous.
 Stay in your lane until you pass the end of the solid lines.
4. SINGLE YELLOW LINE
 A yellow or white line with a dotted white line means that you cannot overtake if
the solid is in your side.
 If you overtake, return to your lane before the solid line.
5. YELLOW CONTINUOUS LINE ON ROAD PROVIDED WITH A PASSING LANE
 Are common on mountain roads.
 Slow moving vehicles such as buses and heavy trucks should always use the
outer lane.
 Inner lane is for vehicles to pass without having to use the other lane for vehicles
coming from the opposite direction.
 Vehicles coming from the opposite direction should not use the inner lane at the
other side for overtaking.
6. CROSS WALK/ PEDESTRIAN LANE
 Stop for pedestrians on an intersection with no traffic light.
 Do not stop on pedestrian lane especially to load or unload passengers.
 Pedestrian should always cross a street on a cross walk.

7. DIRECTIONAL ARROWS
 Indicates direction of permitted traffic movement.
 When approaching intersections where pavement arrows are used, you should
enter the lane where the arrow points in the direction you want to go.
 Some have doubled headed arrows that means the lane is for traffic going in the
two directions indicated.

TRAFFIC LIGHTS

1. Steady Red
 STOP at designated line.
 Vehicles will be crossing from the other side.
 Expect pedestrian to cross at the pedestrian lane.
 Unless specified you can TURN RIGHT after a FULL STOP to clear traffic coming from
the left.
2. Steady Green

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  GO
 It is the turn of the vehicles on the other side to STOP.
 Pedestrians are not allowed to cross the pedestrian lane in front of you.
 Unless specified, you can move up to the middle of the intersection and make a left turn
when clear.
 Vehicles going straight have the right of way
 Do not anticipate a green light.
3. Steady Green Arrow
 GO
 Vehicles turning left can do so.
 On coming straight traffic is still on red t give way for vehicles turning left.
 Do not anticipate a green arrow.
4. Steady Yellow (Amber)
 Prepare to stop
 It is the turn of the vehicles on the other side and will be given the GO signal shortly.
 Do not beat a yellow light.
5. Flashing Red
 This is the same as a STOP SIGN
 Stop at the designated line
 Vehicles will be crossing from the other side
 Expect pedestrian to cross at the pedestrian lane
 Proceed when clear
6. Flashing Yellow
 This is the same as the yield sign
 Proceed through the intersection with caution
 You have the right of way over a flashing red light
 Vehicles on the other side will proceed after coming to a full stop
7. Steady Green and Steady Left/Right Arrow
 Vehicles can go straight or vehicles on the left lane can make a left turn
 Vehicles can go straight or vehicles on the right lane can make a right turn
 The RIGHT GREEN signal might or might NOT have a road sign disallowing a right turn
while the Red light is ON

Definition of Terms

1. Traffic – Refers to the movement of persons, goods or vehicles either powered by

combustion system or animal drawn, from one place to another for the purpose of travel.
2. Accident – is that occurrence in a sequence of events, which usually produces unintended
injury, death or property damage.
3. Traffic Accident – An accident involving travel transportation on a traffic way.
4. Motor Vehicle Accident – Is any event that results in unintended injury or property damage
attributable directly or indirectly to the action of a motor vehicle or its load.
5. Traffic Way – It is the entire width between boundary lines of every way or place of which any
part is open to the use of the public for purposes of vehicular traffic as a matter of right or
custom.
6. Roadway – The portion of a traffic way that is improved, designed or ordinarily used for
vehicular travel, EXCLUSIVE of the shoulder.

7. Key Event – An event on the road, which characterizes the manner of occurrence of a motor
vehicle traffic accident.
8. Debris – Is the accumulation of broken parts of vehicle rubbish, dust and other materials left
at the scene of the accident by a collision.
9. Skid Marks – Are marks left on the roadway by tires, which are NOT free to rotate, usually
because brakes are applied strong, and the wheels locked.

33
10. Scuff Marks – Are signs left on the road by tires that are sliding or scrubbing while the wheel
is still TURNING.

KINDS OF TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS

1. Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident – is any motor vehicle accident occurring on a traffic way.
2. Motor Vehicle Non Traffic Accident – Is any motor vehicle accident which occurs entirely in
any place other than a traffic way.
3. Non Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident – Is any accident occurring on a traffic way involving
persons using the traffic way or travel or transportation but not involving a motor vehicle in
motion.

CLASSIFICATION OF MOTOR VEHICLE TRAFFIC

ACCIDENT ACCORDING TO KEY EVENT

1. Running off road

2. Non Collision on road
3. Collision on road

CLASSIFICATION OF ACCIDENT ACCORDING TO SEVERITY

1. Property Damage Accident – Is any accident where there is no fatal or injury to any person
but only damage to the motor vehicle or to other property.
2. Slight – Accident causing slight damages to properties.
3. Non-Fatal Injury Accident – Any motor vehicle accident that results in injuries other than fatal
to one or more persons.
4. Fatal Accident – Any motor vehicle accidents that results in death to one or more persons.

CHAIN OF EVENTS IN A VEHICULAR ACCIDENT

1. PERCEPTION OF HAZARDS – Is seeing, feeling, or hearing and understanding the

usual or unexpected movement or condition that could be taken as a sign of the accident
about to happen.

2. START OF EVASIVE ACTION – Is the first action taken by a traffic unit to escape from a
collision course or otherwise avoid a hazard.

3. INITIAL CONTACT – Is a first accidental TOUCHING of an object collision course or

otherwise avoid a hazard.

4. MAXIMUM ENGAGEMET – Is GREATEST COLLAPSE or OVERLAP in a collision the

force between the traffic unit and the object collided with are greatest at maximum
engagement.

5. DISENGAGEMENT – The separation of the traffic unit I motion from an object with which
it has collided, force between the object ceases at this time.

6. STOPPING – Is coming to rest, it usually stabilizes the accident situation.

7. INJURY – Is receiving bodily harm.

* Final Position – Is the place and time when objects involved in an accident finally come
to rest without application of power.

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 Drug Education

DEFINITION OF TERMS

DRUG ADDICTIONS – A state of periodic or chronic (continuous) intoxication (drunk) detrimental

to individual and to the society produced by the repeated consumption of drugs (WHO)

CHEMICALS – Is any substance taken into the body, which alters the way, the mind and the body
work.

CHEMICAL ABUSE – Is an instance when the use of a chemical has produced a negative or
harmful consequence.

TREATMENT – Is a medical service rendered to a client for the effective management of hit total
conditions related to drug abuse. It deals with the physiological without abusing drugs.

REHABILITATION – Is a dynamic process directed towards the changes on the health of the
person to prepare him from his fullest life potentials and capabilities, and making him law-abiding
and productive member of the community without abusing drugs.

ENABLING – Is any action taken by a concerned person that removes or softens the negative
effect or harmful consequences of drug use upon the user. Enabling only makes thing worse. It is
like fighting fire with gasoline.

POLYDRUG ABUSE – Many people who abuse on drug tend to take allsorts of drugs. Some play
chemical “Russian roulettes” by taking everything including unidentified pills. This is called polydrug
abuse.

DRUG EXPERIMENTER – One who illegally, wrongfully, or improperly uses any narcotics
substances, marijuana or dangerous drugs as defined not more than a few times for reasons or
curiosity, peer pressure or other similar reasons.

DRUG SYNDICATE – It is a network of evil. It is operated and manned by willful criminals who
knowingly traffic in human lives for the money. Large sum of money, they can make in their illegal

35
and nefarious trade. The set results of their commerce are physical and mental cripples, ruined
lives, even agonizing death.

WITHDRAWAL PERIOD – From the point of habituation or drug dependence up to the time a drug
dependent is totally or gradually deprived of the drug.

TOLERANCE – It is the increasing dosage of drugs to maintain the same effect. This is dependent
is totally or amphetamines, barbiturates, opiates and solvents.

DRUG DEPENDENCE – A state of psychic or physical dependence, or both on dangerous drugs,

arising in a person following administration or use of a drug on a periodic or continuous basis.

PHYSICALDEPENDENCE – An adaptive state caused by repeated drug use that reveals itself by
development of intense physical symptoms when the drug is stopped (withdrawal syndrome).
PSYCHOLOGICALDEPENDENCE – An attachment to drug use which arises from a drug ability to
satisfy some emotional or personality need of an individual. (Physical dependence not required but
it does not seem to reinforce psychological dependence)

MARIJUANA – Obtained from an Indian hemp plant known as “Cannabis Sativa” a strong, handy
,annual shrub which grows wild in temperature and tropic regions.

TETRAHYDROCANNABINOL – (THC) It is the psychoactive agent of marijuana. The more THC

present in marijuana, the more potent is the drug. It is also known as the “siniter element” in
marijuana. This is what causes the “high lift” or “trip” in marijuana users.

HASHISH – It is the dark brown resin that is collected from the tops of potent Cannabis Sativa. It is
at least five times stronger than crude marijuana. Since it is stronger, the effect on the user is more
intense, and the possibility of side effects is greater. Placing the crude plant material in a solvent
makes it. The plant material is then filtered out and the solvent is removed, yielding a gummy,
resinous substance.

NARCOTICS – Is any drug that produces sleep or stupor and relieves pain due to its depressant
effect on the central nervous system. A term narcotic comes from the Greek word for sleep
“Narkotikos”

OPIUM – Obtained from a female poppy plant known as “Papaver Somniferum”. It comes from the
Greek word which means “juice”. It is the original components of Morphine and Heroin.

MORPHINE – It is the second extraction from opium, six times stronger. It was named after
Morpheus the Greek god of dreams stimulating effects.

HEROIN – It is the third derivative extracted and the most powerful. It has no medical use because
of the high rate of medication. This is the most potent of opium derivatives, five times stronger than
morphine.

SHABU – It is Japanese form of drug abuse. It is an amphetamine type of stimulant whose

chemical use name in Methamphetamine. This stimulant was originally known as “Kakuseizai” is

36
the Japanese word for waking “Zai” the term for drugs. The stimulant started in Japan immediately
after the end of the Pacific War and brought into the Philippines by Japanese tourist.

COCAINE – It is an alkaloid contained in the leaves of “Erythoxylon coca” a hardy plant cultivated
in Bolivia. The first user of coca leaf were the Incas of Peru. It is a stimulant. A powerful natural
stimulant known to man. Cocaine acts immediately. It is a quick acting drug. Its effects are rapid
from the time of intake. It is indeed “super-speed”.

CODEINE – Is another opium alkaloid, the second to be developed after Morphine. It is used as a
painkiller, but more as a cough reliever.

10 MOST ABUSED DRUGS

 Shabu
 Menthodes (cough/cold preparation)
 Marijuana
 Rugby (inhalant)
 Phydol (cough/cold preparation)
 Diazepam (minor tranquilizer)
 Pseudoflex (cough/cold preparation)
 Hycodia (cough preparation)
 Cotrex D (cough/cold preparation)
 Mercadol (cough/cold preparation)

MOST COMMON REASONS FOR USING DRUGS

 Influence by friends and peers
 Personal reason such as family problems and pleasure
 Got hooked by the pusher
 Used drugs for medical reason and hooked later on
 Accessibility of sources such as drug stores, medicine cabinets and shops.

SUMMARY ON USUALLY KNOWN DRUG (SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS)

DRUGS PHYSICAL SYMPTOMS DANGERS

Marijuana (damo, grass, Indian Altered perception, dilated pupils, Psychological dependence, increased
hemp, weed joints, hashish, lack of concentration, craving for heart rate, impaired short term memory,
satay) sweets, increased appetite, laughter anxiety, lungs damage, possible
psychosis w/ chronic use.

Amphetamines (pep pills, speed, Loss of appetite, anxiety, irritability, Disorientation, severe depression,
dexies, ups, bunnies, drivers, rapid speech, tumors mood, paranila, possible hallucinations,
crossroad, footballs, co-pilot, eye elevation increased blood pressure, fatigue
opener)

Hallucinogens (LSD, MDA, PCR, Alternation of moods and Rigidity, painful muscle contraction,
peyote, psilocybin, acid cubes, perception, possible paranoia, panic emotional instability, death
micbrodots, mescaline) anxiety frompossible overdose esp. when
mixed with alcohol
37
SOLVENT/RUGBY (gasoline/ Euphoria headaches, nausea, Damage to lungs, liver, kidneys, bone
glue) fainting stupor, rapid heart beat marrow, suffocation, choking, anemia,
possible stroke or sudden death.

HEROIN (fit fun) Intensitivity to pain, euphoria, Allergy w/ loss hepatitis, slow and
MORPHINE (M., Monkey sedation, vomiting, itchiness, watery shallow breathing possible death when
dreamer, morpho, tabcubes, eyes, running nose combined w/ barbiturates
opium)
CODINE (little D) Shallow breathing, fever, anxiety,
Short-lived euphoria changing to tremors, possible death from
COCAINE (Coke, snow, leaf depression, nervousness, irritability, convulsions or respiratory arrest.
dust) tightening of muscles

DANGEROUS DRUG EFFECTS AND IDENTITY

The Marijuana (Cannabis Sativa)
 Marijuana – usually called Pot, grass, weed reefer, dope, Mary Jane, sinsemilla, acapolco
gold, Thai stick, ---They look like dried parsley mixed with stems that may include needs ---
They are need as cigarette (smoke). Eaten.
 Tetrahydro Cannabinol – they called THC, they look like soft gelatin capsule and they are
used by taken orally or smoked.
 Hashish – called locally has and look like brown or black cakes or balls, they can be eaten
orally or can be smoked.
 Hashish Oil – Hash oil they appear like concentrated syrup liquid varying in color from
clear to black, they used to smoked mixed with tobacco.
The Inhalants
Immediate negative effect of inhalants include nose, sneezing, coughing,
nosebleed, fatigue, lack of coordination and loss of appetite. Solvents and aerosol sprays also
decrease the heart and the respiratory rates and impair judgment. Amyl and Butyl nitrate cause
rapid pulse, headache and involuntary or brain hemorrhage.
Deeply inhaling the vapor, or using large amount over a short period of time may
result to disorientation, violent behavior, unconsciousness or death. High concentration of
inhalants can cause suffocation by displacing the oxygen in the lungs or depressing the central
nervous system in the point that breathing stops.
Long-term use can cause weight loss, fatigue, electrolyte imbalance and muscle
fatigue. Repeat sniffing of concentrated vapors over time can permanently damage the
nervous system.

The Depressants (Downers)

These are drugs which suppress vital body functions especially those of the brain
or central nervous system with the resulting impairment of judgement, hearing, speech and
muscular coordination.
1. Narcotics - are drugs, which relieve pain and produce profound sleep or stupor.
Medically, they are potent painkillers.

38
 2. Opium – derived from a poppy plant – Papaver somniferum popularly known as
“gum”, “gamot”, “kalamay” or “panocha”.
3. Morphine - most commonly used and best used opiate. Effective as a painkiller
six times potent than opium, with a high dependence – producing potential.
4. Heroin – is three to five times more powerful than morphine from which it is
derived and the most addicting opium derivative.
5. Codeine – a derivative of morphine, commonly available in cough preparations.
6. Paregoric – a tincture of opium in combination with camphor. Commonly used
as a household remedy for diarrhea and abdominal pain.
7. Demerol and Methadone – common synthetic drugs with morphine – like
effects.
8. Barbiturates – are drugs used for inducing sleep in persons plagued with
anxiety, mental stress, and insomnia.
9. Seconal – Sudden withdrawal from these drugs is even more dangerous than
opiate withdrawal.
10. Tranquilizers – are drugs that calm and relax and diminish anxiety. They are
used in the treatment of nervous states and some mental disorders without producing
sleep.
11. Volatile Solvents – gaseous substances popularly known to abusers as “gas”,
“teardrops”.
12. Alcohol – the king of all drugs with potential for abuse. Most widely used,
socially accepted and most extensively legalized drug throughout the world.
The Stimulants (Uppers)
These produce effects opposite to that of depressants. Instead of bringing about
relaxation and sleep, they produce increased mental alertness, wakefulness, reduce
hunger, and provide a feeling of well being.
1. Amphetamines – used medically for weight reducing in obesity, relief of mild
depression and treatment
2. Cocaine – taken orally, injected or sniffed as to achieve euphoria or an intense
feeling of “highness”.
3. Caffeine – it is present in coffee, tea, chocolate, cola drinks, and some wake-up
pills.
4. Shabu/ “poor man’s cocaine” – chemically known as methamphetamine. It is a
central nervous system stimulant and sometimes called “upper” or “speed”. It is white,
colorless crystal or crystalline powder with a bitter numbing taste. It can be taken orally,
inhaled (snorted), sniffed (chasing the dragon) or injected.
5. Nicotine – an active component in tobacco which acts as a powerful stimulant of
the central nervous system. A drop of pure nicotine can easily kill a person
The Hallucinogens (Psychedelic)
They consist of a variety of mind-altering drugs, which distort reality, thinking and
perceptions of time, sound, space and sensation.
1. Marijuana – It is the most commonly abused hallucinogen in the Philippines.
2. Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) – This drug is the most powerful of the
psychedelics obtained from ergot, a fungus that attacks rye kernels.
3. Peyote – Peyote is derived from the surface part of a small gray brown cactus.
4. Mescaline – It is the alkaloid hallucinogen extracted from the peyote cactus and
can also be synthesized in the laboratory.

39
 6. Psilocybin – This hallucinogenic alkaloid from small Mexican mushrooms are
used by Mexican Indians today.
7. Morning Glory Seeds – The black and brown seeds of the wild tropical morning
glory that are used to produce hallucinations.

The New Law on Dangerous Drugs

R.A. 9165 – COMPREHENSIVE DANGEROUS DRUGS ACT OF 2002
Approved on June 7, 2002 - Effective July 4, 2002
What is Dangerous Drug under this law?
Includes those listed in the schedules annexed to the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic
Drugs, as amended by the 1972 Protocol, and the schedules annexed to the 1971 Single
Convention on Psychotropic Substances (Art 1, Sec. 3).
Ex. MDMA – Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (Ecstacy)
Tetrahydrocannabinol (MJ); Mescaline (Peyote)
What are the Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals?
Include those listed in Tables I and II of the 1988 UN Convention Against Illicit Traffic in
Narcotic Drugs and Psychotrophic Substances (Art 1, Sec 3)
Ex. Table 1 – Acetic Anhydride
N- Acetyl Anthranilic Acid
Epedrine, Ergometrine, Lysergic Acid, etc.
Table 2 – Acetone, Ethyl Ether, Hydrochloric Acid
Sulfuric Acid, etc..
NOTE:
Under RA 6425 (Dangerous Drugs Act of 1972), Dangerous drugs refers to the Prohibited
drugs, Regulated drugs and Volatile substances.
Prohibited Drugs – ex. Opium and its derivatives, Cocaine and its derivatives,
Hallucinogen drugs like MJ, LSD, and Mescaline
Regulated drugs – ex. Barbiturates, Amphetamines, Tranquillizers
Volatile Substances – ex. rugby, paints, thinner, glue, gasoline

40
What are the Unlawful Acts and Penalties?
Unlawful Acts Penalty

Importation of Dangerous drugs and/or Controlled Life Imprisonment to Death and a fine
Precursors and Essential Chemicals (sec. 4) ranging from P500, 000 to P10 Million

Sale, Trading, Administration, Dispensation, Delivery, Life Imprisonment to Death and a fine
Distribution and transportation of Dangerous Drugs ranging from P500, 000 to P10 Million
and/or Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals
(sec. 5)
Maintenance of a Den, Dive or Resort where Life Imprisonment to Death and a fine
dangerous drugs are used or sold in any form (sec. 6) ranging from P500, 000 to P10 Million

Being an employee or visitor of a den, dive or resort Imprisonment ranging from 12 yrs and 1
(sec. 7) day to 20 yrs and a fine ranging from
P100, 000 to P500, 000.
Manufacture of dangerous Drugs and/or Controlled Life Imprisonment to Death and a fine
Precursors and Essential Chemicals (sec. 8) ranging from P500, 000 to P10 Million

Illegal Chemical Diversion of Controlled Precursors Imprisonment ranging from 12 yrs and 1
and Essential Chemicals (sec. 9) day to 20 yrs and a fine ranging from
P100, 000 to P500, 000.
Manufacture or Delivery of Equipment, Instrument, Imprisonment ranging from 12 yrs and 1
Apparatus and other Paraphernalia for Dangerous day to 20 yrs and a fine ranging from
Drugs and/or Controlled Precursors and Essential P100, 000 to P500, 000.
Chemicals (sec. 10)
Life Imprisonment to Death and a fine
Possession of Dangerous Drugs ranging from P500, 000 to P10 Million
(sec. 11)

Possession of Dangerous drugs in the following quantities,

regardless of degree of purity:
10 grams or more of opium; morphine; heroin; cocaine; MJ resin;
10 grams or more of MDMA, LSD and similar dangerous drugs;
50 grams or more of “shabu”/ Methamphetamine Hydrochloride;
500 grams or more of Marijuana
NOTE:
If the quantity involved is less than the foregoing, the penalties shall be graduated as
follows:
1. Life imprisonment and a fine ranging from P400, 000 to P500, 000 if “shabu” is 10
grams or more but less than 50 grams;
2. Imprisonment of 20 yrs and 1 day to Life imprisonment and a fine ranging from P400,
000 to P500, 000 if the quantities of dangerous drugs are 5 grams or more but less than 10 grams
of opium, morphine, heroin, cocaine, mj resin, shabu, MMDA, and 300 grams or more but less than
500 grams of marijuana

41
 3. Imprisonment of 12 yrs and 1 day to 20 yrs and a fine ranging from P300, 000 to P400,
000 if the quantities of dangerous drugs are less than 5 grams of opium, morphine, heroin,
cocaine, mj resin, shabu, MDMA, and less than 300 grams of marijuana.
Possession of Equipment, Instrument, Apparatus and Imprisonment ranging from 6 mos and 1
other Paraphernalia for Dangerous Drugs day to 4 yrs and a fine ranging from
(sec. 12) P10, 000 to P50, 000
Possession of dangerous Drugs during Parties, Social The maximum penalties provided for
Gatherings or Meetings (sec. 13), and Sec. 11.
Possession of Equipment, Instrument, Apparatus and
other Paraphernalia for Dangerous Drugs during
Parties, Social Gatherings or Meetings (sec. 14)

Use of Dangerous Drugs (sec. 15) Minimum 6 mos rehabilitation (1st

offense),
Imprisonment ranging from 6 yrs and 1
day to 12 yrs and a fine ranging from
P50,000 to P200, 000 (2nd Offense)

NOTE:
Section 15 shall not be applicable where the person tested is also found to have in his/her
possession such quantity of any dangerous drug provided in sec.11, in which case the penalty
provided in sec. 11 shall apply.

Cultivation of Plants classified as dangerous drugs or Life Imprisonment to Death and a fine
are sources thereof (sec. 16) ranging from P500, 000 to P10 Million

Failure to comply with the maintenance and keeping of Imprisonment ranging from 1 yr and 1
the original records of transaction on any dangerous day to 6 yrs and a fine ranging from
drugs and/or controlled precursors and Essential P10, 000 to P50, 000
Chemicals on the part of practioners, manufacturers, Plus revocation of license to practice
wholesalers, importers, distributors, dealers, or retailers profession.
(sec. 17)
Unnecessary Prescription of Dangerous Drugs (sec. 18) Imprisonment ranging from 12 yrs and
1 day to 20 yrs and a fine ranging from
P100, 000 to P500, 000.
Plus revocation of license to practice
profession
Unlawful Prescription of Dangerous Drugs (sec.19) Life imprisonment to Death and a fine
ranging from P500, 000 to 10 Million
pesos

The Unlawful Acts Punishable by Death Penalty

1. Importation or bringing into the Philippines of dangerous drugs using diplomatic passport
or facilities or any means involving his/her official status to facilitate unlawful entry of the
same (sec 4, Art II).

42
 2. Upon any person who organizes, manages or acts as “financiers” of any of the activities
involving dangerous drugs (sec 4, 5, 6, 8 Art II).
3. Sale, Trading, Administration, Dispensation, Delivery, Distribution and transportation of
Dangerous Drugs and/or Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals with in 100
meters from the school (sec 5, Art II).
4. Drugs pushers who use minors or mentally incapacitated individuals as runners, couriers
and messengers or in any other capacity directly connected to the dangerous drug trade
(sec 5, Art II).
5. If the victim of the offense is a minor or mentally incapacitated individual, or should a
dangerous drug and/or controlled precursors and essential chemical involved in the
offense be the proximate cause of death of the victim (sec 5, Art II).
6. When dangerous drug is administered, delivered or sold to a minor who is allowed to use
the same in such a place (sec 6, Art II).
7. Upon any person who uses a minor or mentally incapacitated individual to deliver
equipment, instrument, apparatus and other paraphernalia for dangerous drugs (sec. 10,
Art II).
8. Possession of dangerous Drugs during Parties, Social Gatherings or Meetings (sec. 13),
and Possession of Equipment, Instrument, Apparatus and other Paraphernalia for
Dangerous Drugs during Parties, Social Gatherings or Meetings (sec. 14)
What is the Dangerous Drugs Board (DDB)?
The DDB is the policy-making body and strategy-making body in the planning and
formulation of policies and programs on drug prevention and control. (under the Office of the
President) (sec. 77, Art IX)
Composition: 17 members (3 as permanent, 12 as ex-officio, 2 regular members)(sec. 78,
Art IX)
3 permanent members: to be appointed by the President, one to be the Chairman.
12 ex officio members:
Secretary of DOJ, DOH, DND, DOF, DOLE, DILG, DSWD, DFA, and DepEd, Chairman of
CHED, NYC, and the Dir.Gen of PDEA.
2 regular members: President of the IBP, and the Pres/Chaiman of an NGO involved in a
dangerous drug campaign to be appointed by the President.
The NBI Director the Chief of the PNP – permanent consultant of the Board
What are the Powers and Duties of the DDB?
(sec. 81, Art IX)
 Formulation of Drug Prevention and Control Strategy,
 Promulgation of Rules and Regulation to carry out the purposes of this Act,
 Conduct policy studies and researches,
 Develop educational programs and info drive,
 Conduct continuing seminars and consultations,
 Design special training,
 Coordination with agencies for community service programs,
 Maintain international networking,
What is the PDEA?
PDEA means Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency.

43
 It is the implementing arm of the DDB and responsible for the efficient and effective law
enforcement of all the provisions on any dangerous drugs and/ or precursors and essential
chemicals.
Head: Director General – appointed by the President
Assisted By: 2 Deputies Director General (one for Admin, another for Opns) – appointed
by the President (sec. 82, Art IX).
PDEA Operating Units:
It absorbed the NDLE-PCC (created under E.O. 61), NARCOM of the PNP, Narcotics
Division of the NBI, and the Customs Narcotics Interdiction Unit (sec. 86, Art IX).
What are the Powers and Functions of the PDEA?
(sec. 84, Art IX)
 Cause the effective and efficient implementation of the national drug control strategy,
 Enforcement of the provisions of Art II of this Act,
 Undertake investigation, make arrest and apprehension of violators and seizure and
confiscation of dangerous drugs,
 Establish forensic laboratories,
 Filing of appropriate drug cases,
 Conduct eradication programs,
 Maintain a national drug intelligence system,
 Close coordination with local and international drug agencies
Important Features of R.A 9165
 In the revised law, importation of any illegal drug, regardless of quantity and purity or
any part therefrom even for floral, decorative and culinary purposes is punishable with
life imprisonment to death and a fine ranging from P500, 000 to P10 million.
 The trading, administration, dispensation, delivery, distribution, and transportation of
dangerous drugs is also punishable by life imprisonment to death and a fine ranging
from P500, 000 to P10 million.
 Any person who shall sell, trade, administer, dispense, deliver, give away to another or
distribute, dispatch in transit or transport any dangerous drugs regardless of quantity
and purity shall be punished with life imprisonment to death and a fine ranging from
P500, 000 to P10 million.
But if the sale, administration, delivery, distribution or transportation of any of
these illegal drugs transpires with in 100 meters from any school, the maximum
penalty shall be imposed.
Pushers who use minors or mentally incapacitated individuals as runners,
couriers, and messengers or in dangerous drug transactions shall also be meted
with the maximum penalty.
A penalty of 12 yrs to 20 yrs imprisonment shall be imposed on financiers,
coddlers, and managers of the illegal activity.
 The law also penalizes anybody found in possession of any item or paraphernalia
used to administer, produce, cultivate, propagate, harvest, compound, convert,
process, pack, store, contain or conceal illegal drugs with an imprisonment of 12 yrs to
20 yrs and a fine of P100, 000 to P500, 000.
 Owners of resorts, dives, establishments, and other places where illegal drugs are
administered is deemed liable under this new law, the same shall be confiscated and
escheated in favor of the government.

44
  Any person who shall be convicted of violation of this new law, regardless of the
quantity of the drugs and the penalty imposed by the court shall not be allowed to avail
the privilege provisions of the Probation Law (P.D. 968).
(sec.58, Art VIII) Filing of charges against a drug dependent for confinement and rehabilitation
under voluntary submission program can be made:
 second commitment to the center
 upon recommendation of the DDB
 may be charge for violation of sec. 15
 if convicted – confinement and rehab
Parents, spouse or guardian who refuses to cooperate with the Board or any concerned
agency in the treatment and rehabilitation of a drug dependent may be cited for Contempt
of Court (sec. 73, Art VIII).

FIRE PROTECTION AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

FIRE -> is a rapid chemical reaction that gives off energy and products of combustion
that are very different in composition from the fuel and oxygen that combined to produce
them.

-> derive from the Greek word “PYRA” which means glowing ember.

ARSON -> it is the intentional or malicious destruction of property by fire.

EARLY YEARS OF ORGANIZED FIREFIGHTING

Rome -> the first roman fire brigade was a grouped of slaves who were hired by Marcus
Ignatius Rufus. Augustus took this idea from rufus and then built on it to form the vigils
in 6 A.D. to combat fires using buckets and pumps, as well as poles and hooks to tear
down buildings in advance of the flames.

United Kingdom -> the great fire in London in 1966 started in a baker’s shop in pudding
lane, which consumed about two square miles of the city, leaving tens of thousands
homeless, prior to this fire, London had no organized fire protection system.

45
Hans Hautsh -> German inventor who improved the manual pump by creating the first
suction and force pump and adding some flexible hoses to the pump.

Jan Van Der Heyden -> Dutch inventor who invented the fire hose in 1672. contructed
from flexible leather and coupled every 50feet (15 meters) with brass fittings, the length
and connections remained the standard up to this day.

Richard Newsham -> a native of London further developed the fire engine in 1725,
pulled as a cart to the fire scene, these manual pumps were manned by teams of men
and could deliver up to 160 gallons per minutes at up to 120 feet (40 meters).

OTHER EVENTS AND PERSONALITIES SIGNIFICANCE TO FIRE SERVICE

Bucket Brigade -> first known fire fighting unit organized thousands of years.

Dr. Nicolas Barton -> underwrote the first insurance policy and organized the first
known fire department.

Paul Hodge -> designed and built the first steam powered fire engine in new york in
1840.

Regimen De Pompier -> fire fighting unit organized in France during the first world War.

EVENTS IN THE PHILIPPINES

Manila Fire Department -> first organized fire department in the Philippines, established
on August 6, 1901 with Captain F.R. Hodge as it first fire chief.

Captain Jacinto lorenzo -> first filipino apppointed as fire chief on october 19, 1935
before the inauguration of the philippine commonwealth government. He also reduced
the schedule of duties of firemen from 4 straight days service with 7 hours day off and 15
hours night off to 48 hours duty and 24 hours duty.

P. D. 765 -> signed on august 8, 1975 by Pres. Marcos establishing the integrated
national police (INP), integrating all local police and fire forces into one national
organization.

P. D. 1185 -> the first known fire code of the Philippines, signed into law by Pres.
Marcos on august 26, 1977.

R. A. 9514 -> Fire code of the Philippines, December 19, 2008.

R. A. 6541 -> An act to ordain and institute national buiding code of the philippines

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National Fire Service Council -> created by Juan Ponce Enrile who was a Minister of
defense at the time; the council recommended the establishment of the national training
center for the fire service.

National Fire Service Training center -> established on october 1, 1979 with FCol.
Jose V Cajipe as the first training commandant; known as the Fire National Training
Institute.

Investigative aspect of fire behaviour

-> since common causes of fire is always an accidental fire but in the field of fire
investigation this causes is always considered but it needs an in-depth investigation so
that the said alleged causes will be proved after the fire investigation conducted by the
fire personnel.

Physical Science of Fire (Chemistry of fire)

Ignition and burning

Before the combustible materials will ignite or burn we need to understand first the basic
concept and importance the three things in order that the fire will occur and these are the
fuel, oxygen and heat. In order to produce fire there must be a sufficient heat to
vaporize of some fuel to ignite the vapor after it mixes with the oxygen for to sustain
burning.

Combustion

Fire is a form of combustion or a chemical reaction. Combustion is a self-sustaining

chemical reaction yielding energy of products that may cause further reactions of the
same kind.

FIRE TRIANGLE AND CHEMICAL CHAIN REACTION (FIRE TETRAHEDRON)

1. Oxygen -> is usually present in the surrounding air in sufficient quantities to support
combustion. Normal air contains 21 percent oxygen enriched atmosphere.

2. Fuel -> refers to a material or a substance being oxidize or will burned in the ignition
process. In the field of scientific terms the word fuel in a combustion or ignition reaction
is called as the reducing agent.

-> most important part of the fire triangle.

Pyrolysis. Is a chemical decomposition of a substance through the action of heat.

47
3. Heat -> device or means to start a fire. It is commonly defined in terms of intensity or
heating rate or its total heat energy receive overtime in a fire, heat produces fuel vapors
causes ignition and it will promotes fire growth and flames.

4. Chemical chain reaction -> it result when the oxygen, fuel and heat comes together.

Fire Triangle – represent the GLOWING MODE of fire.

Fire Tetrahedron – represent the FLAMING MODE of fire.

FIRE LIFE CYCLE

- Input Heat
- Fuel
- Oxygen
- Proportioning
- Mixing
- Ignition continuity

ENERGY AND WORKS RELATED TO FIRE, HEAT AND IGNITION SOURCES

Four primary objectives of the fire investigation

1. The true low burn must be directly related to an ignition source in the process of
determining the point of origin once the ignition source establish.

2. The point of origin and the ignition source will provide a basis for reconstructing the
start of the fire.

3. Determining the reason.

4. The Category of fire.

MECHANICAL HEAT

Mechanically produced heat through friction(rubbing), it will produce whenever the two
surface moves against to each other, like for instance when a person rub his palms, he
will get warm because by way of rubbing produce mechanical heat.

Source of mechanical heat. The motor shafts are designed to rotate on roller or ball
bearings to reduce friction and the heat produces lubrication is also used to reduce
friction. Drive belt are designed to operate a specified tention so they move there pulleys

48
and thus minimize friction. But once the drive belt will lose it can slip and rub against the
pulleys then it will produce a sudden enough mechanical heat to start a fire.

SOLAR HEAT

The solar heat energy transferred between two bodies of differing temperature such as
the sun. Since there is only one source of the solar heat and this is the sun.

Once the fire investigator eliminate all the possible aspect heat source and the fired
occurred on a sunny day, the solar heat must be put into consideration as the
mechanism.

CHEMICAL HEAT

If the cause of fire is a chemical there are two or more substance combining in order to
form a new substance. Since some chemical will only react if there is an addition of heat
in order takes place. Like for instance in the case of bulacan explosion on where the low
explosive chemicals was stored in a poor or dilapidated warehouse and the low
explosive are exposed to a humidity and exposed to a sunny day the warehouse was
exploded due to chemical reaction of some element of combustible materials.

The fire investigator before making a conclusion that the ignition was produced by an
spontaneous heating or some other chemical reaction, fire investigator must look for
other common heat sources near the low burn in order to sure that the chemical heat
source of ignition in the given circumstances.

ELECTRICAL HEAT

Produced by electrical wiring, appliances, and equipment is responsible for many fires,
but many other fires are incorrectly blamed on electrical components, and sometimes a
mistake is made complex electrical equipment or wiring is involved; and the fire
investigator does not have the knowledge to make an accurate judgment.

FIRE GASES

If we talk about fire gases we are referring to gases that remains when the product of
combustion are cooled to normal temperature. Gases produced a fire depends on many
variables among which are;

 Chemical composition of the burning materials

 Amount of oxygen available for combustion

 Temperature

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CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)

The hazard of carbon monoxides is it toxicity and may cause death by ASPHYXIA.

CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)

Usually produced in a large volume from fires and high levels of this gas over stimulates
the rate of breathing, this condition combined with decreased oxygen and the presence
of irritating in the environment that may cause the lungs to swell (bloating of lungs) due
to excess of fluid.

HYDROGEN SULFIDE (H2S)

Developed or form if the burned products are rubber, animal meat, hair and silk. A
colorless and highly toxic gas it smells like a rotten egg prolong exposure to a
concentrate for more than half an hour is dangerous and may cause symptoms of
poisoning such dizziness, nausea and sometimes intestinal disorder and also person
who are expose to this type of toxic gas may suffer of dryness of mouth and experience
chest pain or respiratory disorder.

SULFUR DIOXIDE (SO2)

This type of toxic gas is a colorless with irritating, suffocating odor which forms when a
sulfur and sulfur containing organic material like wood, rubber, wool and silk were
burned. It may possibly cause the eyes to be watery and irritate to the human respiratory
tract.

AMMONIA

Combustible material containing nitrogen such as silk, wool, feathers, skin meat, acrylic
plastic, phenol and a melamine resins once burned it will produce ammonia. It is
colorless gas with a strong pungent odor, sometimes use as heart stimulant, refrigerant
(use to reduce heat of the body) and a raw materials for the manufacture of fertilizers.

HYDROGEN CHLORIDE (HCL)

The chlorine containing plastic materials will produce hydrogen chloride when burned,
polyvinylchloride is one plastic commonly used for electrical conductorinsulation,
conduct and piping. Is a colorless gas with strong smell that may irritate once inhaled.

HYDROGEN CYANIDE (HCN)

Large volume of hydrogen cyanide maybe produced by the incomplete combustion of

nitrogen containing materials such as wool, silk, urethane, polyimide and acrylics. It is
also a colorless gas which is highly toxic.

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THE TRANSMISSION OF FIRE (FIRE SPREAD)

One of the most common question in every fire incidence is on how the fire travel or
transfer from one object to another object.

A fire will spread away from the point of origin if sufficient fuel and oxygen are present
the fire spread will occur though single mechanism the transfer of heat to available fuel,
from the path of the fire and the patterns it leaves, the fire investigator can initially
determine on whether the fire spread naturally, and or whether it was helped along by
an arsonist.

METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER

1. CONVECTION -> Transfer of heat by motion of a hot smoke, gases, air and particles.
The hot smoke and gases tend to rise away from the seat of fire. It is also transfer of
heat energy by the movement of heated liquid or gases from the source of heat.

2. CONDUCTION -> is the form of heat transfer that take place within a solid when one
portion of an object is heated. The energy transferred from the heated area to unheated
area at a rate dependent upon the difference in temperature and the physical properties
of the material.

3. RADIATION -> Transmission of the heat energy which travels through space or
material as wave in the radiant energy with the speed of light.

4. DIRECT CONTACT -> Heat transfer by a direct contact of an object to a flame or

ember (baga) if the contact is prolong period of time the object will be possibly ignited.

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF FIRE

INITIAL OR INCIPIENT (GROWTH)

The base area of the fire has a temperature of 400 degreeF to 800 degreeF, the room
has a normal temperature and as the heat from the fire rises, and the ambient
temperature cools it until the ceiling temperature is about 200 degreeF. This is the
beginning of a fire.

FREE BURNING STAGES (FULLY DEVELOP)

As the fire continues to burn and built up heat the pyrolytic process accelerates. The
thermal column of fire begins to develop and the heat rises and the temperature in the
base area of the fire may raise up to 800 degree F and at the ceiling.

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SMOLDERING STAGE (DECAY)

Most of fire consumes oxygen once the air and oxygen become exhausted in the area of
fire, other changes took place in the fire behavior. When the oxygen content drops to
below 13% the fire will begins to smoder (burn slowly), because the fire can no longer
support the flames.

FIRE CARD RUNNING SYSTEM

Fire card running system only declared if the fire fighting personnel who first incidents
cannot control the intensity of fire in they need to seek assistance to the neighboring fire
bureau, the fire card running system are:

1st alarm system 1 to 3 fire trucks are needed to responds

2nd alarm system 3 to 5 fire trucks are needed to responds

3rd alarm system 5 to 8 fire trucks are needed to responds

4th alarm system 9 to 12 fire trucks are needed to responds

5th alarm system 15 or more fire trucks are needed to responds

(NOTE: ONLY THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION USE THE TASK FORCE ALFA)

FLAME OVER/ROLL OVER

When we say flame over and rollover it describes a condition on where flames move
through or cross the unburned gases during a fire progression. Flame over is make a
distinction to flashover (electric discharge) by its involvement of only the fire gases and
not the surface of other fuel package within a compartment. Flame over may also
observe when unburned fire gases vent from the compartment during the growth and
fully developed stages of fire development.

THERMAL LAYERING OF GASES

Is a tendency of gases to form into layers according to temperature the other terms use
is it is a tendency are heat stratification (layer group) and thermal balance. The hottest
gases tend to at the top while the cooler gases form on the lower layer.

BACKDRAFT

This gases may be at or above their ignition temperature but have insufficient oxygen
available to actually ignite; an any action made by the fire fighting personnel during the
suppression of fire that will allow the air to with these hot gases will possibly result in an
explosive ignition.

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CAUSES OF FIRE

 NATURAL FIRE -> Usually refers this to a natural calamities such as lighting,
volcanic eruption, and the extreme radiation of the solar heat energy.

 ACCIDENTAL -> Since common denominator of the causes of fire is always an

accidental such as unattended appliances, overloading of electrical power
connection, and or short circuit; other causes of accidental fire are unattended gas
lamp or candle and sometimes the children who are playing with safety matches.

 INTENTIONAL FIRE -> Is consciously setting a fire on a certain combustible

materials but bear in mind that if a person intentionally set a fire of file of garbage
and it propagate to another property and the intention is only to rid the garbage then
he is not liable for arson. But if the person who set on fire to the garbage has an ill
motive to destroy the other property and this motive will establish by the fire ground
investigator then he is liable for arson.

CLASSES OF FIRE AND ITS EXTINGUISHING AGENTS

CLASS A -> Ordinary combustible material, like; wood, trash and cloth.
Extinguishing agent : Water
Method : Quenching or Cooling

CLASS B -> Flammable liquids, like; gasoline, kerosene, LPG, thinner, paints, propane
and butane.
Extinguishing agent : Dry powder
Method : blanketing or smothering

CLASS C -> Energized electrical equipment, like; fuse, overheated electric appliance,
transformer and short circuit.
Extinguishing agent : de-energized apply non-conductive extinguisher.
Method : remove the power and become other class of fire.

CLASS D -> Combustible metal, like; TNT,C4, nitro-glycerine, magnesium, silver,

titanium and sodium.
Extinguishing agent : used type A, B, C, D fire extinguisher.
Method : smothering/blanketing, special extinguishing agent for specific combustible
metal.

CLASS E -> Involves Nuclear Power or Atomic fission.

CLASS K -> Involves Combustible Cooking Media, such as:

Vegetable or Animal Oils and Fats.

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Extinguishments of Class K fires requires:
use of Wet Chemical Base extinguishing agents
AFFF or FFFP (Film Forming Flouro-Protein)
Dry Chemical Base extinguishing agents,
such as: “PURPLE K”

CLASSIFICATION OF VENTILATION IN FIRE OPERATION

VENTILATION -> Systematic removal and replacement of heated air, smoke and gases
from a structure with cooler air. The cooler air facilities entry by fire fighters and
improves life safety from rescue and other fire fighting operations.

VENTILATION METHOD -> Methods of strategy made by the firefighting personnel

during the fire extinguishing operations.

2 TYPES OF VENTILATION in order to suppress and control the propagation of fire

1. VERTICAL VENTILATION -> Opening of the roof or existing roof openings for the
purpose of allowing heated gases and smoke to escape to the atmosphere.

2. HORIZONTAL VENTILATION -> Venting of heat,smoke and gases through wall

openings such as windows and doors.

The buildings or house structures that lend themselves to the application of horizontal
ventilation which include the following:

 Residential type buildings in which the fire has not involved the attic area.

 Involve floors of multistoried structures below the top floor, or the top floor if the attic
is uninvolve.

 Buildings with large unsupported open spaces under the roof in which the structure
has been weakened by the effects of burning.

OTHER KINDS OF VENTILATION

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FORCE VENTILATION -> Accomplished mechanically with the use of instrument such
as fans or blower the applied principle on this practice is to moving out or reduce the
volume of the air or the smoke.

NEGATIVE PRESSURE VENTILATION -> Considered as the oldest practice in the fire
fighting operation this method is usually used the mechanical forced such using the fans
or blower in order to produce artificial circulation and to pullout the smoke inside the
structure or in the burning building.

POSITIVE PRESSURE VENTILATION -> Another technique of the fire fighting

personnel on reducing the heat or smoke inside the burning building by way of using a
big fan or blower, a higher pressure is created inside the fire structure this techniques is
the fire fighting personnel is putting a big fan or a blower inside the building rather than
the outside.

TYPES OF PREVENTION OF LOSS CONTROL

1. OVERHAUL -> Searching a fire scene to detect hidden fires or sparks that may
rekindle and to identify the point of origin and cause of fire.

Common tools uses: Axes, Battery powered saw and other tools for opening.

2. SALVAGE -> Early planning knowing the procedures necessary to do the job and
being familiar with the various covers and equipment used.

-> To protect properties of value from preventable damages due to sources other than
fire.

MUSHROOMING

The heat, smoke and fire gases are trapped and begin to accumulate, it will bank down
and spread laterally to involve other areas of the structure.

ARSON AND OTHER CRIMES INVOLVING DESTRUCTION

ARSON -> It is the intentional or malicious destruction of property by fire.

Legal aspect of arson/fire investigation:

1. To prove malicious intent of the offender. Intent must be proved, otherwise no crime
exist.

2. The law presumes that a fire is accidental, hence criminal design must be shown.

55
3. Fire caused by accident or criminal design must be shown.

4. Fire caused by accident or negligence does not contitute arson.

BASIS CRIMINAL LIABILITY ARSON

1. Kind and character of the building burned.

2. Location of the building.

3. Extent of value of the damage.

4. Whether inhabited or not.

DESTRUCTIVE ARSON is committed by burning the following:

1. Any arsenal, shipyard, storehouse, military installation powder of fireworks factory,

ordnance, archives or general museum of the government.

2. Any passenger train or motor vehicle in motion, or vessel out of ports.

3. In an inhabited place, any storehouse or factory of inflammable or explosive

materials.

4. Any theatre, church, cockpit arena, or other buildings where meeting are held, when
occupied by numerous assemblage.

ARSON PROPERTY OF SMALL VALUE (Art 323, RPC)

Elements:

1. Burning of any uninhabited hut, storehouse, barn shed, or any other property.

2. Value of property does not exceed twenty five pesos.

3. Under circumstances clearly excluding all danger of the fire spreading.

Article 325, RPC

Burning of one’s own property is a means of committing arson. This article punishes the
burning of one’s own property for the purpose of committing arson or great destruction of
property.

Article 326, RPC

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Setting fire to property exclusively owned by the offender, this article provides the
purpose of offender to:

 Defraud or cause damage to another.

 Damaged is actually caused upon another’s property even such purpose is absent.

 Thing burned is a building in an inhabited place.

STAGES OF FIRE

 IGNITION

-> Describes the period when the four elements of the fire tetrahedron come together
and combustion begins.

 GROWTH

-> Shortly after ignition, a fire plume begins to form above the burning fuel. As the plume
develops, it begins to draw or entrain air from the surrounding space into the column.

 FLASHOVER

-> Is the near simultaneous ignition of all combustible material in an inclosed area. When
certain materials are heated they undergo thermal decomposition and release flammable
gases.

-> Occurs when the majority of surfaces in a space are heated to the auto-ignition
temperature of the flammable gases.

 FULLY DEVELOPE

-> Occurs when all combustible materials in the compartment are involved in the fire.

 DECAY

-> As the fire consumes the available fuel in the compartment the rate of the heat
released begins to decline.

FACTS ABOUT FIRE

FAST -> Fire will double every 30 seconds under normal conditions, in as little as 3
minutes, a small fire can erupt into a FLASHOVER.
DARK -> A small fire can produce enough smoke to fill building in minutes
Smokes results in:
 Teary eyes

57
 Chocking sensation
 Impaired judgment due to carbon monoxide
 Loss of spatial recognition
 Sedation effect - respiratory failure

HOT -> Within a minutes, air temperature in a burning room can reach 300 degree
Celsius, this temperature is hot enough to melt clothes, skin and scorch your lungs in
one breathe.
-> Temperature can climb between 650 - 760 degree Celsius.

DEADLY -> Most people who die in fires, die from breathing smoke and toxic gases.
-> Carbon oxide, hydrogen cyanide, ammonia and hundreds of other irritants attack your
eyes, nose, throat and lungs.
-> They numb your senses and leave you dazed.

WHAT TO DO IN CASE OF FIRE

S - Sound the alarm

 Press the manual fire alarm

 Shout

A - Advise fire department

 Call for help

 Dial the nationwide emergency hotline numbers 117,110, 911 contact number of
nearest fire station.

F - Fight fire

 Use of fire extinguisher

E - Evacuate

 If you think you will not be able to extinguish the fire, its time to EVACUATE.

 Do not panic stay calm.

 Stay down on the floor to avoid inhaling toxic smoke.

 Cover your nose and mouth with wet cloth.

 Find the means of egress quickly.

 Crawl to safety quickly.

 Do not worry about your appearance or your personal belongings.

58
 Do not attempt to return.

 Make sure that all family members/occupants areall accounted for.

 In case of unaccounted person, report immediately to the responding firemen.

T - Tell others

 Inform some occupants of the building.

Y - You got clear

 Don’t attempt to return

 Do not hide

 Go outside, get out quickly and safely, never hide or take time to
gather up your belongings.

NEED TO DO TO ESCAPE DURING A FIRE OR WHEN TRAPPED

 Crawl to safety quickly

 Find an alternative exit quickly

 Close the door behind you

 Call for help

 Stay out

If your clothes catch fire:

 STOP

 DROP

 ROLL

DEGREE OF HAZARD

-> Means the probability that a building, structure or facility may catch fire, the difficulty in
evacuating people therefrom, the difficulty of suppressing the fire therein.

PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF REDUCED OXYGEN

- 21% -> Normal

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- 17% -> Some impairment of mascular coordination

- 12% -> Dizzines, headache and rapid fatigue

- 9% -> Unconsciousness

- 6% -> Death

FIRE POINT -> The temperature at which a liquid fuel will produce vapors sufficient to
support continuous combustion once ignited. The fire is usually a few degrees above
flash point.

FLASH POINT -> The minimum temperature at which liquid fires gives off sufficient
vapors to form an ignitable mixture with the air near the surface. The ignited vapors will
flash but will not continue to burn.

IGNITION TEMPERATURE -> The minimum temperature to which a fuel in air must be
heated to start self sustained combustion with out a separate ignition source.

COMBUSTION -> The self sustaining process of rapid oxidation of a fuel, which
produces heat and light.

“ALL THIEVES OF THE WORLD CANNOT TAKE ALL YOUR BELONGINGS BUT
ONE GOOD FIRE COULD RAZED THEM TO THE GROUND IN FIVE MINUTES TIME”

HOW TO LOCATE THE ORIGIN OF FIRE

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WITNESSES -> The first who discovered the fire

LOW POINT OF BURNING -> The lowest point of burning should be given the outmost
consideration in locating the origin of fire.

CHARRING -> The char will generally be deepest from where the fire originated. When
the fire is extinguished quickly, the charring is only slightly below the surface.

ALLIGATORING -> Fire burning for a longer period indicates a char pattern that is deep
and pronounced. The charring on the woods exactly looks like the hide of a black
alligator patterns.

COMMON CAUSES OF ARSON OF INCIDIARISM

 Financial gain

 Criminal cover up

 Sensual satisfaction revenge

 Vandalism

 Act of violence

 Psychological derange or pyromania

USUAL AND UNDERLYING MOTIVE IN ARSON CASES:

 Defraud insurance company

 Concealment of crime

 Destruction of evidence, records and other object

 Business rivalry or competition

 Revenge, spite, grudge and jealosy

 Pyromania

 Landlord-tenant feuds

 Hero complex

CONCEALMENT OF CRIME

Arson is sometimes employed to conceal a previously committed crime.

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A murderer will set fire to a building to destroy all traces of homicide and make it appear
that the victim perished in the fire accidentally.

Arson has also been committed to cover robbery and therefore all locks should be
carefully inspected. These will not have been destroyed by the fire.

DESTRUCTION OF EVIDENCE, RECORDS AND OTHER OBJECTS

The fraudulent businessman will plan the sitting of a fire to destroy his accounts book,
etc. When he is expecting a check-up from income tax authorities or for some other
reason wishes his record destroyed.

BUSINESS RIVALRY OR COMPETITION

Arson may also be committed in case of trade rivalry, one of competitor burning out
another in order to get his business.

REVENGE, SPITE, GRUDGE AND JEALOUSY

Disgruntled employee who was recently fired; a person who wants to even score; a
jealous spouse or lover, or a person out of spite may resort to arson.

PYROMANIA

Commits arson for no reason other than the abnormal impulse which urge him on.

LANDLORD-TENANT FEUDS

Arson may be resorted to in order to terminate lease contract.

HERO COMPLEX

Person who discovered the fire and seeks credit as the hero.

ROLE OF FIRE INVESTIGATOR

The investigation of fires requires that both the police and fire services work closely
together. The role of each of these agencies must be clearly defined so that there will be
a minimal amount of duplicated effort. Each agency must aware of the other agency
must aware of the other agency’s responsibilities in fire control.

DETERMINING THE CAUSE

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The fire and arson investigator’s success depends on his ability to determine correctly
the exact cause of the fire. One must have the knowledge of the causes of fire to
determine an accidental fire or one that was intentionally set.

PRINCIPLE OF FIRE FIGHTING

 FIRE CONTROL -> An act or process of preventing the fire from spreading, thus
preventing further damages.

 FIRE SUPPRESSION -> Act or process of lowering down the intensity of heat.

10 PHASES OF FIRE OPERATION

1. PRE - FIRE PLANNING -> To know the problem which may be encountered and what
to at the fire ground in case fire starts in a particular building or area.

 Gather information about existing conditions at the vicinity of the building or area
which is subject for planning.

 Conducting fire company inspection.

2. SIZING UP -> Mental evaluation by the ground commander which enables him to
determine his course of action and to acomplish his mission.

-> To estimate the situation.

-> Begins after alarm is received.

 Nature of fire

 Tools or equipment available

 The action to take (decision from the ground commander)

 Wind direction

3. RESCUE -> Removal of the victims from the endangered area and bring to the place
of safety.

 Looking for victims

 Extrication of victims

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 Determining the nature of injury

 Stabilizing the victim

 Bringing victims to a safe place

 Stabilizing the scene of incident

 Wrap up (collect equipment and accounting of personnel)

 Post incident analysis

CONDITIONS IN WHICH VICTIMS MAYBE FOUND

 Injured victim

 Unconscious

 Wounded

 Burned

 Panicky

 Shocked

 Sleeping

 Intoxicated

 Bedfast

4. COVER EXPOSURE -> To prevent the fire extending spreading to other uninvolved
buildings.

 Placing fire streams directly to exposed building.

 Placing fire streams between burning building and exposed building.

 Entering exposed building and from windows placing fire streams directly to burning
building.

5. CONFINEMENT -> To prevent the fire from extending to the other portion of the
burning building. Involves protection of avenues of extension.

 UPWARD EXTENSION -> Most rapid thru stairways, windows and air ducks.

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 SIDEWARD -> Thru combustible partitions and doors.

 DOWNWARD -> Slow thru combustible floors, stairways.

6. VENTILATION -> To displace hot smoke, poisonous and toxic gases from
contaminated area and replacing fresh air from outside.

a) Make an opening (forced ventilation)

b) Use of fog streams

c) Always consider the wind direction

7. EXTINGUISHMENT -> To put out the main body of fire.

a) Locating the main body of fire

b) Proper use and techniques of applying fire streams.

DIRECT ATTACK -> If fire is limited and approachable. Applying a solid stream directly
to the base of the fire.

INDIRECT ATTACK -> If the fire involves a large area and confined by locating the
hottest portion and applying a stream over hottest portion.

COMBINATION ATTACK -> If the whole building id already involve by the fire and entry
is difficult.

8. SALVAGE -> To protect properties of value from preventable damages due to

sources other than fire.

 Covering properties endangered of indirect damage (water or heat).

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 Removing endangered properties.

 Removal of excess water.

SALVAGE PRATICES

a) Removal or evacuating of properties according to its priority.

b) Removal of properties to avoid fire spread.

c) Protect properties by arranging covering to avoid damage.

d) Removal of personal belonging of the victims for safe keeping.

9. OVERHAULING -> To prevent the fire from rekindling. Looking for remaining sources
of ignition such as embers, open flames, sparks among debris. Making the area safe
and habitable gathering physical evidences among debris to determine cause of the fire.

10. POST FIRE ANALYSIS -> To conduct a critique of what was done during the fire
operation. Is a cooperative discussion of fire personnel about all phases of fire from the
time of the alarm was received until return to the station.

FIRE INVESTIGATION -> Sometimes referred to as origin and cause investigation, is

the analysis of fire related incidents.

ARSON INVESTIGATION -> Is the process of finding the cause of fire and the extent of
damage thereto for the purpose of determining if the perpetrator is guilty or not of the
crime of arson.

-> Is conducted to determine the extent of criminal liability or damages made by the fire
setter to established that anything was burned by criminal designed and by a person
criminally responsible.

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In the CRIME OF ARSON, the CORPUS DELICTI must show:

 That there was a fire

 That the fire was of human origin and cause by incendiary means

 Actual burning took place

 Actual burning is done with malicious intent

 The actual burning is done by persons illegally and criminally liable.

WHAT CONSTITUTE BURNING?

The mere fact that the building is scorched or discolored by heat is not
sufficient, nor will a bare intention or even and attempt to burn the a house amount to the
offense if no part of it is burned, yet if there’s actual ignition of any part of the building,
the offense is committed, although there be no flame, or the fire immediately goes out of
itself.

STAGES IN COMMISION OF ARSON

1. ATTEMPTED ARSON -> The crime is attempted arson when the offender
commences the commission of the crime directly by overt act (placing rags soaked in
gasoline beside the wooden wall of the building and lighting a match) but does not
perform all the acts of execution (the setting of fire to the rags) due to untimely
intervention of another who chases a way the offender.

2. FRUSTRATED ARSON -> If the person was able to light the rags but the fire was
put out before any part of the building was burn, it is frustrated. The fact of having set
fire to some rags and jute sacks, the entresol of an inhabited house, should not
qualified as consumated arson, in as much as no part of the house had begun to burn,
although fire would have started in the said partition had it not been extingueshed on
time. The crime committed was frustrated arson.

3. CONSUMMATED ARSON -> If before the fire was put out and there are part of the
building was burned even slight, it is consumated.

PRIMA FACIE EVIDENCE OF ARSON

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 It is murder when death occurs as a result of arson

 Murder or homicide in a juridical sense would exist if the killing were the objective of
the malefactor and the burning of the building was resorted only as the means of
accomplishing the purpose

 The rule is otherwise when the arson is itself the end and death is a mere
consequence. The crime in such a case would be arson only, absorbing the
homicide.

TYPES OF FIRE PATTERNS

1. MOVEMENT PATTERNS -> Fire arson investigator is establish the location of the
burned pattern or also called as THE FINGERPRINT OF FIRE. It is commonly result of
the growth and the progress of fire source.

2. INTENSITY PATTERNS -> A product of the response of a materials involve in a fire in

which an effect of various intensities of heat exposure.

SURFACE EFFECT OF CHAR -> Is a common language that in every fire incidence that
there is always trace will be observe and this trace or marks will be useful to the fire
arson investigator to establish the possible point of origin on where the fire started and
this point of origin of can be establish through a close observation of char or depth of
burned.

WOOD CHAR -> Is common in every fire incidence specially if the woods are not totally
burned. Likely to be found in nearly all structural fires particularly if the structure is made
of light materials like a class “A” structure.

DEPTH OF CHAR -> bases of the fire arson investigator or where the fire started to
propagate by way of analysing the depth of char of the woods and for evaluating the fire
spread rather than establishing the burned times or the intensity of the heat from an
adjacent burning materials.

DEPTH OF CHAR DIAGRAM -> The lines of demarcation that may not be obviously
visible can often be identified for analysis by a process of measuring and charring
depths of char on a grid diagram.

SPALLING -> The breakdown in a surface tensile (tension) streght of concrete, masonry
and or bricks caused by exposure to a high temperature and rates of heating resulting in
mechanical forces within the materials.

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OXIDATION -> Is the basic chemical process associated with combustion. Combination
of oxygen with substances such as metals, rocks or soil that is brought about by high
temperatures.

CLEAN BURN -> Is a phenomenon that appears on non-combustible surfaces when the
soot and smoke condensate that would normally be found adhering to the surface is
burned off. This produces a clean area adjacent to areas darkened by products of
combustion. Produced commonly by direct flame contact or intense radiated heat.

CALCINATION -> Is used by fire investigation to cover the numerous changes that
occur in plaster or gypsum wall surfaces during a fire.

HEAT SHADOWING -> Results from an object blocking the travel of radiated heat,
convicted heat or direct flame contact from its source to the material upon which the
pattern is produced.

FIRE PATTERNS -> May be found on any surface that has been exposed to the effects
of the fire or by its products. Often found on walls, ceilings and floors.

LEVEL OF AUTHORITY TO CONDUCT INVESTIGATION

A. MUNICIPAL FIRE MARSHALL (LEVEL 1) -> MUNICIPAL INVESTIGATION AND

INTELLIGENCE UNIT (MIIU) shall have the full responsibility and power to investigate
the fire incidents with a total amount of damage not exceeding to Php 20, 000, 000.

B. CITY FIRE MARSHALL (LEVEL 2) -> CITY INVESTIGATION AND INTELLIGENCE

SECTION (CIIS) shall have the full responsibility and power to investigate the fire
incidents with a total amount not exceeding Php 30, 000, 000.

C. DISTRICT FIRE MARSHALL (LEVEL 3) -> DISTRICT INVESTIGATION AND

INTELLIGENCE BRANCH (DIIB) shall have the full responsibility and power to
investigate the fire incidents with a total amount of damage amounting to above Php 30,
000, 000 but not exceeding to Php 40, 000, 000.

D. PROVINCIAL FIRE MARSHALL (LEVEL 3) -> PROVINCIAL INVESTIGATION AND

INTELLIGENCE BRANCH (PIIB) shall have the full responsibility and power to
investigate the fire incidents with a total amount of damage amounting to above Php 30,
000, 000 but not exceeding to Php 40, 000, 000.

E. REGIONAL DIRECTOR OF FIRE PROTECTION (LEVEL 4) -> REGIONAL

INVESTIGATION AND INTELLIGENCE BRANCH (RIIB) shall have the full responsibility
and power to investigate the fire incidents with a total amount of damage amounting to
above Php 40, 000, 000, but not exceeding Php 60, 000, 000.

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F. CHIEF, BUREAU OF FIRE PROTECTION (LEVEL 5) NATIONAL LEVEL,
INVESTIGATION AND INTELLIGENCE DIVISION (IID) shall have the full responsibility
and power to investigate the fire incidents with a total amount of damage amounting to
above Php 60, 000, 000.

PROVISION OF LAW THAT COVER ARSON CASE

LAW - a rule of conduct or procedure recognized by a community as binding or

enforceable by authority.

JURISPRUDENCE - A system of law or the body of laws applied in a particular country

or state.

DURATION OF PENALTIES

RECLUSION PERPETUA -> 20 YEARS and 1 DAY to 40 YEARS

RECLUSION TEMPORAL -> 12 YEARS and 1 DAY to 20 YEARS

PRISION MAYOR -> 6 YEARS and 1 DAY to 12 YEARS

PRISION CORRECCIONAL -> 6 MONTHS and 1 DAY to 6 YEARS

ARRESTO MAYOR -> 1 MONTH and 1 DAY to 6 MONTHS

ARRESTO MENOR -> 1 DAY to 30 DAYS

R.A. 9346 -> An act prohibiting the imposition of death penalty in the philippines.
Approved: June 24, 2006.

R.A. 9372 -> The Anti- terror Law or the Anti- terrorism law or properly known as the
human security act of 2007.

R.A. 3815 -> the REVISED PENAL CODE, January 1, 1935.

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GUIDELINES OF THE ARSON INVESTIGATOR

ARRIVAL AND OBSERVATION

ARRIVAL

 Observe person/vehicle leaving the area.

 Characteristic of person/vehicle leaving the area.

 Unusual road/street condition.

 Barricade showing the progress of response.

 Vehicle parked in such matter as to create obstruction to the fire scene.

OBSERVATION

 Identify the person who called the fire department.

 First person who leave the fire scene.

 Did the fire occur during or after business hour?

 Was it during day time or night time?

 Condition of traffic in the area.

INTRODUCTION TO FIRE TECHNOLOGY

PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHER

-> The first line of defense against unfriendly fires and should be installed regardless of
other fire control measure. Virtually all fires are small at first and might be easily
extingueshing agent were promptly applied.

-> It is a handly first aid firefighting equipment.

TWO TYPES OF FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

1. CARTRIDGE TYPE -> Contain the expellant gas in a separate cartridge that is
punctured prior to discharge, exposing the propellant to the extinguishing agent.

2. STORED PRESSURE TYPE -> The expellant is stored in the same chamber as the
firefighting agent itself. It is a most common type.

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NUMEROUS TYPE OF FIRE EXTINGUISHER

1. WATER EXTINGUISHER -> Effective on small fires in ordinary combustible material

such as wood, paper, textile, rubbish, etc.(class A fires). not effective in fires involving
flammable liquids, greases, etc.

2. SODA-ACID EXTINGUISHER -> Effective on small fires in ordinary combustible

material such as wood, papers, textiles, rubbish, etc. (class A fires).

3. FOAM EXTINGUISHER -> Effective on fires in small quantities of flammable liquids

and grease. Not to be used on fires involving alcohol, acetone, lacquer thinner or carbon
disulphide.

4. CARBON DIOXIDE EXTINGUISHER -> Effective on fires in small quantities of

flammable liquids, grease, etc. In open vessels, tanks, vats or on floor or any other class
B fires where a smothering action is required to extinguish the flame.

5. DRY CHEMICAL EXTINGUISHER -> Effective on small fires in electrical equipment

or class C fires where a non-conducting extinguishing agent is of importance.

6. ABC DRY CHEMICAL EXTINGUISHER -> Approved for all classes of fire.

CARDINAL RULE OF FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

“PICK THE RIGHT EXTINGUISHER FOR THE JOB”

PARTS OF THE PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

1. Handle 6. Cylinder

2. Operation level 7. Label

3. Safety pin 8. Inspection tag

4. Safety pin lock 9. Hose

5. Pressure gauge 10. Nozzle

FIRE EXTINGUISHER -> Is an active fire protection device used to extinguish or control
small fires, often in emergency situation.

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5 STEPS OF OPERATING A FIRE EXTINGUISHER just remember the word TPASS.

 Twist the pin

 Pull the pin

 Aim the nozzle

 Squeeze the operating lever

 Sweep the base of the fire

THREE (3) BASIC PART OF F. E.

1. MECHANICAL PARTS -> Press/squeeze lever, return tension spring.

2. EXPELLING MEANS -> Siphon tube, cylinder

3. EXTINGUISHING AGENT

PROPER PLACEMENT OF F. E.

1. Ready visible

2. Easily accessible

3. Uniformly distributed

4. Free from blockage by storage or equipment

5. Protected from possible potential/accident or malicious damage

6. Near where normal path of travel

7. Near point of ingress or egress

8. Extinguisher weighing less than 40 lbs. Shall be located so that the top will not exceed
5 ft. From the ground

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FIRE HOSE AND NOZZLE EVOLUTION

FIRE HOSE -> is a type of flexible tube used by firefighter personnel to cary water under
pressure from the source of supply to apoint where it is discharge.

FIRE HOSE ROLLS

1. Straight roll

2. Donut roll

3. Double donut roll

4. Self-locking hose roll

CLASSES OF HOSE LOADS

1. Accordion load

2. Flat load

3. Horse shoe load

KINDS OS STREAMS

1. Solid stream

2. Fog stream

3. Broken stream

FIRE HOSE COUPLING

 Made of durable materials and designed so that is possible to to couple and

uncouple then with little effort in a short time

CLASSES OF COUPLING

1. Male 6. Three piece coupling

2. Female 7. Three piece coupling reducers

3. Double male 8. Quick connect coupling

4. Double female 9. Quarter turn coupling

5. Reducers 10. Snap coupling

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COUPLING AND UNCOUPLING METHOS

1. Foot tilt method

2. Over the hip method

3. Two firefighter method

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BATTERFLY VALVE -> use on large pump intakes. Uses a flat baffle operated by a quarter
turn handle. The BAFFLE is in the center of the water ways when the valves open.

BALL VALVE -> use in a pumper discharges and gated wyes. Open when the handle is in the
line with the hose and closed when it is at a right angles the hose.

GATE VALVE -> use to control the flow from hydrant. Have a baffle that is move by a handle
and screw arrangement.

SIAMESS / GATED WYES -> certain situation make a desirable to devide a line of hose into
two or more lines. Various type of wyes connection are used for this purpose. The common wye
has a 2 1/2 inch (65mm) inlet to 1 1/2 inch (38mm) outlets although there are many other
combination commonly found.

BREAKING A TIGHT COUPLING

1. STIFF ARM METHOD

2. KNEE PRESS METHOD

HOSE BRIDGE OR RAMP -> use to help prevent injury to those when vehicle cross it.

AUTOMATIC FIRE SUPPRESSION SYSTEM

 An integrated system of under ground or overhead piping or both connected to a source of

extinguishing agent or medium and designed in accordance with the fire protection

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 engineering standards which when actuated by its automatic detecting device, suppresses
fire within the area protected.

DETECTOR -> this is the most vital of the fire alarm components.

Several types of detector

1. Smoke detector -> device that detects the visible or invisible particles of combustion. The
two types of smoke detector are ionization and photoelectric.

2. Flame detector -> device that detects infrared, ultraviolet or visible radiation produced by
fire.

3. Heat detector -> a device that detects abnormally high temperature or rate temperature rise.
Usually installed in the kitchen, canteen, generator set, room, fleet maintenance and battery
room. The three types of heat detector are the fixed temperature, rate of rise and the
combination type.

MANUAL STATION -> Basically an On anf Off switch which is located along the hallway which
has a mark of “BREAK GLASS IN CASE OF FIRE” or “PUSH/PULL IN CASE OF FIRE”.

FIRE ALARM CONTROL PANEL or CONTROL UNIT

-> It is the brain of the system, it provides power to the system and electrically supervises its
circuits. Contain the logic circuit to reseives signals from alarm initiating devices and
supplementary equipment.

FIRE ALARM SYSTEM -> Any visual or audible signal produced by a device or system to warm
the occupants of the building.

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TYPES OF GROUND LADDERS

1. WALL LADDER -> this type of ladder is best used in rescue where a ladder in place is
already falls short of the endangered person.

2. EXTENSION LADDER -> has a stay poles and is called tormentors. Tormentors support the
beams and give extra stability when raising or lowering the ladder.

3. STRAIGHT LADDER or HOOK LADDER -> is a type of ladder that contains only one
section.

4. ATTIC LADDER -> provide means of reaching through an opening into attics, lofts and other
area that are somewhat difficult to reach without special ladder.

5. BANGOR HOOK/STREET -> an extension ladder that are extended to more than 35 feet are
called Bangor ladder.

6. ARIAL LADDER -> type of ladder that is mounted on a turnable, capable of extending up to
30.5 meters (100 feet) may have three or four metal fly sections of ladder that can raised or
lowered by hydraulically controlled cables.

TYPES OF LADDER CARRIES

 ONE MAN CARRY

 TWO MAN CARRY

 FOUR MAN CARRY

 SIX MAN CARRY

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METHODS OF EXTINGUISHMENT

 STARVING -> the supply of fuel is cut off

 QUENCHING/COOLING -> temperature of the substance is lowered below the burning

point by using water or water solution

 BLANKETING/SMOTHERING -> oxygen content of air is reduced below 15% (from normal
21%) in volume by using chemical, water, fog, sand blankets, etc.

 INHIBITING -> breaking the chemical chain reaction with the use of fire extinguisher.

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