The School and

Community,
School Culture, and
Organizational
Leadership

Jovenel E. Bontilao  Dann Ian G. Broa  Arnold M. Duping

Joa H. Jao  Keith Coleen N. Maceda  Mercy Joy R. Mendez
Maria Elena C. Morales  Gina M. Oracion  Melanie M. Pecision
 Contents
Module 1 1
Lesson 1: Society and Education – Philosophical Perspective 2
Lesson 2: Social Dimensions of Education 10
Lesson 3: Educational Reforms: The K to 12 Curriculum Example 31

Module 2 37
Lesson 1: Social Systems Model 38
Lesson 2: Key Elements of School as a Social System 43 INTRODUCTION
Lesson 3: The School as a Community 49
Lesson 4: School as a Learning Community 53

Module 3 58 At the completion of Module 1, you

should be able to:
Lesson 1: External Environments and Accountability of Schools 59
Lesson 2: Adapting to External Environment 66
https://a  Define basic concepts necessary to
Lesson 3: The Teacher and the Community 73
spencommunitysolutions.org/towards-a-better-place-conference-report/
understanding the course;
Lesson 4: The Teacher and the State 79  Describe the manifestations of
various educational philosophies and
ModuleIn4this Module
83 applications of sociological theories
Lesson 1: Structure in Schools84 in practical classroom situations in
 Introduction to Society, Community response to community contexts; and
Lesson 2: and
Organizational
EducationCulture of Schools 94
Lesson 3: Philosophical
Changing SchoolPerspectives
Culture 99  Explain the importance of different
(Classical, philosophies and sociological
Lesson 4: Modern
Organizational Climate of
and Post Modern) School 103
Lesson 5: Sociological
Changing the Climate of Schools 107 theories to education and how they
Perspectives change the education landscape in
 Educational Reforms: The K to 12 response to the needs of the society
Module 5 Curriculum
111 Example and community.
Lesson 1: Organizational Leadership 112
Lesson 2: Leadership Skills and Styles 118
Lesson 3: Leadership Theories and Models 124
Lesson 4: Transformational and Servant Leadership 134
Lesson 5: Evolutionary Leadership Theory 140

Lesson 6: Teacher Leadership 147
Lesson 7: Instructional Leadership 153

References 158

Module 1
 Lesson Society and Education –
1 Philosophical Perspective
Objectives
 Describe the manifestations of various educational
philosophies and applications of sociological theories in
practical classroom situations in response to community
contexts.
 Explain the importance of different philosophies and
sociological theories to education and how they change
the education landscape in response to the needs of the
society and the community.

Introduction
Every individual follows a certain philosophy in life which defines
ones identity as a person, makes such individual different from the rest and at
the same time, it serves as a guiding tool to a particular course of action or a
decision to be taken.
In this lesson, we will explore on the different philosophical views of
education or the philosophies of education starting from the classical
philosophies which covers idealism, realism, existentialism and pragmatism,
to the modern philosophies like perennialism, progressivism and humanism,
down to the post-modern philosophies namely social reconstructivism,
behaviorism and constructivism that will help define and guide us in our path
as educators for according to Aristotle “Knowing yourself is the beginning of
all wisdom”. Thus, for us to have a clear perspective about who we are as an
educator, we must know and discover our Philosophy.start now?

Activity
Symbolism
Instruction: On a separate sheet of paper (bond paper), Draw a certain
material or object that will represent you as a teacher/educator.
Meanwhile, at the side of your illustration/drawing explain your thoughts
on how it represents you as a teacher/educator.
 Analysis

What are our aims for teaching? What do our aims explain to us as a
teacher? And who do we think our learners are? These are just some of
the questions which need answers for us teachers to be guided and have a
clear mind about what teaching is.

Abstraction

Each and every individual possesses their own Philosophy in life which they
believed in. Meanwhile, in relation to the world of teaching, teachers do also possess
their own philosophical view which may be different from other or may not. Philosophy
was derived from the Greek word “Pholos” which means “Love” and “Sophia” which
means “Wisdom”, thus the word Philosophy means Love of Wisdom. Philosophy in its
broader sense is the study that falls under the umbrella of social science, which seeks to
understand the fundamental truth of the world, the universe and the society where we are
living.
In the field of education, Philosophy or the Educational Philosophies in particular,
helps seek to understand questions like, How does a teacher view the learners? How can
teacher maximize students learning and potentials through certain means? Who is a
teacher inside the four corners of the classroom? What is the role of a teacher in school,
community or in the society as a whole? This simply means that Educational
Philosophies tend to address philosophical questions which concerns very the nature of
education and as well as its aim and problems.

Classical Philosophies
1. Idealism
Idealism as a philosophy was founded by Plato who said that “In order to know
something, we need to withdraw from the use of our senses and rely on a purely
intellectual approach”. Idealism centers its perspective to the notion that ideas are the
only true reality which means it is the only thing worth knowing for idealists believes that
ideas and knowledge are capable of changing lives. In addition, idealism also highlights
 the duality of mind and body, which explains that there are two worlds the
spiritual/mental world and the world of appearance which relates to other.

The aim of idealism to education is to discover and develop the abilities of every
learner and also to uphold full moral excellence among individuals in order for them to
serve the society well. Lecture, Socratic method which showcases a question-and-answer
process that may create dialogue among teacher and students and reflective thinking are
some of the useful methods in line with the philosophy.

2. Realism
Realism basically is the opposite of Idealism which was founded by Aristotle
known as the “Father of Realism”. According to the study of Acheampong, in Idealism
our thoughts and ideals shapes our reality, while in Realism reality has an absolute
existence independent from our thoughts and ideas. Thus, in simple terms idealism’s
perspective emphasizes “what could be” while realism focuses its perspective on “what
actually is”. As a philosophy, Realism stresses the notion that the world where we are
living is made up of real, substantial and material entities, and knowledge is derived from
scientific means.

Realism as a philosophy in education, seeks to provide vital knowledge for the

learners to survive the natural world and for them to be prepared for the real life scenario.
Methods like demonstration and sensory experiences being done in subjects like science
and mathematics would fit to this philosophy, for realists believes that learners learn by
allowing them to understand the world through inquiry and observation. Realist also sees
educational institution as transmitter of basic essential knowledge, culture and helps
develop human nature through order and discipline.

3. Existentialism
Existentialism is founded by Soren Kiekegaard a Danish Philosopher, this
particular Philosophy sees reality and knowledge in a subjective manner which lies
within the individual and varies from one person to another. It also focuses on
individual’s freedom, individuals authentic development based on the individuals choices
and standards and as well as, defining ones existence for Existentialism believes that Man
is the molder of his/her life.

In the field of education, existentialism is concern on helping learners understand

and appreciate oneself as a unique individual by teaching them on defining oneself
through various activities and by exposing them to different kinds of environment that
allows them to choose their own preferred way. In the other hand, the teacher’s role is
more likely focused on giving students assistance in the course of their journey in
determining their role as an individual in a self-paced and self-directed manner.
 4. Pragmatism
Pragmatism is also known as experientialism which is the roots of the
progressivism and reconstructionism, which showcases some practical approaches in
solving problems. Pragmatism highlights adaptation for Pragmatists believes that reality
is constantly changing, which means for individuals to be able to adjust to such changes
that is occurring or may occur, they must be able to think and apply their experiences.
Also, in the Pragmatist perspective, they believe that school curriculum must be a mirror
of the society which focuses on the needs and interests of learners.

Modern Philosophies
1. Perennialism
Perennialism is an Educational Philosophy that falls under the Teacher-Centered
Educational Philosophy developed by Robert Maynard Hutchins which focuses its goals
in teaching the learners to become rational and critical thinkers by utilizing knowledge,
ideas and universal truths that have lasted through many generation or time and space like
the Great Books of arts and literature, historical documents and as well as laws and
principles of science which will cultivate cultural literary and discipline among learners,
for according to Mortimer Adler, who is one of the known biggest contributor to
Perennialism that “Great books of ancient and medieval, as well as modern times are a
repository of knowledge and wisdom, a tradition of culture which must initiate each
generation”

As a Teacher-Centered Educational Philosophy, perennialist classrooms are more

likely focused on the teacher than the students, wherein teachers does not dwell on the
interests or experiences of learners, rather teachers will utilize methods and techniques
that are tried and proven like Socratic Method and the Lecture Method, perceived by
perennialists as the most conducive way in disciplining the minds of the learners. This
being said, in a perennialist classroom learners are expected to be passive recipients of
learning for most of the time teachers are expected to teach concepts and also explain the
relevance of such concepts in the lives of the learners showcasing an average to low
interaction among students and between students and teachers.

2. Essentialism
Another educational philosophy considered to be a Teacher-Centered Educational
Philosophy is Essentialism which qualities are heavily similar to Perennialism in terms of
its aims wherein part of the aims is to allow learners to think deeply, analytically, flexibly
and imaginatively, teachers concern to learning for learners and the tried and proven
methods and techniques in teachings used. In the other hand, they differ since
essentialism believes in the idea of change.
 Essentialism as an educational philosophy gives emphasis on the acquisition of
essential and fundamental knowledge, skills and values specifying the 4 r’s namely
Reading, Writing, Arithmetic and Right Conduct which necessary for learners to obtain a
higher level of learning and those complex skills needed by learners in preparation for
adulthood through programs that are academically rigorous, since as stated by William
Bagley who is responsible in introducing the essentialism to the world that “Essentialist
hope that when students leave school, they possess not only basic skills and an extensive
body of knowledge, but also disciplined practical mind, capable of applying schoolhouse
lessons in the real world”.

Teachers in the perspective of essentialism is quoted as “Fountain of Knowledge”

and “Paragon of Virtue” which connotes that as a teacher they are expected to be experts
who have mastered their specific subject matter and a person who is knowledgeable who
also possesses high moral values and faultless. Meanwhile memorization and discipline is
highly emphasized in essentialism to obtain mastery of academic content.

3. Progressivism
Progressivism is considered as a collective term used in a particular time in
history, but in particular as an Educational Philosophy Progressivism is focused on
educating the whole child and as well as the cultivation of individuality for learners to
become enlightened and intelligent members of a democratic society. In the other hand,
John Dewey the Father of Pragmatism and one of the leading progressivist stressed that
Progressivism is focused on the needs to learn by doing, which views that learners as
active recipients of learning, problem solvers and thinkers and who learns through
experiences. Progressivism adheres to the idea about impermanence of life and the
inevitability of change, this means that in the field of education teachers in particular
most be able to adjust and cope on the changes that is happening for the benefit of the
learners specially with the methods and techniques to be utilized, relevant information,
learners behavior and so on.

Progressivism is considered as a Learner-Centered Educational Philosophy which

primarily focuses on the interest and experiences of the learners which aims to provide
learners the needed knowledge and skills for them to be able to cope with the changing
world. In the progressivist perspective, the use of Experiential Method and the hands-on-
mind-on-hearts-on method of teaching are useful for progressivists believes that it allows
learners to be engaged on learning and also learn a lesson first-hand that could possibly
arouse curiosity and may encourage the development of higher order thinking skills
among learners.

4. Humanism
As a Philosophy Humanism sprouted in the idea of Erasmus who believes on the
individual’s innate goodness, free will, moral conscience, ability to reason and
 comprehend and religious instinct which he quoted as “Docta Pieta” or “Philosophy of
Christ”. Meanwhile, Humanism as an Educational Philosophy was developed by Jean
Jacque Rousseau and Johann Pestalozzi who also share the same idea with Erasmus on
the individuals innate goodness and, at the same time they also give emphasis on sense
perception and view of education as a gradually and unhurried process which explains
that the human character develops after the unfolding of its nature.

Humanism also believes that learners should be in control of their own destiny for
them to become an autonomous individual who can freely choose and be responsible to
themselves. Humanism also gives emphasizes on the importance of expression by the
learners which will help in making the learners becoming a well-balance and freethinking
individual for with such and without constraints imposed to the learners, they will be able
to develop themselves to their fullest potential both academically and morally as stated
by Rousseau. Self-motivation is also a highlight of Humanism which is an intrinsic
motivation that drives the learners to achieve a higher level of learning as learners in a
humanist classrooms are given the autonomy and are able to express themselves freely
which as a result could develop a healthy social and emotional state among learners.

Post-Modern Philosophies

1. Social Reconstructionism
Social Reconstructionism is an educational philosophy developed by Theodore
Brameld as a reaction to the devastating World War II, which focuses its perspective on
social reformation towards creating a better society and worldwide democracy by
addressing the social questions, issues and challenges in the society. In the viewpoint of
social reconstructionist, they believe that education is a not a privilege but a right that all
must enjoy and that schools as one of the institution of the society must be able to
examine, analyze and solve issues and conflicts in the society to build a new society and
not just change it. These imply that schools can affect change and could be the source of
change in the society, and therefore schools must focus its attention in molding the
students as the agents of change who will be bring new social order in the society.

Same as Progressivism, Social Reconstructionism is also a Learner-Centered

Educational Philosophy which believes that learners are active recipient of learning and
sees problem-solving, community-based learning and experiential learning as some of the
effective method for the teaching and learning process and towards solving real-world
problems. In addition, cooperative learning, critical thinking and reflective thinking are
also considered effective methods to be utilized in this philosophy to encourage students
to take action and create solutions to the real issues and problems in the society like
violence, hunger, terrorism, pollution, gender-issues and many more.
2. Behaviorism
Behaviorism is an Educational Philosophy is based on psychology which believes
that the behavior of the learners is a product of their environment. This entails that
behaviorism is focused on the modification or reshaping and shaping the behavior of the
learners towards the demonstration of a desirable behavior. Behaviorism is also believed
to be linked to empiricism since behaviorism gives emphasis on scientific studies and
observation like the studies of Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Theory, B. F.
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory and James Watson’s The Behaviorist Manifesto.

In a behaviorist environment, teachers arrange the physical environment of the

classroom like the lighting, temperature, visual aids etc and also sets rules for learners to
follow so that the desired responses or behavior from the learners will be attain, rewards
system is an example of a useful method used by most teachers as means of motivating
the learners which may lead to a satisfying aftereffect and as a substitute to punishment,
since learners of today are heavily protected from any form of abuse, harm or
maltreatment of the teacher for it may also affect the behavior of the learners.

3. Constructivism
Constructivism is an Educational Philosophy which asserts that as individuals
interact with their environment they also actively construct their understandings of
reality, in relation to this, Jean Piaget argued that “people produce knowledge and form
meaning based upon their experiences”, while Lev Vygotsky “learning occurs through
social interaction with a skillful tutor”. This connotes that as an individual immerse
oneself in a particular environment, such individual then use mental processes, while
experiencing different occurrences through interacting with different individuals in
his/her current environment which as a result enables the individual to understand the
dynamics of his/her environment, thus in the school setup learners must be actively
involved in the learning process while interacting with his/her classmates and teacher for
learning to attain. Moveover, Constructivism also highlights previous knowledge or the
prior knowledge as a determinant of learning as explained in the Theory of Cognitive
Development of Jean Piaget.

Constructivist classroom believes that for learning to occur teachers must

facilitate learning by providing relevant information for learners to explore while
interactively doing a task since in accordance with the viewpoint of Constructivism
Knowledge isn’t a thing that can be simply deposited by teachers to the empty minds of
learners rather, learners construct their own knowledge.

Application
Graphic Organizer
Instruction: On a separate sheet of paper create a graphic organizer
summarizing the different educational philosophies by using your own
words or in a scholarly manner.
Closure
As we end the discussion about the different educational philosophies, have you thought
of your philosophy as a future educator? Did our first activity coincide with your perceived
philosophy? How will your philosophy help you define and guide your career as a future
educator? Will it affect your thoughts about the learners and the society where they are living?
Let me leave these questions for you to reflect.