THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A TEEN PREGNANCY PREVENTION PROGRAM

THAT OFFERS SPECIAL BENEFITS FOR PREGNANT AND PARENTING TEENS:

A QUALITATIVE STUDY

by

Marsha Brown

Liberty University

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Education

Liberty University

July, 2013
 THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A TEEN PREGNANCY PREVENTION PROGRAM

THAT OFFERS SPECIAL BENEFITS FOR PREGNANT AND PARENTING TEENS:

A QUALITATIVE STUDY

by Marsha Brown

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Education

Liberty University, Lynchburg, VA

July, 2013

APPROVED BY:

Shante’ Moore-Austin, Ph.D., Chair

Fred Conner, Ed.D., Committee

Bunny Campbell Ed.D., Committee

Scott Watson, Ph.D., Associate Dean, Advanced Programs

 ABSTRACT

Teen pregnancy continues to be a problem for families, educators, health care

professionals, and the government. Teenagers are not afforded the opportunity to learn or

receive reinforcement on God's laws on abstaining from premarital sex because religious

education is not allowed in the public school system. This increase has led to the creation

of the Teenage Parenting Center (TAPP), located in southwest Georgia. TAPP is one of

64 schools in a school district that offers special benefits for pregnant and parenting

teens. This qualitative case study used a phenomenological approach to explore the

experience of eight former attendees of the TAPP program. Participants (N = 8)

completed interviews, wrote a personal reflection, and completed a survey to determine

their beliefs regarding the program’s effectiveness. Results showed that participants were

satisfied with the practical help the program gave them. Being able to attend school

where day care was available enabled participants to remain in school and, with one

exception, to graduate from high school. Participants reported satisfaction with program

components that helped them learn to plan ahead, think about their futures, and obtain

further education and paid employment. All participants but one were gainfully

employed, and six had attended or were attending an institution of higher education. The

program was successful in encouraging participants to practice safer sex, but was

unsuccessful in preventing additional pregnancies out of wedlock or improving moral

values, as all but one participant had gone on to have more children and were living with

a man to whom they were not married.

Descriptors: case study, phenomenological approach, teen pregnancy, inappropriate

relationships, lived experience, education on these relationships, and God's teachings

iii
©Copyright by Marsha Brown 2013
All Rights Reserved

iv
 Dedication

This dissertation is dedicated to the loving memory of my uncle, Horace Lee Love, who
encouraged me to continue my education by reiterating, "You can never learn too
much." He always stated after every educational milestone to “keep going sugar” and
"keep God first." I love you and you are always in my heart.

v
 Acknowledgements

Lord, I thank you from the bottom of my heart. I could not have done this without You.
All the long nights and tears have finally paid off. Thanks for Your unconditional love
towards me.

I want to thank my mom, sister, and Dr. Bunny Campbell for the encouragement and
extra push to propel me forward when I wanted to give up. These three people have truly
been angels in my life. I am grateful to have had a team of “Gladiators” to assist me
through this process.

I want to thank my mom, I am so grateful for you. I could not have done it without your
love and support. When God assigned mothers, he gave me the best. You have been a
great mother and father to me. Thanks for shaping me into the woman I am and for
believing in me. I love you!

To my sister, you are the world’s greatest little sister. Thanks for your spiritual guidance,
encouraging words, and late nights of proofreading my papers throughout my educational
journey. Thanks for loving me unconditionally and always believing in me.

To Dr. Bunny Campbell, my advisor during my Master and Educational Specialist

program at Troy University, you encouraged me to continue my educational endeavors
and expressed to me that I could do it. I remember coming into your office asking you
about this journey. You stated you would be honored to serve on my committee and I am
forever grateful for your support.

To my chair and committee, thanks for your support and encouraging words.

To all participants in my study, thanks for allowing me inside your worlds. I pray that
God continues to walk with you and your families. I wish you well.

vi
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................... iii  

Dedication ........................................................................................................................... v  

Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ vi  

TABLE OF CONTENTS.................................................................................................. vii  

LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................. x  

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................ 1  

Background ..................................................................................................................... 1  

Situation to Self .............................................................................................................. 7  

Problem Statement .......................................................................................................... 8  

Purpose Statement........................................................................................................... 8  

Significance of the Study ................................................................................................ 9  

Research Questions ....................................................................................................... 10  

Research Plan ................................................................................................................ 11  

Delimitations ................................................................................................................. 14  

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................. 15  

Introduction ................................................................................................................... 15  

Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................. 16  

Teen Sexual Practice and Pregnancy: Contributing Factors ......................................... 21  

Teenage Pregnancy Prevention Program Examples ..................................................... 48  

God’s Views on Sex and Premarital Sexual Intercourse .............................................. 55  

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY .................................................................................... 61  

Introduction ................................................................................................................... 61  

vii
 Research Design ........................................................................................................... 61  

Research Questions ....................................................................................................... 65  

Participants.................................................................................................................... 65  

Site and Setting ............................................................................................................. 67  

Procedures ..................................................................................................................... 69  

Researcher's Role/Personal Biography ......................................................................... 71  

Data Collection ............................................................................................................. 72  

Data Analysis ................................................................................................................ 77  

Ethical Considerations .................................................................................................. 80  

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS ........................................................................................ 82  

Overview ....................................................................................................................... 82  

Participants.................................................................................................................... 83  

Interview Findings ........................................................................................................ 86  

Survey Findings ............................................................................................................ 97  

Personal Reflection Findings ...................................................................................... 100  

Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 107  

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION ................................................................................... 109  

Summary ..................................................................................................................... 109  

Discussion ................................................................................................................... 111  

Implications of Study .................................................................................................. 120  

Recommendations ....................................................................................................... 121  

Recommendations for Action ..................................................................................... 121  

Limitations .................................................................................................................. 122  

viii
 Recommendations for Future Research ...................................................................... 123  

Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 123  

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 125  

APPENDIX A ................................................................................................................. 132  

APPENDIX B ................................................................................................................. 133  

APPENDIX C ................................................................................................................. 135  

APPENDIX D ................................................................................................................. 138  

APPENDIX E ................................................................................................................. 139  

APPENDIX F ................................................................................................................. 140  

APPENDIX G ................................................................................................................. 141  

ix
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Demographics of the Sample ............................................................................... 84

Table 2 Survey Descriptives ............................................................................................. 99

x
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Background

The United States (U.S.) continues to experience the highest teenage pregnancy

rate among developed countries; the phenomenon remains a complex occurrence for

families, educators, health care professionals and the United States government (Hardy &

Landry, 2000; Kerby, 2009; Little & Rankin, 2001). The purpose of this chapter is to

present a framework for the current research, and to provide a foundation for the problem

that necessitated the study. The problem is twofold: first, the efforts put forth by the

United States government and the educational system to successfully decrease teen

pregnancy and, second, the lived experience of teens who have become pregnant and

attend a teenage parenting program. Since the public school system does not allow

religious education, the researcher will discuss the importance of God's teachings in

chapter two.

The focus of the study is teenage pregnancy among African-American young

women. Children who are the products of teen pregnancies, regardless of race, are

frequently plagued with problems, which do not fade away with time. Consequently,

many children develop into troubled young adults, prone to negative behaviors such as

dropping out of school, drug addiction, depression, or antisocial behaviors (Gilbert,

Jandial, Field, Bigerlow, & Danielsen, 2004). This population often experiences a higher

rate of incarceration because these behaviors frequently become a cycle. Considering

these facts, it is imperative educators implement education on appropriate and

inappropriate relationships as a component in the school curriculum to aid in the

reduction of teen pregnancy. School-based education on appropriate and inappropriate

1
relationships can be an important and valuable way of enhancing young people's

knowledge, attitudes and behavior. Effective and ineffective programs have been well

researched, and there is widespread agreement that formal education should also include

education on appropriate relationships. Avert (2009) suggested effective school

programs should include the following elements:

• A focus on reducing specific risky behaviors

• A basis in theories which explain what influences people's inappropriate

choices and behavior

• A clear and continuously reinforced message about sexual behavior and risk

reduction

• Accurate information about the risks associated with inappropriate activity,

contraception and birth control, and methods of avoiding or deferring

intercourse

• Dealing with peer and other social pressures on young people while providing

opportunities to practice communication, negotiation, and assertiveness skills

• A variety of approaches to teaching and learning that involve and engage

young people and help them to personalize the information

• Approaches to teaching and learning that are appropriate to young people's

age, experience, and cultural background

• Teachers who believe in what they are saying and have access to support, in

the form of training or consultation, with other sex educators.

Formal programs that contain these elements have been shown not only to

increase young people's level of knowledge about sex and sexuality, but also to raise the

2
average age at which they first have sexual relations, thereby decreasing their risk factors

(Avert, 2009). In addition, effective relationship education is supported by links to

sexual health services and takes into account the message about values and behaviors

young people get from other sources, such as friends and the media. There are, in fact, a

number of programs and strategies that were developed and implemented at various

schools and school districts for use across the nation. However, only a few of these

programs and strategies had sufficient evaluation components to provide meaningful data

(Elliot & Okwumabua, 1998). Elliot and Okwumabua (1998) evaluated a program

called, “Let the Circle Be Unbroken: Rite of Passage.” The program involved an

adaptation of socialization processes frequently observed in African cultures, which

openly acknowledge the necessity of formally assisting adolescents in the transition from

childhood to adulthood.

According to Elliot and Okwumabua (1998), the rite of passage from an African-

American point of view is meant to train the young person for a new stage of life.

Training in this context refers to educating teens about teen pregnancy and follows the

premise that as teenagers mature, they can become productive and responsible members

of society. This process, however, does not include becoming a teen mother on welfare

or social programs. The program began with targeting pregnant African-American teens

and then moved into social skills and decision-making. The researchers concluded one of

the factors that placed teenagers at risk was a lack of involvement, even concern, about

their own educational future. This suggests that a program that helps teenagers think

about and plan for their future and their education may help them to resist engaging in

behaviors, such as inappropriate activity, that may put that future at risk.

3
 A later study found even fewer programs have published results on the efficacy of

their intervention or have not provided data on behavioral outcomes (Kirby, 2007).

Further, many of the approaches that have been utilized do not appear to have considered

the impact of race, gender, or socioeconomic status on adolescent pregnancy outcomes

(Meyer, 2001). Whether a program is effective may depend greatly on how the message

is delivered and perceived by the intended population.

Because teenage pregnancy is a serious problem in American society there have

been a number of studies regarding the rate of teen pregnancies, their causes or

contributing factors, and prevention (D'Angelo, Gilbert, Rochat, Santelli, & Herold,

2004; Focus Adolescent Service, 2008). Although there are various programs throughout

the nation designed to address the problem of teen pregnancy, the information changes so

rapidly it becomes difficult to have current data.

The U.S. has an unacceptably high rate of teen pregnancy, sexually transmitted

diseases (STDs), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and acquired immune deficiency

syndrome (AIDS). Programs funded by the U.S. government are currently addressing

these infections. With pregnancy rates rising among American teenagers, specifically

African American teenagers, it becomes difficult to determine the success rate of these

programs due to the lack of current data ranging from 2009 to 2012.

According to Kirby (2007) in a report on new research findings on programs to

reduce teen pregnancy and Focus Adolescent Service (2008), there are a number of

reasons why teenage girls become pregnant. The more important of these include:

• Lack of education on right and wrong birth control methods

• Belief this is a way to rebel against parents

4
 • Lack of emotional fulfillment at home

• Contraceptive failure or human error

• Belief that becoming pregnant is a way to exercise control over one’s life

• Belief that having inappropriate relations or becoming pregnant will keep a

boyfriend from leaving

• Cultural values that support early pregnancy.

Such factors suggest that communication skills and relationship education might be

powerful factors in reducing teen pregnancy. It also indicates that many girls are not

educated about methods of birth control and how to deal with peers who pressure them

into having premarital relations. In addition, the list shows that pregnant teens may lack

awareness of the central facts of sexuality.

Research suggests that poor self-esteem may be a factor that places teenage girls

at risk of becoming pregnant out of wedlock. For example, pregnant teenage girls have

been found to have a lower self-concept in relation to moral, family and social

dimensions. One of the causative reasons is that families do not have an influence over

the teen (Miller, 1998). This was supported by the findings of Meade, Kershaw, and

Ickovics (2008), who conducted a study on girls who became pregnant in their teen years.

Their findings indicated that teenage girls who are most likely to become pregnant are

characterized by low self-esteem, an unfavorable attitude toward themselves, low

educational expectations, and an external locus of control, perpetuating the

intergenerational cycle of teenage motherhood.

Other factors, such as misbehavior and instability, also contribute to teenage

pregnancy. The misbehavior and instability can be due to the girls’ cognitive, biological,

5
and emotional development, which have not yet matured. Teenagers’ relative immaturity

can therefore be considered a factor contributing to teen pregnancy (Hardy & Landry,

2000).

Gallhager (1999) noted that pregnant teenagers generally have a negative attitude

toward the relationships with men in their lives, but idealize the idea of a relationship

between themselves as mothers and their unborn children. Some teenagers perceive

motherhood to be a gratifying, as well as a safe way, to give and receive love. This view

may represent an attempted solution to problems related to relationships and sexuality, as

teenage pregnancy often occurs in situations where the girl has become estranged from

her family (Gallagher, 1999). In such instances, stressors within the family’s behavioral

system contribute to the development of an environment in which the girl engages in

inappropriate behavior, which is an unsuccessful attempt to give and receive love.

Educational programs intended to reduce teen pregnancy also assist the adolescent

in dealing with problems of self-image and low self-esteem. According to Schaalma,

Abraham, Gillmore, and Kok (2004), "Models of cognitive change applied to other

health-related behaviors also apply to the promotion of safer sex practice" (p. 259).

Programs that provide this information are more likely to be successful than those that do

not (Kirby, 2007). Therefore, many programs have been developed and implemented to

address these issues. Despite a broad array of interventions targeted towards pregnancy

prevention or improving outcomes for parenting teens, teenage pregnancy continues to

occur.

One reason for the failure of programs to prevent teenage pregnancy is that school

practices are not in touch with teen mothers and adolescent needs (Carnegie Council on

6
Adolescent Development, 1995; Gallagher, 1999). The dramatic changes in society,

especially in recent years, have contributed to adolescents growing, developing, and

experimenting with premarital relations at an earlier age than previously. Research that

evaluates programs from the perspective of the program participants and that enables the

voices and views of teen mothers to be heard, may enable providers and schools to

develop better teen pregnancy prevention programs. It is important to develop programs

capable of assisting teen mothers in becoming good parents as well as productive

citizens.

Situation to Self

When I was younger and in high school, I had a chance to see firsthand how

teenage pregnancy hampered the girls who became pregnant and how it destroyed their

chances at experiencing potentially successful careers. This motivated me later to try to

find a way to help other girls and to research the philosophical assumptions that could

guide them to success. The assumption that I brought to the present research related to

phenomenology, which is concerned with how experience is both personal and social. It

is also private and non-sharable in some respects. But a positivistic paradigm often

associated with this approach is inappropriate for studying phenomena because it cannot

describe the essential phenomena of the human world. Among these essential

phenomena are values, meanings, intentions, morals, feelings, and the life experiences of

human beings. A case study with a phenomenological approach was chosen for the

present study because such an approach focuses on the lived experience as constituted in

the consciousness of participants (Creswell, 2007). It is from this perspective that this

study was guided.

7
 Problem Statement

The teenage birthrate in the U.S. is a problem. Although the birth rate of

teenagers in the U.S. has dropped since the 1950s, it “remains one of the highest among

other industrialized countries” (Hamilton, Martin, Vetura, 2007, p. 1). In 2011, a total of

333, 771 teens gave birth (Solomon-Fears, 2013). Because teen-aged mothers are at risk

of not completing their education and of becoming dependent on welfare, programs that

focus on helping them avoid risky behaviors in the future and helping them become self-

reliant adults are needed. However, there is a gap in the research relating to the

effectiveness of such programs. The problem investigated in this study was the

effectiveness of the Teen Pregnancy and Prevention Program from the women’s point of

view provided by the Teenage Parenting Center located in southeast Georgia. This was

accomplished through face-to-face interviews with, a survey of, and personal written

reflection by student parents who had graduated from the program.

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this phenomenological case study was to examine the lived

experiences of young women who became pregnant as teenagers and participated in a

Teen Pregnancy prevention program in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the program

from the women’s point of view. A second purpose was to obtain outcome data

pertaining to the women, such as whether they prevented further pregnancies, continued

their education, or found employment after participating in the program. For the

purposes of this research, pregnancy prevention was generally defined as reduced sexual

activity and thus a lowered risk, which serves as a general definition of the central

concept.

8
 Significance of the Study

Findings of the research could lead to a better understanding of students' beliefs

about the program or any program of a similar nature. If counselors attain their goal of

educating pregnant teenage girls about healthy relationships it may help reduce or prevent

a second baby. A secondary benefit would be the reduction of sexually transmitted

diseases after participating in the program. As a result of teaching about appropriate

relations, gaining self-respect and building self-esteem teenage girls will better

understand the importance of practicing safer relationships. A third benefit would be a

decrease in the number of children born out of wedlock.

As noted by Lear (2007), in order to create a culture of learning and reduce

unhealthy relationships, school counselors must be trained in appropriate methods of

counseling students who become pregnant or exposed to sexually transmitted diseases.

Furthermore, the more effective a school counselor is the more likely students will

develop healthier relationships (Lear, 2007; Portman, 2009). It is essential that school

counselors are trained and participate in the planning, developing, and teaching of healthy

and appropriate relationships. According to Pietrofesa (1996), counselors must learn to

deal with the relationship concerns of their students and motivate students to become

involved in relationship counseling and education to reduce unhealthy practices and

teenage pregnancy. Teaching healthy practices is important because family structure

affects self-concept. Self-concept effects the decisions regarding sexual activity and

behavior (Bridgeland et al., 2006). Disruptions in family structure, through parental

separation, divorce, remarriage, or cohabitation, were associated with problematic

parenting and poorer outcomes (Bronstein et al., 2003); therefore, reducing the number of

9
children born out of wedlock is important.

The significance of the present study relates to its impact on school counselors

and the teenage girls they counsel. It is hoped the results of this study will be useful to

counselors, educators, and parents who are searching for a consistent means of effectively

reducing unhealthy and inappropriate decisions and relationships among teenagers

participating in a pregnancy prevention program. The significance of the study also

relates to the ability of the teen pregnancy/prevention program to serve as a model. If the

program leads to a reduction in teen pregnancy and sexual activity, it could serve not only

as a model for other programs in the state of Georgia, but also in other states across the

country.

Research Questions

The continuing problem of teenage pregnancy, as well as the need for program

evaluations that incorporate the views of participants, inspired this researcher to

investigate the views of former participants regarding whether and how the Teenage

Pregnancy Prevention Program (TAPP) was helpful to them in reducing the chance of

them having a second baby out of wedlock, decreasing unhealthy sexual practices,

developing good parenting skills, and preparing for productive employment. As such, the

core research questions investigated in this research study were as follows:

1. What factors prompted participants’ decision to enter into the Teen

Pregnancy and Prevention Program?

2. How did the Teen Pregnancy Prevention Program reduce participants’ risk of

having a second child and/or engaging in sexual activity(ies) while in the

program?

10
 3. How did the Teen Parenting Program help prevent participants from having a

second baby out of wedlock after leaving the program?

4. How did attending the Teen Pregnancy Prevention Program assist

participants in finding a job and being self-supporting?

5. How did the program affect participants’ desire to pursue further education?

Research Plan

This qualitative case study used a phenomenological approach to hear the voices

and beliefs of teen mothers who had attended a Teenage Parenting Program. The choice

in this situation was a qualitative case study using a phenomenological approach, because

this researcher was assessing beliefs of participants (Creswell, 2007). According to

Babbie (2003), qualitative research is a line of inquiry that recognizes the role played by

context in influencing subjectivity and behavior. Qualitative research includes specific

methods of examination and investigation such as observation and documentary review.

Phenomenological research occurs in a natural setting where the researcher is an

instrument of data collection, gathering words or images, analyzing these data

individually and collectively, and focusing on the meaning of the phenomenon as

experienced by the participants. The defining elements of qualitative research involve

the in-depth study of cases, interpretation of behaviors, or detailed description of

respondents. The focus is on individuals or groups, the subjects' natural language

accounts and the observations of the researcher. The analysis is ideographic because the

goal is comprehension of the phenomenon, the interaction of factors and how they define

the case in question.

Creswell (2007) stated sources of data in qualitative research include unstructured

11
interviews, observation, and documents. The choice of data sources is usually based on

"purposive sampling," which focuses on collecting data from sources most likely to

provide relevant information (in the present case this refers to graduates from the

Teenage Parenting Center). A common aspect of most qualitative research data

collection is other rich data, which can consist of journaling, personal reflections and/or

participant personal reflection, a procedure in which the researcher observes and

interviews, and is acknowledged to be an integral part of the process.

The population for this study consisted of women between 18 and 21 years of age,

who previously attended or graduated from the Teenage Parenting Center in a southwest

county in Georgia, between the academic school years of 2005 through 2012. Currently

there are 148 teenage parents who attend the school. All are girls between the ages of 13

through 18. The students are pregnant or have one child. They are not allowed to attend

the school if they have a second child while in the program. The school is located in an

urban area in Georgia, which typically has a majority student population of African

Americans. There is a small percentage of Hispanics and Caucasians that attend the

school/program.

The researcher used snowball sampling to obtain a sample of 8 women who

previously attended the Teen Parenting Program in a southwest county in Georgia. The

target population consists of all teenage mothers between the ages 18 through 21 who

attended the program between the academic school years of 2005 through 2012. The

rationale for selecting the involvement of this special population is that these are the

females who have experienced the program and have a better perception as to whether or

not the program was successful, or influenced their subsequent life decisions.

12
 The researcher interviewed, conducted a survey and personal reflection to find out

the students' beliefs on the effectiveness of the program in terms of reducing the risk of

teenage pregnancy and sexual activity after leaving the program. The researcher asked if

the participants believed the program was helpful with parenting skills, reducing the

chance of a second baby, completing high school, decreasing unhealthy sexual practices,

and preparing for life after the program.

Interviews, surveys, and personal reflections were conducted and administered by

this researcher in a reserved room at Chattahoochee Valley Library or at participants’

homes if participants lacked transportation. Although home visits could create issues and

limit the participants if others were in the home, it was considered necessary for the

researcher to accommodate the participants.

The participants’ data from the three different types of data collection (survey,

interview, and personal reflections) were tallied, compared, and analyzed to determine

the students’ beliefs regarding the effectiveness of the program. A full verbatim

transcription was returned for participants to review for accuracy for validity and

reliability. The data were categorized and analyzed using open coding to reveal common

themes and patterns. Findings are presented in the data presentation chapter in both

tabular and narrative form.

After the participants were recruited, the researcher explained why the research

was being conducted. To ensure the ethical protection of participants, the purpose of the

research, procedures and outcomes were explained, and participants were assured that all

information collected in the research would be held in the strictest confidence and that

only aggregated descriptive information would be used in reporting findings. The

13
researcher obtained written informed consent before informal introductions,

administration of the survey and collection of interview and personal reflections.

Although no direct benefits would accrue to the participants, they were advised that the

information they provided could be helpful to future students in the program. In addition,

it was explained to all participants that they did not need to participate if they did not

want to. Even after the study had begun, a participant was allowed to withdraw. To

ensure anonymity, subjects were not asked to sign their names to any surveys or written

reflections. Upon request, the results will be available to any participant or to the

program itself.

Delimitations

Delimitations. The study was delimited to TAPP students over the age of 18 who

were no longer attending the prevention program. The decision to limit the scope was to

prevent current students from participation because one of the purposes of the study was

to obtain outcome data regarding past students in the program. By delimiting the

participants to girls who graduated or attended the program between the academic school

years of 2005 through 2012, it became possible to gather data regarding outcomes as well

as to gather data from teen mothers who had had a chance to reflect on the program. A

final delimitation relates to the fact the students were from one county in Georgia.

14
 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

There are a wide variety of programs that provide services to prevent unhealthy

sexual behavior and teen pregnancies, but more information is needed about program

participants’ perspectives about their impact and effectiveness. The need becomes even

more crucial during a time when teen pregnancy is escalating. According to Santelli et

al., (2009), "after dramatic declines in teen births and pregnancies from 1991 to 2005,

teen birth rates in the United States increased in 2006 and 2007" (p. 25). The purpose of

this phenomenological case study was to examine the lived experiences of a snowball

sample of African-American young women who had become pregnant as teenagers and

had participated in a Teen Pregnancy prevention program, in order to evaluate the

effectiveness of the program from the women’s point of view. A second purpose was to

obtain outcome data pertaining to the women, such as whether they prevented further

pregnancies, continued their education, or found employment after participating in the

program.

The previous chapter of this study introduced the problem of concern, noted the

purpose of the study, explained the significance, presented the research questions, and

generally described the research design. The purpose of this chapter is to review the

literature pertinent to the topic, including the theoretical orientation of the study. The

first section below explains the theoretical framework. The second section of the chapter

discusses general facts of teen sexual practice and teen pregnancy and defines sex

education programs. The third section reviews various teenage pregnancy prevention

programs in the United States and discusses factors associated with their success or

15
failure. Included are discussions regarding problems and issues faced by these

prevention and education programs. The fourth section reviews Christian views relevant

to sexual activity outside of marriage. A summary concludes the chapter.

Theoretical Framework

The theories guiding this research study are aimed at lowering unhealthy sexual

practices of teenage girls who are pregnant or have a child. Numerous interventions have

been designed to promote safer premarital behavior amongst young girls. However,

relatively few have proven effective, in part due to the lack of development of

theoretically based programs and structure (Wright, Abraham, & Scott, 1998). An

understanding of the origins and control of inappropriate sexual behavior can be derived

from basic social science research. Unless this is applied to the design of behavior-

change programs, the latter are unlikely to target the most important determinants of

young people's behavior and are, therefore, unlikely to be effective (Wright et al., 1998).

According to Wright et al., (1998), it is imperative that programs whose goal is to deter

teen pregnancy comply with the following:

• Improve the quality of young people's relationships, particularly in terms of

reducing anxiety and regretted sexual behaviors

• Reduce the incidence of unsafe sex

• Reduce the rate of unwanted pregnancies.

The theoretical basis of this study was intentionally eclectic, combining social

psychological cognitive models with sociological interpretations, since this researcher

was not concerned with advancing a particular theory, but with finding which are most

useful in promoting sexual health. First, the social influences on sexual behaviors are

16
considered, followed by the way in which these translate into individual perceptions and

beliefs. It is important that educators develop a theoretical understanding of sexual

interaction and the social contexts of sexual behavior among teenage girls.

Drawing on symbolic interaction, phenomenology and feminist analyses, recent

sociological research on young people's sexuality highlights three key issues. First,

individuals’ understanding of sexuality is largely learned, and it is learned differently

according to one's gender. Because sexuality is socially constructed, it is theoretically

open to change. Second, the outcome of heterosexual sexual encounters is shaped by

gendered power relationships. Third, the recognition and interpretation of health risks are

culturally specific, varying with age, gender, and social class (Wright et al., 1998).

Gender relations, power, and risk are all key aspects of the teenager’s sexual world, but

no one aspect is absolute. Wright et al., (1998) stated that young people are capable of

reflecting on their social and sexual practice, and need to be given the opportunity to do

so in a context where they are under no immediate pressure, but where they can come to

understand and deal with different points of view.

At an individual level social cognition models have sought to identify those

cognitions that motivate and regulate health-related behaviors. The most important

cognitions relative to sexual practice appear to be the following:

• Personal susceptibility to risk

• Perceived benefits of and barriers against an action

• Social approval

• Perceived self-efficacy

• Intention formation and context-specific planning. (Wright et al., 1998, p.

17
325)

The attributes of the individuals involved and what happens in sexual encounters is

largely the result of the interaction that takes place and the context within which the

encounter occurs. Relationship education programs must also take this into account in

improving understanding, targeting cognitions, and developing social skills of program

participants (Wright et al., 1998).

Also underlying the theoretical perspective of this study, the social cognitive

theory (Bandura, 1986, 1992), initially called cognitive social learning theory. Social

cognitive theory emphasizes behavior, environment, and cognition as the key factors in

development. The social cognitive model is concerned with ways in which mental

representations of social events, societal, and cultural norms, and personal characteristics

influence behavior, reasoning, emotion, and motivation. Specifically, the approach

addresses acknowledgment, self and social goals, mental representations of self and

others, and the role of social facilitation in decision-making, memory, and judgment

(Bandura, 1986, 1992).

According to social cognitive theory, complex cognitive functioning involved in

coping, everyday problem-solving, and decision-making in health as well as in social

situations depends on basic cognitive methods. Furthermore, it depends on the

organization of existing knowledge structures and socially-derived emotional and

motivational influences on performance. Martino, Collins, Kanouse, Elliott, and Berry

(2005) explained how cultural influences serve as behavioral models for young people:

Social-cognitive theory contends that people observe important role models, make

inferences and attributions and acquire scripts, schemas and normative beliefs that

18
 then guide their subsequent behavior. This theoretical perspective would predict

that adolescents learn sexual behaviors and their likely consequences by watching

television. To the extent that adolescents acquire favorable beliefs about sex and

confidence in their own sexual abilities as a result of viewing sexual content on

television, they become more likely to attempt the modeled behaviors (p. 915).

The social-cognitive analysis of pregnancy prevention would stress the

importance of information concerning sexual activities, skills for managing behavior in

relation to reducing pregnancy risk, feelings of self-efficacy in relation to pregnancy

prevention, and social influence factors as determinants of pregnancy preventive

behavior. In a similar vein, the social-cognitive analysis of sexually transmitted diseases

(STDs) sees the latter as caused by sexual risk-taking behavior. Prevention would stress

the importance of information, providing skills for managing behavior in relation to STD

risk, increasing feelings of self-efficacy concerning STD prevention, and awareness of

social influence factors as determinants of preventive behavior.

Self-efficacy is a frequently cited construct in social cognitive theory. Bandura’s

(1986, 1992) social cognitive theory assumes self-efficacy and outcome expectancies

(related to situation and action) are central determinants of behavior. According to

Bandura, self-efficacy is confidence in one’s own ability to carry out a particular

behavior. In the present context, self-efficacy theory predicts that pregnancy- and STD-

prevention behaviors will be performed if the individual perceives they have control over

the outcome, there are few external barriers, and they have confidence in their own ability

to carry out the behaviors (Bandura, 1992).

In this context the theory of planned behavior would apply in the present

19
investigation as an extension of the theory of reasoned action (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975).

The theory of reasoned action (Fishbein & Middlestatde, 1989) proposes that an

individual’s sexual preventive behavior is a function of the individual’s behavioral

intention to perform a particular act. Behavioral intentions, in turn, are assumed to be a

function of three factors. These include a person's attitude toward performance of a

particular preventive behavior, the individual’s subjective perception of what significant

others wish the individual to do with respect to the behavior in question, or both.

Another predictor of intentions is perceived behavior control. This concept is similar to

Bandura’s (1982) concept of self-efficacy.

A limitation of the theory of planned behavior in relationship to sexual behavior is

the model seems to be unable to explain behavior that may be under affective (emotional)

control and does not adequately take into account emotional factors in decision making.

In addition, it would appear that social-cognitive theory constructs have not been

thoroughly specified in relation to AIDS or pregnancy preventive behavior. In addition,

the review of literature has not seen social cognitive theory being tested empirically as an

integrated model with respect to pregnancy or STD related behavior.

This section of the chapter discussed the theoretical framework of the study. The

purpose of the next portion of the chapter is to review the literature associated as related

to teen sexual practices and pregnancy. Contributing factors associated with the teen

sexual behavior and pregnancies are reviewed first. These include poverty and welfare

dependence, environmental, cultural, and social factors, parents, peers, and poor sex

education, the age at which sex is initiated, and the influence of technology. The subject

of the next subsection is defining sexual education and programs, followed by an

20
examination of specific teenage pregnancy prevention programs.

Teen Sexual Practice and Pregnancy: Contributing Factors

Studies indicate an increase in sexual activity among American teenagers. Little

& Rankin (2001) stated nearly two-thirds (64%) of teens are sexually active. When teens

are sexually active, they are at risk of developing other problems, such as pregnancies

and sexually transmitted diseases, include AIDS. Thirty-four percent of teenage girls

become pregnant at least once before they reach the age of 18, about 820,000 per year

(D’Angelo et al., 2004,). Eight in 10 of those pregnancies are unintended, and 79% are to

unmarried teens (D'Angelo et al., 2004). In seven of 10 adolescent pregnancies, no

method of contraception was in use (D'Angelo et al., 2004).

In the 1990s, the teen birth rate began to decrease and by the year 2004 it had

decreased significantly to a rate of 41.1 per 1,000 teenage girls. Hamilton, Martin and

Ventura (2007) reported that 435,427 births occurred to mothers aged 15 through19 years

during 2004. This represented a rate of 41.9 per 1,000 adolescent women. However,

according to Brace (2008), in 2006 the teenage birth rate rose, which was the first

recorded increase in the teen birth rate in 15 years. However, a possible confound is that

it is not known whether the rate of pregnancy termination (abortion) among teenagers

was accounted for. In other words, if the data reported above count only live births to

teenage mothers, it is possible that adding the number of abortions by teenage girls would

show that teenage pregnancy had not declined at all.

The state of Georgia (the location of the pregnancy prevention program included

in the present study) in comparison experienced a 39.4 percent rate during the same year

of 2004. Similar to the United States as a whole, Georgia experienced an increase in teen

21
births during 2006. Specifically, the rate nationally was 41.9 per 1,000, while in Georgia

the rate was 54.1 per 1,000 teenagers (Brace, 2008).

When teenagers become unintentionally pregnant they face several difficult

choices. Almost equal proportions of pregnant adolescents have unintended births at

37% or induced abortions at 35%. Smaller percentages of adolescent pregnancies,

approximately 14%, end in miscarriages or intended births (D’Angelo et al., 2004).

Studies confirm parents, especially mothers, have significant influences on what pregnant

adolescents decide to do. To a lesser degree, friends and sexual partners also influence

the adolescent’s decision. Abortion is a more likely outcome when a pregnant adolescent

has a poor relationship with the male who impregnated her. Research findings are

inconsistent about whether the decision to place the baby for adoption is influenced by

the mother’s relationship with the baby’s father. Although data on adoption among teens

was minimal, information on unmarried women of all ages who gave birth showed

adoption is a relatively uncommon outcome. Currently, only two percent of premarital

births are relinquished for adoption (D’Angelo et al., 2004).

STDs are also a significant concern for sexually active teens. Of the more than 15

million new STD infections each year, two-thirds will occur in people under 25 years old,

and one in four will occur in teenagers. Every year approximately 10 billion dollars are

spent on treating STDs and their complications, and all Americans share the cost. Over

80% of teens with STDs show no symptoms and therefore never get medical attention,

leading them to infect others and leaving themselves exposed to the risk of serious

complications as they grow older.

The problem of teenage pregnancy is further exacerbated by poor socialization, in

22
that the mothers’ lack of parenting skills may result in children who may find it difficult

to live in mainstream society or do well in school. Furthermore, new social problems

such as HIV/AIDS and drug addiction, which were not prevalent some years ago, now

present tremendous problems, especially for the African-American community (Kirby,

2007).

The health concerns associated with minority teenage parenting create serious

consequences for the children, in addition to the teen parents (Beaver, 1996). In

examining various factors related to teenage pregnancy among minority populations,

socioeconomic status has been a major underlying cause. Economic factors have further

impact when teenagers fail to complete school or gain skills while in school, which result

in limited future opportunities. Available jobs for those who do not receive an adequate

education often pay the minimum wage. This type of employment offers little

opportunity for advancement. The earlier a teen becomes a parent, with little or no

family support, the more likely it is that the teen and child will face a future of poverty

and hardship (Price & Hyde, 2009).

Factors such as living in unsafe neighborhoods, attending poor quality schools,

and associating with peers who do not value education or healthy relationships are all

major contributors to the problem of teenage pregnancy. In addition, pregnant teens

often receive poor prenatal care, which results in an increase in infant mortalities and

morbidities, low birth weight, and sexually transmitted diseases (U.S. Center for Disease

Control, 2002).

It is also important to note that teen pregnancy closely correlates to a number of

other critical issues. The more important of these are:

23
 • Welfare dependency and overall child well being

• Out of wed-lock births and continuation of the intergenerational cycle

from mother to daughter and back again

• Irresponsible fatherhood

• Lack of preparation for work.

It is the perception of the researcher that in preventing teen pregnancy, the emphasis

should not only be on reproductive health issues, but also one that would take into

consideration the other critical issues listed above. In addition, some of the most

accepted previous circumstances associated with the phenomenon of teenage sexuality

and adolescent pregnancy include issues with poverty and welfare dependence;

environment, cultural and social factors; school problems and peer pressure; influence of

parents and poor sex education; age at which sex is initiated; the influence of technology;

and desire to be rebellious.

The above list identifies the more important negative outcomes associated with

early childbearing (e.g., poverty, possible lower educational attainment, and emotional

anxiety). In addition, among teenagers, 85% of pregnancies are unintended (D'Angelo et

al., 2004). Because there is much literature on each of the negative outcomes listed

above, each have been grouped and discussed in individual subsections below.

Poverty and welfare dependence. A key element in the increasing occurrence

of teen pregnancy is poverty (Santelli et al., 2009). Poverty affects the community in

ways that often cause a ripple effect in terms of social consequences. In many cases,

these consequences include lower educational attainment and high school dropout.

Teenagers (ages 13 to 19 years) in the United States are engaging in sexual activity at

24
somewhat high rates. Some children, even younger than 13 years of age, are having

premarital relations (Price & Hyde, 2009). The high rate of increase in adolescent

pregnancy has become a national concern. In particular, the African American

community has been and continues to be affected by the consequences of high rates of

teen sexual activity and pregnancy. This problem is particularly devastating because of

the many environmental consequences experienced by this population.

Many teenage mothers rely on welfare to help them support and raise their

children because they find it difficult to work and take care of their child at the same time

(Meade et al., 2008). Teen mothers are less likely to graduate from high school and are

more likely to live in poverty and rely on welfare than their peers who delay having

children (Mangino, 2008). The children of teenage mothers are often born with a low

birth weight, experience health and developmental problems, and frequently are abused

or neglected. Teenagers’ yearly income averages 40% less than that of adults. It is not

surprising therefore that the majority of young mothers end up living in poverty and on

welfare (Meade, 2008). Most teenagers are poor before they have children and very few

teenage mothers marry their partners. This results in a large number of single-parent

homes. These children, in turn, model the behavior of their mother as they become

teenagers and thus the intergenerational cycle continues (Meade, 2008). Since the early

1970s, child poverty has risen five times higher in single-parent than in two-parent

families and in fatherless families. It is almost certain that if a poor teenage girl becomes

pregnant, she will remain poor and will end up raising her child on welfare.

Although help in the form of food stamps, housing, and other subsidies are

available for pregnant adolescents, eligibility requirements make it difficult to apply for,

25
and obtain, government-related assistance. Such requirements vary, but the major

national welfare requirements are in The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity

Reconciliation Act of 1996. According to this act, in order for pregnant or parenting

teens to obtain assistance, they are “required to live with a responsible adult or in an

adult-supervised setting and participate in educational and training activities” (The

Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act of 1996, p.4). Living at home

becomes increasingly difficult if support does not exist at home or if an adult-supervised

setting is not available. This can mean that single pregnant or parenting teenage girls will

only be eligible to receive welfare for two years. After the two-year time limit, they are

required to work at least 24 hours per week during the third year of assistance, and 30

hours per week during the next two years. After five consecutive years of assistance,

they will no longer be eligible for cash aid, according to the Reconciliation Act of 1996.

Therefore, teenage girls who do not have family support or a good-paying job have

financial difficulty when raising a child.

Although teen parents now make up only about five percent of welfare recipients,

females who begin parenting while in their teens account for 40-50% of welfare

caseloads (Bridgeland, Dilulio, & Morison, 2006). To varying degrees, states have used

the same Temporary Aid to the Needy (TANF) funds to support efforts to prevent teen

pregnancy. By law, individual state plans are expected to give special emphasis to teen

pregnancy prevention by initiating prevention programs, offering assisted help, and other

activities of a similar nature. In fact, welfare legislation also requires the federal

government to ensure that at least one-fourth of the nation’s communities have teen

pregnancy prevention programs. Given recent evidence that high-quality programs can

26
reduce the teen pregnancy rate, this emphasis should continue.

Poverty is a cause as well as a consequence of early childbearing. Continuing to

reduce teen pregnancy among teenagers nationwide can help sustain the recent decreases

in welfare dependency and poverty, although some impoverished young mothers may end

up faring poorly no matter when they are born. While most experts agree that

disadvantaged backgrounds account for much of the burden teens carry, having a baby

during adolescence only exacerbates the situation (Bridgeland, et al., 2006). Research

indicates that the children of teen mothers bear the greatest burden of teen pregnancy and

childbearing and are at significantly increased risk for a number of economic, social, and

health problems. A reduction in teenage pregnancy, especially through pregnancy

prevention programs, is beneficial to society as it can strengthen the future workforce

(Brace, 2009).

As noted by Kerby (2007) and Mangino (2008), today's economy demands a

sophisticated and educated workforce, but pregnancy often causes girls to terminate their

education prematurely, and is also a factor preventing adolescents from preparing

themselves for employment and becoming established in the labor force. Opportunities

significantly decrease when children have children, and their future is often one of

continual poverty. Society should be concerned about preventing teen pregnancy in order

to enhance future earning power and education in the work force. If teens have

appropriate relationships, which do not include premarital relations and/or teen

pregnancy, they will have a better chance of finishing their education and obtaining

employment training (Mangino, 2008). Preventing the interruption of pregnant teens’

education is crucial to a productive workforce as well as to the teens’ own benefit.

27
 Environmental, cultural, and social factors. While most prevention programs

seek to change adolescents’ attitudes and perspectives, improve adolescent decision-

making, and reduce risky behavior, reducing teen pregnancy rates also requires attention

to broad social and environmental factors. While it is true that teen pregnancy occurs in

all types of communities, teenagers who give birth are more likely to come from

economically disadvantaged families and neighborhoods (Gallagher, 1999; Meade et al.,

2008; Santelli et al., 2009). Thus, socioeconomic environment is an important factor in

whether or not teenagers become pregnant. However, some researchers such as

Bridgeland et al., (2006), Hardy and Landry (2000) and Meade et al., (2008) believe

factors associated with low-income households, including low educational attainment,

lack of employment in the community and neighborhood, and single parenthood are more

influential than poverty itself.

It may therefore be concluded that a teen’s chances of becoming pregnant are not

simply related to being poor. The probability that the teen will become pregnant also

relates to poverty's persistence and concentration in the community, and its far-reaching

effects on the culture and the social network of which the teen is a part. This is because

strong social networks and institutions can buffer teens from the effects of poverty

(Portman, 2009). Reinforcing community ties and friendship networks can help to battle

teen pregnancy, especially in low socioeconomic neighborhoods. Immigrant

communities with strong family bonds and a solid cultural orientation appear to be

factors helping to prevent teenage pregnancy. High-risk behaviors such as early

unprotected premarital relations increase among foreign-born adolescents with the length

of residence in the United States or from one generation to the next (Portman, 2009).

28
 According to Brace (2009), parents, as well as the community and society, need to

do all they can to develop positive attributes in their children. They should not only

encourage them, but also educate their teenagers about premarital relations and its

consequences, especially as it pertains to engaging in inappropriate behavior at an early

age. In addition, reducing teen pregnancy contributes significantly to the goal of

promoting responsible fatherhood. Brace (2009) stated that involved and committed

fathers are important to the wellbeing of their children. However, children who are born

to teen parents often consistently lack any close connection with the father because the

relationship between their parents is more likely to dissolve over time.

Brace (2009) reported that home life situation, household economic standing, low

education levels of parents, friends that are sexually active, and problems at home may

contribute to teenage pregnancy:

Additionally, teens may pursue motherhood to fill a void that they are

experiencing at home. Studies indicate that some teens have babies so that they

will have someone who loves them... Additionally, some teenagers state that they

want something to possess, or that they don’t recognize any of the disadvantages

associated with teen motherhood. [However] there are multiple protective factors

that can reduce the rate of teen pregnancy. Engaging teens in school, church or

religious activities reduces idle time and promotes the development of goals.

Additionally, teens that have friends with high educational aspirations are more

likely to refrain from getting pregnant. Parenting also plays a significant role

(pp. 17-18).

In her examination of a national sample of daughters of teenage mothers, Meade

29
et al., (2008) concurred, further noting that Hispanic race, poverty, deviant peer norms,

and low parental monitoring all represented risk factors. The objective of Mead et al.,’s

(2008) research was to determine if daughters of teenage mothers were at increased risk

of becoming teenage mothers, thereby perpetuating an intergenerational cycle of teenage

pregnancy. In addition to the risk factors noted above, additional factors influencing

daughters of teenage mothers included the teen’s mother’s marital status and education,

and the teen’s school performance, dating history, and environment in terms of race and

enrichment. Daughters of teenage mothers were 66% more likely to become teenage

mothers themselves (Meade et al., 2008).

Parents and family structure. In today’s culture, family structures are widely varied

and diverse. No longer do family structures consist of two parents and one or two

children, complete with traditional extended family members (grandparents, aunts and

uncles, cousins, etc.). The literature has identified the following family structures as

those that comprise major family types (Miller, 1998):

• Intact parent- nuclear

• Stepfather and mother-custody families

• Single parent

• Divorced and/or separated parents

• Two-adult traditional

• Father or mother surrogate.

It is generally known that the self-concept of adolescents and other areas of

concern, such as academic achievement, are negatively or positively affected by varying

types of family structures. Also, adolescents in disrupted families have more emotional

30
problems, lower self-esteem, higher rates of mental health consultations, and poorer

perception of their school performance than those from intact families. Some studies,

such as those of Bronstein and associates (2003) supported the factors of family structure,

self-concept, and the development of emotional problems as predictors of earlier sexual

activity on the part of the teenager. Bronstein et al., (2003) discovered these types of

relationships, through empirical studies, that examined the social, psychological and

academic adjustment of young people in diverse family structures. Structures in their

study included two-adult households, traditional families, one-parent households, and

surrogate parent structures. Families from a wide socioeconomic range located in

northern Vermont were included in the research. The sample consisted of 136 young

people. Of these, 77 were girls and 59 were boys. Field workers collected demographic

data during the late fall and winter months. These data included family relationships and

child functioning from parents and children in the home of the adolescents' fifth-grade

year. Data on school functioning were obtained from teachers, classmates, and school

records in the spring.

A number of interesting findings were identified (Bronstein et al., 2003). For

example, subjects from two-biological-parent families were found to show better

adjustment as compared to those from other family configurations. In addition,

traditional-family parents were more involved with their children, as compared to either

single-mother or father-surrogate households. According to the researchers, single-

mother and father-surrogate households tended to report more difficulties related to

control. Family members tended to argue more, and parenting was more likely to be

overly controlling, overly lax, or inconsistent in rule-setting and enforcement. In their

31
view, tendencies such as these may have been a reflection of emotional distress brought

about by the disruption of established relationships. They concluded that while findings

provided evidence that disruptions in family structure, through parental separation,

divorce, remarriage, or cohabitation, were associated with problematic parenting and

poorer outcomes,

. . . certain facts appear to have more impact than others. . . . Findings

suggest that socioeconomic factors may have a stronger impact on the

quality of parenting in single-mother households. . . There were strong

gender differences in child outcomes, suggesting that the effects of living in

a nontraditional household may be very different for girls and boys.

Longer-term absence on the part of the biological father was related to

children’s poorer adjustment (Bronstein et al., 2003, p. 274).

Adolescents from traditional families were shown to have a higher level of social,

psychological, and academic adjustment compared to those from nontraditional families.

Family structure in terms of the influence of parents affected the development of a

positive or negative self-concept and thus influenced academic achievement and

adjustment (Bronstein et al., 2003).

Possibly the most significant difference between a positive and negative level of

self-concept, that is, between mentally healthy and maladjusted adolescents, is the extent

to which they develop and use their potential for constructive academic achievement.

Studies support the view that the level of positive or negative self-concept influences

academic performance, success, and achievement (Bridgeland et al., 2006).

Consequently, self-concept acts as an intervening variable of influence on other outcome

32
behaviors such as sexual activity and behavior.

A student whose academic performance is considerably below their ability

exemplifies the impact of a negative self-concept. Mentally healthy students who are

resilient will generally be productive, feel competent, find fulfillment in group efforts,

and enjoy learning experiences. These adolescents are also better able to exercise control

over their thoughts and actions. They can better change their behavioral risk for

pregnancy as compared to those who do not feel competent and have low self-esteem

(Santelli et al., 2009).

In summary, the most significant difference between a high or low level of self-

concept is the extent to which adolescents develop and use their potential for constructive

academic achievement. This development can be influenced by a number of variables,

including family structure and, in turn, can influence teens to change their risk-taking

behavior. These findings help to support the belief of this researcher that family structure

influences self-concept and thus the outcome of sexual behaviors.

Some researchers believe that prevention first begins at home rather than at school

in the form of sex education classes. Parents should begin talking with their children, in

an age appropriate manner, about relationships and the human body. Parents should also

have an open communication with teens about activities in which they engage in their

schools and communities and identify their expectations. Parents need to be honest and

allow their teens to express their thoughts without fear of repercussions. Strategies for

parents to use when talking to teens about sexuality include active listening and to take

the opportunity to share information about appropriate relationships, which can be an

opportune time to include religious beliefs. Parents need to be honest and allow the teens

33
to be the expert when and where appropriate (Miller, 1998). However, it is essential that

educators and parents hear the voice of teen mothers to find out what society can do to

assist them in becoming productive citizens.

Another factor of influence as related to parents pertains to employment and job

requirements. In today’s society, most American adults work anywhere from forty to

seventy hours a week, and the lack of parental supervision has almost become the norm.

As a consequence, most teenagers go without adult supervision after school for at least

three to four hours a day. During the unsupervised after-school hours, teenagers

(especially African American teens) tend to get in trouble with inappropriate sexual

activities and the use of drugs and alcohol. Numerous studies found that children who

spend eleven or more hours unsupervised per week were twice as likely to abuse drugs or

alcohol as compared to those under adult supervision (Hardy & Landry, 2000; Meade et

al., 2008). This encourages higher risk taking behavior, which causes poor grades in

school.

Providing adequate supervision is somewhat difficult, especially for African

American parents, because most of these families survive on non-white-collar jobs for the

sake of survival (Miller, 1998). Single African-American parents are at a particular

disadvantage because they are more likely than two-parent families to experience poverty

or financial problems. Due to their financial difficulties they may tend to work longer

hours or hold multiple jobs. A related finding is that teens in one-parent or two-parent

working families are more likely to engage in premarital relations at early ages, which

may be due, in part, to their having less supervision during after-school hours (Hipwell,

Keenan, Loeber, & Battista, 2010). A failure in family interpersonal communications

34
also appears to be a significant causal factor in the incidence of teenage pregnancy. Poor

interpersonal communications within family systems frequently contribute to the

occurrence of teenage pregnancies. The lack of communication may result in teenage

girls who either cannot get, or are afraid to ask for, information that would prepare them

to better avoid teen pregnancy. Other factors in poor interpersonal communications

within family systems lead to situations wherein the personal values of a teenage girl are

not in alignment with family values (Miller, 1998).

Peer pressure. Peer pressure is a major factor of influence in the early onset of

sexual activity among teenagers, especially among African-American adolescents. In

addition, peers who do not value education or healthy relationships and those displaying

deviant behaviors are all major influences. Among adolescent boys, the onset of

premarital relations was predicted by prior affiliation with deviant peers three years

earlier (Hipwell et al., 2010)

Predictors of the onset of premarital relations were also researched by Raffaelli

and Crockett (2003), who used data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth.

They found that adolescents’ sexual risk-taking behavior was predicted, through pressure

from their peers, to engage in delinquent activities. This was assessed when the

respondents were 12–13 years old with the predicted adolescents’ premarital risk taking

behavior occurring four years later.

In addition to peer pressure, social norms are also a contributing factor. In some

social groups, engaging in premarital activity is associated with popularity and high

social status as perceived by peers. Teenagers who give in to this type of peer pressure

and engage in premarital relations are rewarded by acceptance into the group. In these

35
many ways, pressure from their peers has been consistently shown to be linked with

premarital activity.

Donenberg, Bryant, Emerson, Wilson, and Keryn (2003) conducted a study on the

impact of parental permissiveness and monitoring risky premarital behavior. Substantial

evidence pointed to specific factors that could be used to identify young people who were

at risk for engaging in early premarital relations. These factors were included in a social-

personal framework for understanding risk-taking behavior of this nature. By tracing the

roots of early premarital activity among troubled teenagers receiving treatment, it was

shown that parental behavior and peer influence were the most important variables

associated with early premarital activity.

The purpose of Donenberg et al.,'s (2003) study was to identify the more

important social and personal characteristics associated with early premarital activity

among troubled teenagers. A total of 198 young people between the ages of 12 and 19

comprised the sample. Self-reports and interviews were used to gather data. Questions

were asked about their age at the time of their first premarital encounter, relationships

with peers and partners, and personal characteristics such as achievement motivation and

externalizing problems. Findings were that parental hostile control and negative/positive

peer influence (social factors) and externalizing problems (personal characteristic)

accurately predicted 87.4% of teenagers would initiate sexual activity by 14 years of age

(Donenberg et al., 2003).

School influence. Sex education offered in schools, especially in the form of

after-school programs, is another variable of influence impacting teen sexual practice and

teenage pregnancy. It is the after-school programs that are the most influential because

36
this is the time many teenagers are unsupervised and vulnerable to risky behaviors.

Because the relationship between academic failure and teen pregnancy is so strong and

because young people spend so much of their time in school, educational institutions

should partner with the community to continue their mission during after-school hours.

After-school programs are generally run by parks and recreation centers, which

may not be governed by laws or policies prohibiting religious teachings in public schools.

This could provide a valuable and opportune time to teach abstinence from sex before

marriage, because ultimately, in God's eyes, abstinence is the only policy prior to

marriage (1Thessalonians 4:3, NIV).

Research has shown that teens are more likely to postpone premarital relations,

and thereby pregnancy, when they can envision a positive future (Mueller, Gavin, &

Kulkarni, 2008). Therefore, after-school programs offer an appropriate means for

helping teens enhance their education, increase their employment opportunities, and set

goals for their lives. They can also show adolescents how the decisions they make today,

including those about premarital relations, will affect them tomorrow. Unfortunately,

both schools and after-school programs often decide not to initiate after-school sex

education programs due to budget constraints, community controversies over sex

education, and/or because they are uncertain about what components are successful.

Apparently, due to separation of church and government, education that the

government often chooses is based on safe sex and contraception, rather than on

abstinence. The guidelines for Comprehensive Sexuality Education (2004) published by

the government can provide some answers to teens’ uncertainty. Specifically, the

guidelines list six of the more successful concepts for a successful pregnancy prevention

37
program. These include:

• Personal skills

• Sexual health and society

• Culture

• Human development

• Relationships

• Sexual behavior.

Mangino (2008) also suggested home outreach pregnancy prevention programs to

address the needs of after-school education courses and turn sex education programs,

which are often lacking in content, into meaningful ones. In this respect she explained

this type of program is very useful in speaking to the unusual relationships that may exist

in a teen mother's home life:

The teen mothers’ parent or parents are in the . . . position of being a concerned

parent responsible for the care of their child [and] . . . the doting grandparent.

They want their child to be a responsible parent, have some semblance of family

unity, and yet permit . . . the teen mother to enjoy [her] youth. The researcher

proposes that home outreach could be addressed through a series of out-of-the-

home workshops to orient the parents to their daughters’ evolving social

relationships, her new and often daunting child care responsibilities and the high

academic demands of being a student. (p. 155)

Another variable that can affect the failure or non-existence of sex education

programs can be the administrator. Uninformed or uneducated administrators often do

not comprehend the many benefits of this type of program and as such discontinue them

38
by not supporting their funding. Mangino (2008) suggested that particular emphasis

should be geared toward educating administrators, not only on the importance of teen

parenting programs, but also that success for teen mothers rests heavily on the availability

of effective school-based programs (p. 157).

Age at which premarital relations are initiated. According to Martino et al.,

(2005), exposure to media such as music videos, movies, and television contribute to

early premarital activity. Of these, the researchers believe television had the greatest

impact. As shown in their study, sexual content averaged 10 sexual references per hour

during primetime television. These programs also contain sexual messages and sexual

talk or behaviors. These were found to occur in eight out of 10 primetime episodes.

Interviews were conducted with participants and then surveys were administered, both of

which centered on perceived norms regarding sex consistent with social learning theories,

sexual intentions and behaviors, and exposure to televised sexual content.

The onset of early premarital activity among adolescents was also examined by

Roche and Leventhal (2009). They studied relationships and associations between

adolescent psychosexual development and parenting styles. Specifically, the

investigation examined the variations between such associations as parenting and

adolescent premarital relationship onset as influenced by neighborhood disorder for low-

income urban families of color. In other words, the researchers were interested in the

relationship between adolescent transitions to premarital relationships and family

management practices as influenced by neighborhood turmoil.

Roche and Leventhal (2009) concluded that family routines and higher levels of

parental knowledge were associated with the likelihood of early sexual transitions,

39
especially when assessed at lower levels of neighborhood turmoil. The researchers were

surprised with their findings and cautioned readers, stating, "We presume that our

findings likely have emerged because of parental responses to early signs of youths’

transitions toward sex" (p. 825). Overall, however, their findings indicate that

adolescents delay their first premarital relationship or practice safe sex when parents

produce higher scores on knowledge, support, and control (Roche & Leventhal, 2009).

Other findings were that the odds of sexual onset changed with an increase in

neighborhood turmoil at varying levels of parental knowledge. An increase in

neighborhood turmoil was associated with a decrease in the odds of early premarital

behavior on the part of the adolescent as parental knowledge increased. It was

unexpectedly found that more family routines were associated with increases in

premarital activity when neighborhood turmoil was at lower levels. It is possible that

researcher operational definitions of terms did not adequately depict the variables in

question.

Price and Hyde (2009) also investigated predictors of early premarital activity in

adolescence. Their findings differed from the research discussed above. Using a

cumulative risk model to analyze data from a sample of 273 adolescent girls, Price and

Hyde identified a number of specific risk factors that influenced early premarital activity

in girls that differed from those that influenced boys. Specifically, Price and Hyde (2009)

identified the following influences on girls: low self-esteem, poor parental relationships,

increased television viewing, low academic achievement, living in a non-intact

household, higher levels of externalizing behavior (associated with symptoms of

ADHD), and parents with low education levels. Early premarital activity on the part of

40
boys, however, was influenced by advanced pubertal development, increased television

viewing, higher rates of externalizing behaviors (associated with symptoms of ADHD

and ODD), and poor parental relationships. When the results for boys were compared

and analyzed against those of girls, it was found that girls were 1.56 times more likely to

become involved in premarital relationships than were boys. In addition, the power to

predict premarital activities increased with risk accumulation.

Hipwell et al., (2010) also investigated early predictors of premarital behaviors in

adolescent girls, noting the alarming growing trend of higher rates of activity among

increasingly younger adolescents in recent years. Using data from the 2002 National

Survey of Family Growth, they found that over six percent of girls reported having

premarital relations before they reached the age of 14. This percentage was the highest

ever recorded.

Hipwell and associates (2010) defined early initiation of premarital activities as

girls age 14 and younger. According to their findings, early initiation was associated

with STDs, lower rates of contraception use, and increased rates of unwanted pregnancy.

In the view of Hipwell et al., (2010) these associations represent major public health

concerns. Their study used problem behavior theory as a framework for understanding

this type of socially defined maladaptive behavior. They explained that "The theory

states that perceived environment factors (e.g., low parental controls or support, positive

peer models for sexual risk taking and high peer-to-parent relative influence) increase the

likelihood of problem behaviors occurring. Furthermore, involvement in one behavior

increases the likelihood of involvement in other problem behaviors" (p. 371).

Influence of technology. Another factor that influences teen premarital activity

41
and teenage pregnancy is the influence of technology. Although technology has achieved

a significant step forward and provides a number of advantages to teens and adults alike,

it seems to also be associated with societal problems, especially premarital relations and

teen pregnancy. The ease with which teenagers can communicate to a larger teen

population, through programs such as Facebook and text messaging, may lead to the

emergence of higher rates of teenage pregnancies because of increased peer pressure.

Also, the availability of technology exposes teens to images and activities that can trigger

inappropriate thoughts and be construed as a way to have fun and interact with other

teens.

Today's television programs and movies also contain frequent scenes that provide

graphic depictions of sexual activity (Comstock & Scharrer, 2009). Research clearly

shows that television portrayals contribute to sexual socialization, especially programs on

cable networks. Watching programs high in inappropriate content has a correlation with

the early initiation of adolescent premarital activity and relationships. In addition to this

already troubling media impact, is the problem of illegitimacy. According to Comstock

and Scharrer (2009), "The rapid growth in recent years of interactive media (e.g., video

games and the Internet) is garnering significant attention as a potential source of

influence on children’s development. However, this growth has overshadowed ... the

dominant media influence . . . television" (p.1548). Martino et al., (2005) agreed, further

noting that social cognitive processes mediate the relationship between inappropriate

behavior of teenagers and sexual content on television programs. These researchers

hypothesized that exposure to television may be a contributor to early premarital activity.

In their research study investigating how sources of sexual information relate to

42
adolescents' beliefs about sexual activity, Bleakley, Hennessy, Fishbean, Coles, and

Jordan (2009) concluded that adolescents reported learning the most about inappropriate

premarital behavior from television. The purpose of their study was to examine how

sources of information, such as television, were associated with control, normative and

behavioral beliefs about premarital activity. The sample consisted of 459 adolescents and

utilized the Integrative Model of Behavior Change. The media, friends, and cousins were

associated with beliefs that increased the possibility of having premarital relations, while

religious leaders, parents, and grandparents were connected with ways of thinking that

were likely to delay premarital relations. The media, friends, mothers, and teachers were

the most frequently reported source of relationship information and education.

Therefore, Bleakley et al., (2009) concluded that the different underlying beliefs of

adolescents were associated with different relationship information sources.

Clearly, research has shown that television and modern technology devices,

programs, and activities have had a significant impact on learning about inappropriate

behavior and premarital activities among teenagers. Explicit deviant behavior,

inappropriate language, and sexual references occur regularly on television programs

during family and prime time hours when children are awake to listen and watch. In

return, the children absorb and easily tend to imitate the mixed messages they receive.

Another point of interest is the fact that the consequences of this inappropriate behavior

are rarely seen on television, but scenes, programs and stories depicting out of wedlock

pregnancy are generally plentiful.

Defining sexual education and programs. Sex education, which is sometimes

called sexuality education or sex and relationships education, is the process of acquiring

43
information and forming attitudes and beliefs about sex, sexual identity, relationships,

and intimacy (Avert, 2010). Sex education is also about developing young people's

skills, so that they make informed choices about their behavior and feel confident and

competent about acting on these choices. It is widely accepted that young people have a

right to sex education. This is because it is a means by which they are helped to protect

themselves against abuse, exploitation, unintended pregnancies, and STDs (Avert, 2010).

It is also argued that providing sex education helps to meet young people’s rights to

information about matters that affect them, their right to have their needs met, and to help

them enjoy their sexuality and the relationships that they form. However, sex education

aims to reduce the risks of potentially negative outcomes from sexual behavior, such as

unwanted or unplanned pregnancies and infection with sexually transmitted diseases. It

also aims to contribute to young people’s positive experience of their sexuality by

enhancing the quality of their relationships and their ability to make informed decisions

over their lifetime (Avert, 2010).

School-based sexuality education programs have been in existence for almost a

century (Kirby, 2007). These programs represent a formalized attempt to prevent

negative sexual outcomes through the provision of information and the cultivation of

sexual knowledge and values (Wright, Abraham, & Scott, 1998). Therefore, the skills

that young people develop as part of sex education programs are linked to more general

life-skills. Being able to communicate, listen, negotiate with others, and ask for and

identify sources of help and advice, are useful life-skills which can be applied to sexual

relationships (Wright et al., 1998). This implies that an effective sex education program

develops young people's skills in negotiation, decision-making, assertiveness, and

44
listening. Other important skills include being able to recognize pressures from other

people and to resist them, dealing with and challenging prejudice, and being able to seek

help from adults such as parents, professionals, and educators.

Some prevention programs have been created to reduce the cause of pregnancies

and STDs among teenage girls, based on the belief that unhealthy inappropriate behavior

can result in many things. These programs focus on delaying the initiation of premarital

activity, improving contraceptive use among sexually active teens, influencing pregnancy

resolution decisions among those who become pregnant, and reducing or delaying

subsequent births. There are also programs that are less direct, focusing on issues like

life options, in the belief that adolescents who perceive better educational, occupational,

and economic opportunities for themselves will seek to postpone parenthood (Meyer,

2001). Prevention programs are often school-based because students are an accessible

and somewhat captive audience; however, programs are also based in clinics and

agencies, and sometimes they are based in churches, are provided directly to families, or

are embedded in a community-wide intervention context (Lerner, 1995).

Compared with traditional knowledge-based sex education, more focused

behavioral-skills types of sex education have recently shown more promising results.

Based on social learning theory, skills-oriented prevention programs combine strategies

that help adolescents to personalize sexual issues and develop specific negotiation and

refusal skills needed in sexual relations. Activities are used that teach about social and

media pressures, modeling, and communication with respect to both sexual behavior and

contraceptive use. These types of programs have shown some positive results (Meyer,

2001).

45
 Bridgeland, Dilulio, and Morison (2006) summarized the attributes of teen

pregnancy prevention programs that have been successful and have been reported by

dropouts themselves during focus group sessions. The more important of these included

the following:

• Improved teaching and curricula to make school more relevant and engaging

and enhance the connection between school and work

• Improved instruction and access to support programs for struggling students

• A school climate that fosters academics

• Strong adult-student relationships within the school

• Improved communication between parents and schools

• Additional support and adult advocates (Bridgeland et al., pp. 11-15)

Mangino (2008) listed three important transitions to teen parents in the form of

reasons why it may be difficult for teen parents and educational programs to work

together. She also provided possible solutions. Each is listed below, followed by the

potential solution:

1. Challenge: Only a small percentage of teen parents are served in these

programs; other teen parents are not necessarily identified in school

records.

Possible Solution: Knowing the actual number of parenting students can

improve the placement of support services into comprehensive high

schools. This can be less costly, reach more students and provide access

to a wider range of educational options.

2. Challenge: Site based programs have the effect of making pregnant and

46
 parenting students even less visible within the full student population.

Possible Solution: Once the target number of teen parents is found to be

considerably larger than those identified, attention can be drawn to this

population's needs.

3. Challenge: Many pregnant and parenting young adults have educational

deficits and some may have undetected learning disabilities. This further

complicates the learning process since they now have to face other needs

(childcare, parenting education and more).

Possible Solution: Since some educational deficiencies of teen parents are

comparable to the educational needs of other at-risk students, varied

instructional methodologies may be developed.

Mangino (2008) also listed some school practices that might be utilized to assist

teenage parents in completing their high school education – specifically aimed at those

students who appear to be at higher risk for dropping out. Her list, derived from the

Center for Assessment and Policy Development (1999), included the following:

• Creation of attendance policies that do not penalize teens who have given

birth like any other absence

• Making allowances for home study and granting partial credits for course

work interrupted by delivery

• Development of students’ schedules to allow for transportation to and from

childcare.

The phrase sex education is used freely until the words lose their significance. If

this type of education were referred to as premarital activity or premarital relationships,

47
 then both male and female teens might understand the importance of respecting their

bodies. While it is important to provide education to protect teenage girls, the primary

focus of this education should be on abstinence and understanding the need to respect

their bodies. Education should include treating their bodies as if it were a temple. In

Proverbs 22.6, the Bible states, "Train up a child in the way he should go; even when he

is old he will not depart from it" (Proverbs 22.6, English Standard Version).

Teenage Pregnancy Prevention Program Examples

Now that the groundwork has been laid for the understanding of pregnancy

prevention programs in general, specific teenage pregnancy prevention programs can be

identified and discussed. This discussion will then provide a framework for this study’s

later evaluation of students’ perceptions of the effectiveness of the Teenage Parenting

Center.

The first prevention program discussed in this section is the Circle of Care

Program in Troup County, Georgia (Brace, 2009). The program was created to address

increasing rates of teen pregnancy. It was founded in 1997 as a result of many

community partner organizations that collaborated to help pregnant and parenting

teenagers and their families. Both intervention and prevention services are offered.

Child abuse and neglect prevention services are also offered in terms of home visitation

and parent education. Brace (2009) further explained that, "The intervention services

begin with the identification, referral, and delivery of services to teen families through

partner agencies. These intervention programs are designed to work together to reduce

the likelihood of repeat pregnancy and improve educational outcomes" (p. 22). Many

services are provided to those who participate in the program, with several of the top ones

listed below (Brace, 2009, p. 22):

48
 • Case management and a family assessment

• Parenting classes

• Parent-child group activities

• Crisis intervention

• Home visits from the case manager

• Family planning assistance

• Counseling

• Services from the teen health clinic and DFCS.

Brace (2009) evaluated the effectiveness of the Circle of Care program by

determining if desired outcomes for program participants were being met and if intensity

and length of time the teenager participated in the program had an impact. Participants

had attended the program between 2006 and 2008. Data were collected from attendance

logs, Circle of Care intake forms, case notes, county department reports and program

participant service logs. Dependent variables were the number of repeat pregnancies, the

number of cases of child abuse and neglect, and educational attainment of program

participants. Subjects consisted of 64 teenage mothers from 13 to 21 years of age. The

average age of a program participant was 16.9 years of age at the time of intake.

Results of the data analysis indicated the program appeared to achieve success in

terms of reducing teen pregnancies, increasing educational achievement and reducing

child neglect and abuse (Brace, 2009). However, the study was limited by having only

one case manager who delivered services and collected data. In addition, the data set was

incomplete. Data regarding educational attainment were missing, and records could not

be found of follow-up contact. Another factor was that participants failed to complete the

49
program.

Mangino (2008) reported on the North Medved High School Child Development

Center in Oregon, which was designed to meet a number of school needs and also served

as a dropout prevention program for teenage parents. The program for teenage parents

was somewhat limited, but was very successful in providing students with access to

necessary social services. The goal of the program was centered on removing barriers

that served to prevent teenage parents from graduating. Oregon school officials had

recognized that pregnancy was a major reason for teenage girls to drop out of Medved

High School. According to Mangino (2008), eight new school-based childcare centers

were established in Oregon between 2003 and 2006 as a result of the success of The

North Medved High School Child Development Center.

The Family Life Education program, a prevention course that Thomas and

Dimitrov (2007) examined in their research, was created from the Virginia State

Department of Health's Abstinence Education Initiative. It was one of six projects

grouped under abstinence education programs with a purpose to promote sexual

abstinence in order to reduce adolescent sexual risk-taking behavior and activity.

The Family Life Education program centered on providing planned sexual health

information and addressed various dimensions of sexual health over time (Thomas &

Dimitrov, 2007). These included spiritual, social, mental, and emotional dimensions.

The program was specifically designed for seventh graders in three middle schools and

provided them with 15 days of instruction via a structured curriculum during the first

year. The instruction, in which the students learned to choose positive alternatives to

risky behaviors, was followed by five days of instruction via a video-based curriculum.

50
In the following years students received intervention and booster program instruction

during which they developed skills to manage stress as well as refusal skills to resist peer

pressure (Thomas & Dimitrov, 2007).

Three important objectives were established for the Family Life Education

program and were geared specifically for students at grade seven, all of whom were

enrolled in four schools housed in Fauquier County, Virginia. The first of the objectives

related to recognition of the student's physical development in terms of characteristics

common in puberty and how these factors impact their social as well as emotional

growth. The two remaining objectives are stated below (Thomas & Dimitrov, 2007, p.

173):

• The student will realize that physical affection is not all sexual but that it also

can be an expression of friendship, of celebration, or of a loving family

• The student will recognize that sexual behaviors are conscious decisions; that

it is important to say “no” to premarital and inappropriate sexual relationships;

and that appropriate relationships are based on mutual respect, trust, and

caring.

Thomas and Dimitrov (2007) were able to estimate the Family Life Education

program's effects through administration of an 82-item survey. Their sample consisted of

1,136 students enrolled in the four schools described above. From their data analysis, the

researchers concluded that program intervention was able to change the adolescents'

perceptions about risky, inappropriate behavior. However, because of major differences

in seventh grade curriculum and activities in schools across the country, results from this

study could not be generalized. Also, a standardized survey has not yet been developed

51
for assessment purposes at other schools that have initiated a similar type of abstinence

program. The researchers recommended that future studies on this topic should include

parents and community entities, "particularly in the case of ethnic minority groups" (p.

173) because minority group parents have a stronger influence on teenagers as compared

to Caucasian parents.

As previously noted, there are many pregnancy prevention programs and

strategies developed at various sites across the nation. However, only a few of them have

sufficient evaluation components to provide meaningful data about their success or the

efficacy of their intervention (Elliot, 1998). An earlier study entitled "Let the Circle be

Unbroken: Rite of Passage" was assessed by Elliot (1998), but it also did not have

sufficient evaluation components. It involved an adaptation of socialization processes

frequently observed in African American cultures, which openly acknowledge the

necessity of formally assisting adolescents in the transition from childhood into

adulthood (Elliot, 1998).

The rite of passage from an African-American standpoint was meant to train the

young person for a new stage of life. In this case it also included educating teenagers

about teen pregnancy. It followed the basic premise that the teen can achieve and train to

become a productive and responsible member of society, which includes not becoming a

teen mother on welfare or on social programs. A pilot program was begun to target

pregnant African-American teens and involved training in social skills and decision-

making. Elliot (1998) concluded that the program identified at-risk African-American

teens as students who were not motivated to become involved in school activities.

However, no evaluation components existed to provide meaningful data for evaluation of

52
this program.

A more recent study was conducted by Lawrence (2004) and produced a final

report on an audit of the Savannah-Chatham County Board of Education Teen-Age

Parent Program, a joint venture by Parent and Child Development Services, Inc. The

objectives of the audit were to assess the program's academic performance (Lawrence,

2004). To achieve this goal, the Board was required to determine how the Teen-Age

Parent Program (TAPP) students’ performance compared to that of other district students

in terms of similar programs and attendance, dropout rates, graduation rates, and failure

rates. They were also required to assess the following:

• The risks to the District associated with students who become pregnant or

become parents while they are of school age

• Whether the program adequately addresses those risks

• To determine whether "the District and Parent and Child have adhered to the

agreement established for operation of the program

• To make any needed recommendations for improvement identified through

the review (p. 2).

The TAPP concept was initiated in 1985 as a result of increasing teen-age

pregnancies throughout Chatham and Savannah Counties. It was designed to be a

dropout prevention program and enrollment was voluntary. The program was located at

the Parent and Child facility, which began managing the TAPP program in 2000. The

Parent and Child facility then appointed a liaison between the Associate Superintendent

for Middle and High Schools at the Board of Education. This person was a retired

District administrator who was commissioned to evaluate the certified teaching staff,

53
assist in opening and closing of appropriate schools, implement staff development

strategies, arrange for TAPP services, and consult with the program director in school

administration (Lawrence, 2004).

According to Lawrence (2004), TAPP established three academic goals. As of

the school year 2002-2003, TAPP had only met one of them. For the school year 2003-

2004, TAPP did decrease failures, but it did not meet goals for promotions, passing rates,

or attendance. Because attendance in the program was small as compared to the District

and because attendance issues were unique in that they related to pregnancy and

childcare, valid conclusions could not be drawn from comparisons with other programs.

Performance of the student sample at the facility was evaluated prior to entering TAPP;

most students were behind a grade level by the time they reached the eighth grade.

Unfortunately, some students were as much as five years behind (Lawrence, 2004).

Also in relation to assessment, TAPP did not regularly enter District-required

student data into the student data system, which makes comparison impossible. The

facility has, however, identified another TAPP program currently operating in Georgia,

which is the one that this researcher evaluated in the present study. According to

Lawrence (2004), this new program had been cited as a model program, even though it

was operating as a separate school with a different program emphasis. The audit's

recommendation to the TAPP program was threefold:

1. To identify and collect the necessary data that was needed to track student

achievement and success

2. To resolve the curriculum and instruction issues that continue to plague the

program

54
 3. That best practices such as additional attendance incentives need to be

considered (Lawrence, 2004, p. 3).

God’s Views on Sex and Premarital Sexual Intercourse

Much is stated in Bible verses regarding how Christians should conduct

themselves. The Bible states, “What? Know ye not that your body is the temple of the

Holy Ghost which is in you, which ye have of God, and ye are not your own? For ye are

bought with a price: therefore glorify God in your body, and in spirit, which are God’s”

(1 Corinthians 6:19-20, KJV). This verse teaches that people are not simply flesh, but

they are wrapped around the Holy Ghost, making the person a temple for the Holy Ghost

or the Spirit of God to dwell within.

If more people believed their bodies are as temples, or Christ-like structures

where the Holy Ghost lives, then it would follow that they would make better choices

about how they conduct themselves in this world regarding sexual relationships. The

thought of God’s spirit living and dwelling inside of a person should make them pause

and reflect on the wrong of having premarital relations. They should stop for a moment

and analyze the situation, saying, “If God lives inside me, and He is omniscient, then He

must know when I am about to operate outside of His will. Does this mean that God will

remove His Holy Ghost from me as I sin against Him, and return when I am done? Wait.

I do not want God to remove His spirit from me for one second!” Whether God removes

His spirit or not, the thought of Him not wanting to be present in the presence of sin

should make a Christian back away and repent from even the thought of committing that

sin.

The Bible speaks abundantly about premarital sex being a sin and that people are

55
to respect their bodies. It is very clear that God's plan for His children is to be abstinent

until they are married. If teenagers could understand the sanctity of their bodies, and not

place themselves in situations where premarital sex could occur, then the temptation

would be greatly diminished. 1 Corinthians 6:18 states, "Flee from sexual immorality.

All other sins a man commits are outside his body, but he who sins sexually sins against  

his own body".   1 Corinthians 19-20 continues by stating that people do not belong to

themselves, but to God. People must learn that they are not empty vessels because the

Holy Ghost is inside of them, and that God is the master, to whom they belong. People

were created by Him and for Him, thus they must submit to His will for their lives. Verse

20 continues, stating people were bought with a price, and they should know that price

was the death of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. Knowing that God knew the sins of

His people would be so great and too many for them to enter His kingdom, He allowed

His son to pay a price of death so that His children could live with Him.

While teens engaging in premarital relations may not cause death in the literal

sense, it can be said that it is indeed the death of their childhood. Also, with this type of

inappropriate behavior comes the exposure to life-threatening diseases. The Bible

teaches people’s bodies are temples, people should glorify God with their bodies, their

bodies are living sacrifices, and that people should live in a holy and acceptable way.

Too often in today's world children are not exposed to the Lord's teachings. To be able to

understand and accept that the human body is to be respected and saved for marriage is a

concept that must be instilled from birth.

Some may argue how do we know that any of these verses relate to sex outside of

marriage? People should follow after Christ. Jesus Christ came to this world to teach

56
people how to live and show a way that is pleasing to God. In the book of Corinthians,

the Apostle Paul tells the men that it is better for them to not even touch a woman, the

same as he had never touched a woman. “I say therefore to the unmarried and widows,

It is good for them if they abide even as I. But if they cannot contain, let them marry: for

it is better to marry than to burn” (1Corinthians 7:8, 9, KJV). These verses clearly state

God’s view on marriage and sex outside of marriage. One may ask the question, “Why

would the Bible state that it is best that a man not touch a woman? Are women foul

beings?” The answer to that question lies in the verses 32 and 33 of 1 Corinthians 7,

which states, “He that is unmarried careth for the things that belong to the Lord, how he

may please the Lord: But he that is married careth for the things that are of the world,

how he may please his wife.”

God understands that a marriage is a bond that requires concern for a mate, which

takes time away from the concern of the Lord. One of the problems in society today is

that single people are spending their time caring for men and women who are not their

spouses, instead of caring for things of the Lord. Committing these acts or even dwelling

on their thoughts opens the door for Satan. Married women are concerned for their

husbands, unmarried women are concerned for their sex partners, so who has concern for

the things of God?

God is so concerned about sex outside of the realms of marriage that He gives His

people chapter 7 verse 39-40 in 1 Corinthians, which states, “The wife is bound by the

law as long as her husband liveth; but if her husband be dead, she is at liberty to be

married to whom she will; only in the Lord. But she is happier if she so abide, after my

judgment; and I think also that I have the Spirit of God” (KJV). These verses clearly

57
state that it is God’s judgment and spirit involved in marriage and He only wants a

woman to have one husband. Only if a woman’s husband dies is that woman able to

remarry and thus have marital relations with another man.

Last, the Bible states, “Who can find a virtuous woman? For her price is far

above rubies” (Proverbs 31:10, KJV). Throughout the Bible God tells of the price of a

virgin woman, or a woman who is sexually pure. If teenagers had appropriate role

models, were provided with education on God's word and took to heart the above

passage, then certainly the amount of teens having premarital relations would be

drastically decreased.

With today’s music, films, and television, much of which is restricted or rated R,

it is little wonder that teens do not view their bodies as precious temples. Leviticus 19:29

states, “Do not prostitute thy daughter, to cause her to be a whore; lest the land fall to

whoredom, and the land become full of wickedness.”

With the term sex education more emphasis should be placed on the word

education rather than on sex. Sex education should be taught with God’s principles

although God has currently been taken out of the public education system. This would

help the next generation realize that what the media and their peers are teaching them

goes against all of God’s principles concerning premarital relations and marriage.

Summary

The purpose of this chapter was to review the literature pertinent to topic of the

study, as related to teen sexual practices and pregnancy, beginning with the theoretical

framework. Bandura's (1986, 1982) social-cognitive model is concerned with ways in

which mental representations of social events, societal/cultural norms, and personal

58
characteristics influence behavior, reasoning, emotion, and motivation. The approach

addresses self and social goals, mental representations of self and others, and the role of

social facilitation in decision-making, memory, and judgment. According to Bandura,

self-efficacy relates to confidence in one’s own ability to carry out a particular behavior

and, therefore, his theory predicts that behaviors such as sexual preventive behaviors are

performed if one perceives control over the outcome, few external barriers, and has

confidence in one’s ability (Bandura, 1992).

As associated with the theory of reasoned action, it is proposed that one's sexual

preventive behavior is a function of behavioral intention to perform a particular act.

Behavioral intentions, in turn, are assumed to be a function of a person's attitude toward

performance of a particular preventive behavior, the individual’s subjective perception of

what significant others wish the individual to do with respect to the behavior in question,

or both. Another predictor of intentions is perceived behavior control, similar to

Bandura’s (1982) concept of self-efficacy.

The literature on factors impacting teen sexual practices and pregnancy was also

reviewed. These factors included poverty and welfare dependence, environment (cultural

and social), parents, peers, poor sex education, age at which sex is first initiated, and

technology. According to the literature, television and modern technology devices,

programs and activities have had a significant impact on sexual learning and activity

among teenagers. Explicit sex, inappropriate language, and sexual references are seen

regularly on TV at hours when children are still awake. These children easily imitate

sexual messages and absorb sexual information received from these programs.

Interestingly, negative consequences of sexual portrayals are rarely seen on television,

59
but stories showing sex out of wedlock and pregnancy are plentiful. The review also

defined sexual education and programs, and reviewed examples of specific teenage

pregnancy prevention programs. The final program described was the forerunner of the

one that was assessed in the present research. This chapter has laid the foundation for the

study through a thorough and vigorous search of the literature. Chapter 3 is the

methodology portion and describes the means used to collect and analyze the data.

60
 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

Introduction

Previous portions of the study introduced the problem of concern and reviewed

the literature pertinent to the topic of the study. The purpose of this phenomenological

case study was to examine the lived experiences of a snowball sample of African-

American young women who had become pregnant as teenagers and had participated in a

Teen Pregnancy prevention program in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the program

from the women’s point of view. A second purpose was to obtain outcome data

pertaining to the women, such as whether they prevented further pregnancies, continued

their education, or found employment after participating in the program.

The purpose of this chapter is to describe the methodology that was used by this

researcher to collect and analyze the data. First, the research questions are restated. The

next section describes the research design. In this section the rationale for the research

design is explained and a description of the implementation of the design is described.

The focus of inquiry and research questions are also identified. Following sections

describe the participants, setting, procedures, the researcher's biography, data collection,

and data analysis. The final portions of the chapter discuss the trustworthiness of the

study and ethical considerations.

Research Design

The purpose of this study was to examine the lived experiences of a snowball

sample of African-American young women who had become pregnant as teenagers and

had participated in a Teen Pregnancy prevention program in order to evaluate the

effectiveness of the program from the women’s point of view. A second purpose was to

61
obtain outcome data pertaining to the women, such as whether they prevented further

pregnancies, continued their education, or found employment after participating in the

program. The appropriate research design was a qualitative collective case study,

utilizing a phenomenological approach because I wanted to explore the lived experiences

of participants. Creswell (2007) defined qualitative research as an inquiry process of

understanding that is based on distinct methodological traditions of inquiry that explore a

social or human problem. In a collective case study, multiple cases are studied to “. . .

gain greater insight into a research topic” (Christensen & Johnson, 2008p. 408). The

purpose of utilizing the collective case study with the phenomenological approach is to

capture the lived experiences of several individuals regarding a concept or phenomenon

they have experienced (Creswell, 2007).

Ultimately the selection of methodology must rest with the researcher and the

type of study to be conducted. Serious consideration must be given to the overall design,

purpose of the study and development of research questions. The researcher’s function is

to build a complex picture, analyze words, report the detailed views of subjects and

conduct the study in a natural setting (Creswell, 2007). Qualitative research occurs in a

natural setting where the researcher is an instrument of data collection who gathers words

or pictures, analyzes them individually, focuses on the meaning of the participants, and

describes a process (Babbie, 2003). These are the defining elements of qualitative

research, which often involves the in-depth study of cases, interpretation of behaviors, or

detailed description. The analysis is ideographic, because the goal is comprehension of

the phenomenon, the interaction of factors, and how they define the case.

Sources of data in qualitative research include unstructured or semi-structured

62
interviews, observation, and documents. The choice of data sources is usually based on

purposive sampling, which focuses on collecting data from sources most likely to provide

relevant information, as was true in the present case. A common aspect of most

qualitative research data collection is participant observation. In this situation the

researcher observes and interviews the participants. Subjects, referred to as participants

are usually chosen because they have experienced the phenomenon being investigated

(Creswell, 2007).

There are a number of approaches to be employed in qualitative research such as

participatory personal reflection, surveys, interviews, and case studies. A principal

argument for a case study is that it provides a way of studying human events and actions

in their natural surroundings. The case study with a phenomenological approach, used in

the present study, has several advantages. Yin (2002) listed these as follows:

• The discovery of hidden forms of behavior

• The exploration of causal mechanisms linking phenomena

• The revelation of a critical case

• The explanation of variations.

In addition, a case study allows the investigator to discover complex sets of

• decisions made by participants and to recount the effect of their decisions

over time (Punch, 2005).

In addition, a case study allows the researcher to study people at a relatively small price.

Only one is required for interpretations of data. Case studies are a type of qualitative

research in which the researcher “explores a single entity or phenomenon (‘the case’)

bounded by time and activity (a program, event, process, institution, or social group) and

63
collects detailed information by using a variety of data collection procedures during a

sustained period of time (Babbie, 2003).

According to Yin (2002), case studies can be used to explain complex causal links

in real-life interventions, to describe the real-life context of the intervention, to describe

the intervention itself, and to explore situations in which the outcomes of the intervention

being evaluated are not clear. Yin (2002) identified three specific types of case studies:

exploratory, explanatory, and descriptive.

The research methodology of the present study utilized a phenomenological case

study, with a phenomenological approach, using a survey and interview method to obtain

data. In considering the design of any investigation, researchers have their choice of

using both qualitative and quantitative methods to complete the study in question.

Quantitative research is mainly concerned with the collection and analysis of data in

numeric form. Qualitative research is centered on collecting and analyzing subjective

information. The objective of qualitative research is to achieve depth rather than breadth

(Creswell, 2007). Questionnaires and surveys are used when there is a need to obtain

qualitative information in a non-threatening way. The advantages include low

administrative cost, easy comparison and analysis of data, the ability to ensure anonymity

as well as to administer to many respondents, and the capability to produce data quantity

(Rea & Parker, 2005). It is, in part, for these advantages that this researcher selected the

present research design.

However, as with most research designs there are also disadvantages associated

with a qualitative questionnaire survey approach. Examples of this are that people may

not give careful responses, wording of items can elicit biased responses, and

64
questionnaire surveys may require the assistance of a sampling expert (Babbie, 2003;

Creswell, 2007).

Research Questions

As noted above, the purpose of this phenomenological case study was to examine

the lived experiences of a snowball sample of African-American young women who had

become pregnant as teenagers and had participated in a Teen Pregnancy prevention

program in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the program from the women’s point of

view. A second purpose was to obtain outcome data pertaining to the women, such as

whether they prevented further pregnancies, continued their education, or found

employment after participating in the program. From this purpose five research questions

were derived. They may be restated again as follows:

1. What factors prompted participants’ decision to enter into the Teen

Pregnancy and Prevention Program?

2. How did the Teen Pregnancy Prevention Program reduce participants’ risk of

having a second child and/or engaging in sexual activity(ies) while in the

program?

3. How did the Teen Parenting Program help prevent participants from having a

second baby out of wedlock after leaving the program?

4. How did attending the Teen Pregnancy Prevention Program assist

participants in finding a job and being self-supporting?

5. How did the program affect participants’ desire to pursue further education?

Participants

The sample for this research study consisted of students who attended the

65
 Teenage Parenting Center in a southwest county in Georgia. There are

approximately 150 teenage parents that attend the school each academic school year. All

the students are girls between the ages of 13 to 18 and are either pregnant or have one

child. It should be noted that students are not allowed to attend the school if they have a

second child while in the program. The school is located in an urban area in Georgia,

which typically has a majority student population of African Americans. Approximately

30% of the student population comprise of Hispanics and Caucasians who also attend the

school/program. This high school/center is made up of all pregnant girls or first time

mothers. There are about 40 girls who leave the Teenage Parenting Center each year due

to graduating or not completing the program.

The researcher selected eight students to participate in the study by using the

snowball method. Participants were solicited through the social media website,

Facebook. The researcher created a Facebook account for the purposes of this study

only. The Facebook page directed interested participants to contact the researcher by

phone only to set up an appointment for their interview, survey, and personal reflection.

Directing participants to contact the researcher by phone only allowed confidentiality.

The researcher used a script to provide information about the study to potential

participants.

The researcher asked the participants to recommend two others they knew who

had attended the program. Selection criteria were that participants needed to be 18 to 21

years old who had graduated or attended the program between the academic school years

of 2005 through 2012. Eventually, this resulted in recruiting eight African-American

participants as no other ethnicities responded to participate in the study. None of the

66
potential participants who called to participate in the study were turned away due to

having a second child while in the program. They only had one child during the duration

of the time they were enrolled at the school. All participants who responded were

included in this study. Eight participants were adequate for this study according to

Creswell (2007) who states, “four to five cases should provide ample opportunity to

identify themes of the cases as well as conduct cross-case theme analysis” (p.128).

Furthermore, Christensen and Johnson (2008) recommend “when less depth is required

and when greater resources are available, collective case studies around ten cases are

common.” (p. 408).

Site and Setting

The Teenage Parenting Center is an offshoot of the TAPP program discussed in

the previous chapter. It is in a school district that offers special benefits for pregnant and

parenting teens. As previously noted, the TAPP concept was initiated in 1985 as a result

of increasing teenage pregnancies throughout Chatham and Savannah County. It was

designed to be a dropout prevention program and enrollment was voluntary.

In the year 2000 the TAPP program was originally located at the Parent and Child

facility. The Parent and Child facility appointed a liaison between the Associate

Superintendent for Middle and High Schools at the Board of Education and a retired

District administrator who was commissioned to complete the following tasks:

• Assist in the opening and closing of appropriate schools

• Evaluate the certified teaching staff

• Implement staff development strategies

• Arrange for TAPP services

67
 • Consult with the program director with respect to school administration

(Lawrence, 2004, p. 5).

The present study evaluated a current Teenage Parenting Center by assessing the

students’ beliefs about its effectiveness. The researcher used the county’s public library,

Chattahoochee Valley Library, as the site for conducting the interviews, administering

the survey, and eliciting the written personal reflection. The Chattahoochee Valley

Library was an appropriate place to conduct the study as all participants were familiar

with the county’s public library through having attended different parenting workshops at

this site and because the site afforded quiet, private rooms in which to conduct

interviews. The researcher collected data at this library in a conference room without

windows.

The current Teenage Parenting Center was designed for pregnant teenage mothers

in the public school system. Students come from a wide variety of socioeconomic

backgrounds. Some teens come from public housing/mobile home trailer parks, and their

families often depend on public assistance to care for their family. Other students in the

program may live in exclusive neighborhoods and their family may earn $50,000 or more

per year. At the time of the study, the facility’s existing population consisted of 17

Caucasians, 89 African Americans and 38 Hispanics/Native Americans.

The current program being utilized was designed specifically for pregnant teenage

mothers in the public school system. The program population at the Center consists of

those who are pregnant or have a child. The total number of pregnant students attending

the center has an approximate average of 150 students per year, for the past seven

academic school years. The girls are allowed to bring their baby to school with them and

68
are provided with free daycare. The only restriction to remaining in the program is that

students are not allowed to continue the program if they have a second child while in the

program.

The mission of the TAPP program focuses on providing strong academics and

family life education to enable pregnant mothers to become nurturing parents, and

productive members of society. The program’s goals include reducing the dropout rate,

teaching parenting skills, delaying repeat teenage pregnancies and pregnancies during the

early stage of life, increasing independent living skills and career skills, and encouraging

students to set goals to balance work and family (Teenage Parenting Center Student

Handbook, 2010). The teachers, counselors, and administrators held a Georgia educator

certificate issued by the Georgia Professional Standards Commission. The facility

consisted of one principal, a daycare director, two certified school counselors and 18

certified teachers. The curriculum used for instruction was based on Georgia’s Quality

Core Curriculum and the program incorporated the traditional high school schedule as

closely as possible. Students attended school for seven hours a day and additional time

was allotted for students to have an opportunity to visit with their children in the daycare

facility during the school day.

Procedures

The database for the present research and analysis was derived from an in-depth

review of the available literature. This review specifically focused on the variables of

each of the research questions. The procedures developed to conduct the study consisted

of four distinctive and sequential steps. These steps were as follows:

Step 1: A rigorous search and review of the literature was conducted relevant to

69
the theoretical framework and to general concerns and issues of teenage pregnancy and

prevention programs (e.g., factors influencing pregnancy rates, social and cultural

characteristics, etc.). Those materials deemed most important and relevant to the

research investigation were reviewed in depth.

Step 2: Using the results from the literature review and the research questions in

the first chapter, a survey instrument was developed to provide demographic data. The

survey was administered by this researcher to the participants. Data from the survey

were tabulated and results are presented in chapter 4. Data were also collected from

interviews and personal reflections. These were compared to survey results to identify

similarities and/or differences in responses. Questionnaire items included on the survey

form were derived mainly from findings included in the literature review. These also

served to construct interview questions and personal reflection. Results of the three types

of data were then triangulated by this researcher. According to Creswell (2007),

triangulation of information – that is, the use of several different forms of data collected

through a qualitative, a quantitative, or a combination approach is perhaps the strongest

type of research. In chapter 5, results of the present research are related to the literature.

Step 3: On the basis of the study’s literature review and qualitative data

collection, information was amassed to answer each of the study's research questions. A

content analysis was used to evaluate and assess interview information as well as

personal reflection. Results were compared and contrasted and answers to the research

questions are summarized in chapter 5.

Step 4: Based on findings of the study, conclusions are drawn and

recommendations are made in chapter 5. Recommendations focus on suggestions for

70
future research, as well as on areas of concern deemed important in the light of the

findings of this study.

Information from the three types of data were recorded using different types of

media. For example, survey responses were recorded on a previously prepared form that

consists of three sections: demographic information and Likert-type items. Interview

information was tape recorded, then transcribed on a free form. Personal reflections were

recorded on a free form sheet.

As previously explained, participants for the study were recruited through using

the snowball approach. Two teenagers who graduated from the program were identified

and asked to participate in the present investigation. They were then asked to

recommend two others who also graduated from the prevention program. The two

additional participants they recruited were also asked to recommend two other program

graduates. Eventually eight participants who had graduated from the program were

solicited for the present research. If any decided not to participate the last two who were

solicited using the snowball approach would be asked to suggest two others. If they were

unable to do this, then two girls who had been recruited previously would be asked. The

researcher exhausted all contacts. Since Creswell (2007) suggested using four to five

participants and Christensen and Johnson (2008) suggested using ten participants the

researcher chose to use an average of the two suggestions for the study.

Researcher's Role/Personal Biography

My name is Marsha Brown and I am a Licensed Professional Counselor employed

at a counseling facility. My role in this study was that of principle researcher. I earned a

Bachelor of Science (B.S.) degree in early childhood education, Master of Science (M.S.)

71
degree in Counseling and Psychology, and Educational Specialist (Ed.S.) degree in

School Counseling. I also have a certification in Educational Leadership. Currently, I

am pursuing my Doctor of Education (Ed.D.) in Educational Leadership degree from

Liberty University.

My role in this study was to research, write, and develop all parts of the present

thesis. This involved creating the survey questionnaire, as well as collecting and

analyzing the information obtained from three different types of data (interview, survey,

and personal reflection).

I am committed to helping young girls graduate from high school so they can

pursue their education, as opposed to being young teenage parents, dropping out of

school and having a bleak future. I have dedicated most of my career to assisting

adolescent girls with peer pressure, appropriate relations, and becoming young women

with values and respect. As a counselor, I believe these girls need positive role models,

education, and group counseling to deal with appropriate teenage relationships and

teenage pregnancy. Often times when teens become pregnant they drop out of school

because they do not know how to handle their situation and have not been afforded the

education that would provide them with suitable coping skills. I passionately believe that

every child deserves a quality education. Unwed teenage mothers are in need of this

more than ever because they have a baby, and next to God, this should be a priority in

their life.

Data Collection

Data were collected during two separate visits to the library with each participant.

During the first library session, the conference room was utilized for interviews and for

72
the participants to complete their surveys. Interviews were audio recorded and lasted

about 50 minutes; surveys took approximately 10 minutes to complete. Surveys

consisted of 11 Likert-type questions regarding participants’ perspectives about the

teenage pregnancy/prevention program. One week after the first session, a second library

session was held. During the second library session, participants were given the personal

reflection template to complete at the library. The researcher also gave the participants a

copy of their interview transcript for review for accuracy during the second library

session. To provide more detailed and organized information on each of the three types

of data collection, each is described below in a separate subsection. Interviews are

described first, followed by personal reflections. The final subsection centers on

explaining the 11 questions of the survey questionnaire.

Interviews. The researcher conducted all eight of the interviews (APPENDIX

C). Interviews were offered at the participant's convenience at the Chattahoochee Valley

Library. The participant’s young child(ren) were able to accompany the mother if

childcare could not be obtained. If a participant did not have transportation the

researcher was willing to conduct the interviews at the participant’s home.

In every case the researcher made every effort to make each participant feel

relaxed and at ease. Interviews took place between February and March of 2013.

Interview (ADDENDIX C) data were collected on a tape recorder for later transcription

and covered the following areas of information:

• Background demographic detail

• Situation prior to the pregnancy

• What transpired on discovery of the pregnancy

73
• Health and lifestyle choices

• Postnatal period and the child

• Overall experience of teenage motherhood

• Feelings on sex education in school

• Feelings about attending the Teenage Parenting Center High School

• Perceptions of whether the program helped her deal with motherhood

• Perceptions on whether the program assisted her with parenting skills

• Perceptions on whether the sex education information helped reduce the chance of

her having a second child

• Perceptions on whether the program assisted helping her change their views

regarding unhealthy sexual practices

• Perceptions as to whether the program helped her get the health care she needed

for herself and her child

• Perceptions on whether the free child care program assisted with graduating or

continuing school

• Perceptions on whether she was able to improve her job history since leaving the

pregnancy prevention program

• Perceptions as to whether the program assisted her to find work

• Perceptions on whether she was able to attend college or trade school since

leaving the program

• Whether or not she had any other children since leaving the program

• Perceptions regarding recommendations to other pregnant teens who attend the

program

74
 • Perceptions as to whether the program did or did not assist her to get ready for the

real world.

Each participant was interviewed for about 50 minutes after signing the consent

form to audio tape and informal introductions. Confidentiality was assured to each study

participant. The interviews were audio taped, transcribed, reviewed, and discussed with

participants to ensure validity and clarity of each interview. The verbatim transcripts

provided the evidence base for the thematic account and their inclusion provided a means

of validation. A content analysis was employed to evaluate the interview and identify

recurring themes. The content analysis technique is described in greater detail in a later

subsection of this chapter.

Personal reflections. The researcher carried out all eight of the personal

reflections (see APPENDIX D for prompts), which were gathered at the Chattahoochee

Valley Library. Clandinin and Connelly (2007) suggested collecting field texts through

an array of sources, including journals, letters, autobiography, and stories. Written

personal reflection in a qualitative study is a way to allow the participants to express their

opinions in their own words in written form. Participants were asked to write about their

experience, positives and negatives of the program, and whether they would recommend

the program. The researcher observed the behavior and environment of the respondents

in terms of the following:

• Positive aspects of the program

• Negative aspects of the program

• Perception of the program

• Recommendation for the program

75
 • Benefits of program.

The participants were made aware that their reflection should be based on their

own experience; the length of time given to write the reflection was approximately 60

minutes. If a participant were to request more time, time would be granted. In every

case, the researcher made every effort to make the participants feel relaxed and at ease.

The researcher asked participants to write about their experiences of attending the

Teenage Parenting Program and would they recommend the program to other teen

mothers using the personal reflection template provided.

Surveys. Each of the eight participants completed a survey administered by the

researcher. Surveys (APPENDIX E) were conducted at the Chattahoochee Valley

Library. The survey was developed by the Institute for Research and Evaluation to

“assess the effects of [sex education and abstinence programs] and to describe the

influences and dynamics involved in teen sexuality” (Olsen, Weed, Nielsen, & Jensen,

1992, p.373) and requires about 15 minutes to complete. The 11-item survey covered

beliefs that the respondent had about the pregnancy prevention program - that is, if the

students believed the program assisted them in the following areas:

• Relationship education - appropriate and inappropriate

• Appropriate socialization skills

• Sexually transmitted disease differences

• Contraception use and misuse

• Pregnancy education

• The effectiveness of the program.

Respondents are asked to circle the number that best represents how she feels

76
about the statement. Choices (or categories of responses) range from strongly disagree to

strongly agree. The survey was validated and to have an alpha level of .94 for inter item

reliability for raw variables, .94 regarding program rating and standardized variables, .96

for both raw variables, and .96 for teacher rating (Olsen, Weed, Nielsen, & Jensen, 1992).

Data Analysis

Interpretative phenomenological analysis is interested in the participant's

experience of the topic under investigation and, as such, does not attempt to produce an

objective statement. It is an attempt to unravel the meanings in the person's account

through a process of interpretive engagement with the interview transcripts, personal

reflections and survey. The process started by taking one transcript, personal reflection,

and survey then analyzing it in depth. Initial notes were made and, as the researcher

became more familiar with the information, emerging themes were grouped together into

master themes. Each transcript and personal reflections were then read numerous times,

looking for new themes and confirmation of those that had already been identified.

Surveys were also reviewed and grouped into themes. The process was ongoing and

iterative with a continual return to the raw data. For the purposes of this research,

pregnancy prevention was generally defined as reduced sexual activity and thus lowered

risk. The overall aim of this analysis was to translate the themes into a narrative account.

It is important to explain that the content analysis method is applicable to any form

of communication – personal reflection, interview, etc. Sometimes it deals with the

systematic examination of current records or documents as sources of data. Sources for

the present analysis, however, were derived from responses to questionnaire items,

personal reflections, and responses to interviews.

77
 Coding. Coding is a process for both categorizing qualitative data and for

describing the implications and details of categories. Initially, the researcher used open

coding (APPENDIX F), considering the data in minute detail while developing some

initial categories. Later, the researcher used selective coding, where one systematically

codes with respect to a core concept. Coding allowed the researcher to break down,

examine, compare, conceptualize, and categorize the data.

Member checking. The researcher used member checking, in which each of the

participants reviewed a summary of the data analysis procedure and a summary of the

final results of the inquiry. They answered several interview questions and offered

comments on whether or not they felt the data were interpreted in a manner congruent

with their own experiences. All participants surveyed rated the findings of the data

analysis as a “moderately” to “strongly” credible interpretation of the reality they

experienced in the study. In addition, all eight participants made comments that directly

connected the findings to one or more personal experiences they had in the procedure.

The exact documents used in the member checking process will be on file and available

upon request.

Audit trail. After the researcher completed the data analysis, she thoroughly

examined the audit trail, which consisted of the original transcripts, data analysis

documents, surveys, and comments from the member checking. The researcher took a

data-oriented approach to show how the data eventually lead to the formation of

recommendations. Based on established procedures in qualitative research, the

researcher assessed dependability and conformability of the study, as well as the

completeness and availability of auditable documents. The researcher also evaluated the

78
degree and significance of the influence found.

Brogdan and Biklen (1998) used the term triangulation to mean “verification of

the facts using more than a single source, because multiple sources lead to a fuller

understanding of the phenomenon one is studying” (p. 104). It is to the researcher’s

advantage to use the data collected with description of how the data were collected

through interviews, personal reflections, and surveys. Triangulation was used to enhance

the accuracy and increase the trustworthiness of data gathered from the multiple sources

and methods (Creswell, 2007). In chapter 4, data are organized and presented in several

formats, utilizing charts, graphs and tables, and are used to highlight the data succinctly.

At the termination of the interview process, surveying, and personal reflection, the

information is categorized and coded in order to finalize the themes and concepts that are

the basis of the student’s beliefs about the Teen Pregnancy/Prevention Program reducing

the risk of teen pregnancy and unhealthy sexual activity at the Teenage Parenting Center.

Trustworthiness

The aim of trustworthiness in a qualitative inquiry is to support the argument that

the inquiry’s findings are “worth paying attention to” (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 290). In

this study the researcher used three forms of data collection to make the study credible.

First, in designing the research procedure, the researcher deliberately collected three

forms of data rather than just one or two. The intention here was to generate three layers

of data from each participant. This was intended to provide a richer, more multilayered,

and more credible data set than one or two forms would have generated. In addition,

future studies could supplement the theory developed here by analyzing the present data

solely by participant or solely by data type. Secondly, while bias is often difficult to

79
control in qualitative interviewing, the researcher took every precaution to ensure

questions in the interview process were unbiased. Thirdly, transferability enabled this

researcher to include several of the data analysis documents used to generate the answer

to the research question. The complete set of data analysis documents will remain on file

and available upon request. This access to the inquiry’s “paper trail” gives other

researchers the ability to transfer the conclusions of this inquiry to other cases, or to

repeat, as closely as possible, the procedures of this project.

Collected and analyzed data were shared with the participants as the study

progressed. One purpose of sharing is to ensure the data integrity of the study. The

researcher met with the participants periodically to review the transcripts and coded

categories, in an effort to ensure the input had been correctly understood. Data sharing

also aids in validating the perception of the researcher, as participants are observed

engaging in daily activities, caring for their child, and lifestyle.

Ethical Considerations

The researcher ensured the participants’ names have been kept confidential, with

each participant’s name being changed to a pseudonym. To ensure the use of ethical

procedures, the purpose of the research, procedures, and outcomes were explained to the

participants. Although participants were not compensated, they were told the research

was conducted in the interest of future program participants. The researcher obtained

informed consent before proceeding with data collection.

In addition, it was explained to potential participants they did not need to

participate in the study if they did not want too. Even after the data collection had begun,

a participant may be allowed to withdraw. Since the participants were over 18 years of

80
age, no parental consent was needed. By fully disclosing and explaining the nature of the

tests, any potential ethical problems were eliminated.

Also, participants were informed they would have an identifier, such as a number

or pseudonym, and were asked to not sign their names to any completed forms to ensure

anonymity. Again, participants were assured that all information collected in the study

would be held in the strictest confidence, and only aggregated information would be used

for analysis. However, upon request, the results will be made available to the participants

and to the school.

In summary, the data analysis completed by this researcher and the results of this

study were designed to help determine if teenage pregnancy prevention programs reduced

unhealthy behaviors, reduced the chance of the girls having a second child out of

wedlock, and allowed the students to graduate from high school and become productive

citizens. The results of the present investigation were intended to reveal whether the

previous students from the program believe that the program assisted them with being a

teenage mother. Results were also intended to reveal if the students believed they learned

coping skills to help them avoid another out-of-wedlock pregnancy. The results from

these findings can be used to determine if it is beneficial to create new programs.

81
 CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS

Overview

The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine the benefits and/or success

of the Teenage Parenting Program and the lived experience of the African American

females who attended the program. The study focused on the following research

questions:

1. What factors prompted participants’ decision to enter into the Teen

Pregnancy and Prevention Program?

2. How did the Teen Pregnancy Prevention Program reduce participants’ risk of

having a second child and/or engaging in sexual activity(ies) while in the

program?

3. How did the Teen Parenting Program help prevent participants from having a

second baby out of wedlock after leaving the program?

4. How did attending the Teen Pregnancy Prevention Program assist

participants in finding a job and being self-supporting?

5. How did the program affect participants’ desire to pursue further education?

A snowball sample of eight African-American women who had previously

participated in the TAPP program was recruited as described in Chapter Three. To

capture the participants’ lived experiences, individual interviews, a survey, and a written

personal reflection were used to gather data. Interview data was transcribed and

organized into categories and themes that reflected the overall patterns of participants’

responses to the interview questions. Open coding was used to identify emerging themes

in the interviews and written reflections. Descriptive statistics (means, standard

82
deviations) were used to summarize the survey responses.

The current chapter of this study presents the findings from these three data

collection methods. The chapter is organized as follows. First, the participants are

described and their demographic data are presented. Second, the themes that emerged

from analysis of the interviews are presented. Third, the participants’ responses to the

survey and written reflection are presented and analyzed. Finally, the findings of the

study are summarized.

Participants

Table 1 shows the demographics of the sample. The average age of the

participants was 20.25 years. All participants began the program when they were

pregnant with their first child. Currently, the participants’ average number of children is

2 since leaving the program as compared to an average of 1 while in the program.

Participants were an average age of 15.5 when they became pregnant for the first time.

At the time of the survey all lived in a housing authority apartment and all but one lived

with her boyfriend. Six participants were employed full-time; two were not employed.

Six were high school graduates; four were attending college; one completed the program

and passed all course work, but could not pass the graduation test; one had not graduated

from high school. A description of each participant follows on Table 1.

83
Table 1

Demographics of the Sample

Partici Chil Children While Age 1st Live-In Educa Wo Hous

pant Age dren in Program Pregnancy Status1 tion2 rk3 ing4

1 20 2 1 15 1 3 3 1

2 20 2 1 15 1 3 3 1

3 21 2 1 15 1 3 3 1

4 20 2 1 16 1 2 1 1

5 21 4 2 16 1 2 3 1

6 20 2 1 16 3 1 3 1

7 21 3 1 15 1 1 3 1

8 19 1 1 16 1 3 1 1

M 20 2.25 1.13 15.5 1.25 2.25 2.5 1

1
Live-In Status was coded as: Living with boyfriend = 1, Married = 2, Living alone= 3
2
Education was coded as: Did not graduate = 1, High school graduate = 2, Some

college/currently attending college = 3

3
Work was coded as: Not employed = 1, Part time job = 2, Full time job = 3
4
Housing was coded as: District housing = 1, Other = 2

84
 Participant 1 was Mia, a 20-year old with two children who became pregnant for

the first time at age 15. She had one child while in the program. Her children were

currently 5 years old and 1 year old. She currently lived with her boyfriend, who was not

the first child’s father, in a housing authority apartment. She had a job working full-time,

graduated from high school, and had attended junior college.

Participant 2 was Erica, a 20-year old with two children who became pregnant for

first time at age 15. She had one child while in the program. Her children were currently

4 years old and 5 months old. She currently lives with her boyfriend, who was not the

first child’s father, in a housing authority apartment. She had a job working full-time,

graduated from high school, and was attending junior college.

Participant 3 was Jada, a 21-year old with two children who became pregnant for

the first time at age 15. She had one child while in the program. She currently has two

children and lives with her boyfriend, who was not the first child’s father, in a housing

authority apartment. She has a job working full-time, graduated from high school, and

was one year away from graduating from a four-year college.

Participant 4 was Kaylen, a 20-year old with two children who became pregnant

for the first time at age 16. She had one child while in the program. Her children were

currently 4 years old and 9 months old. She currently lives with her boyfriend, who was

not the first child’s father, in a housing authority apartment. She did not work outside the

home because she was caring for her 9-month old child with a disability full-time. She

graduated from high school, but had not attended college.

Participant 5 was Kimberly, a 21-year old with four children who became

pregnant for first time at age 16. She had two children while in the program. Her

85
children’s ages were 5, 3, 2, and 1 year old. She currently lives with her boyfriend, who

is the father of all of her children, in a housing authority apartment. She has a job

working full-time, graduated from high school, and was about to begin a four-year

nursing program.

Participant 6 was Jennifer, a 20-year old with two children who became pregnant

for the first time at age 16. She had one child while in the program. Her children were

currently 4 years old and 10 months old. She currently lived with her boyfriend, who was

not the first child’s father, in a housing authority apartment. She had a job working full-

time, dropped out of high school, and had not attended college.

Participant 7 was Nicole, a 21-year old with three children who became pregnant

for the first time at age 15. She had one child while in the program. Her children were

currently 6 years old, 1 year old, and 2 weeks old. She lives with her boyfriend, to whom

she was engaged and who was not the first child’s father, in a housing authority

apartment. She had a job working full-time. Although she completed her high school

coursework with A’s and B’s, she was unable to pass the state graduation test and

therefore did not graduate. She expressed the desire to become a nurse.

Participant 8 was Kierra, a 19-year old with one child who became pregnant for

the first time at age 16. Her child was currently 3 years old. She currently lives with her

boyfriend, who was not the first child’s father, in a housing authority apartment. She was

not currently employed, had graduated from high school, and had attended junior college.

Interview Findings

Overall perceptions of the program. Within the group of eight research

participants, there was a roughly equal split between those who reported significantly

86
positive experiences of participation in the program and those who had negative

perceptions of the program and felt that it had offered few benefits for them as pregnant

teenagers and young mothers. However, seven participates indicated that they

themselves had chosen to attend the Center, or had done so voluntarily. One participant

indicated that, as a pregnant teenager, she could feel more comfortable there than at a

regular school:

Jada: I felt good about it because some of the girls were already pregnant like me

so I felt like I was around girls who could understand me … There’s a lot of other

girls out here, younger girls and they’ll be unwilling because they’re pregnant or

they’re being picked on because they have to go to a regular school where people

that are not pregnant have to compromise and I felt TAPP was a safe place unlike

regular school.

However, several interviewees expressed a distinct dislike of the all-female

atmosphere, which seemed to have affected their overall experience of program

participation and perhaps may have deterred them from participating in non-compulsory

activities.

Mia: I didn’t like the parent center because it was too many girls, too much

drama, a lot of baby daddy drama and gossips.

Jada: When I first started to attend TAPP I was under the influence it was a

boy/girl school, but once I got there I didn’t see any males. I started to get

depressed. I don’t like a lot of women. Then every day we went to school

somebody was fighting or somebody got into it with somebody else baby

daddy…just messy. I couldn’t take that. I went but I just stayed to myself cause I

87
 didn’t have time to be fighting them girls.

Impact of program participation on healthy sexual practices. When asked

about their use of contraception before or when they became pregnant, some of the

interviewees admitted that they were not using any form of birth control or were only

using it occasionally, while others stated their contraception had failed. None of these

women reported that they had intended to get pregnant, and all indicated that they had

initially experienced negative emotions on discovering their first pregnancy such as

anxiety, fear and anger at themselves for becoming pregnant.

However, there was a divergence of views on whether participation in the

program’s sex education classes had taught them anything about safe sexual behavior that

they didn’t already know. Two of the participants reported that they had not attended any

sex education classes while in the program.

Kimberley: I don't know nothing about a sexual education class at TAPP … We

never talked about it. They never talked about. I'm not saying that I wasn't old

enough to know, because I'm old enough to know that I need protection, but they

didn't teach it. I never attended any.

Of the rest, some reported that they had gained useful knowledge from the classes:

Jada: A lot of the diseases that I thought I knew about, but then I found out some

of them you can’t. Like they would be with you for the rest of your life.

Nicole: Of course, to be more cautious when it comes to sex. I mean, some girls

go with men and they don't know who they been with.

Others, however, indicated they felt the classes had not taught them anything they did not

already know, or that it was being received too late to be of much help to them.

88
 Erica: I wish I had sex education before I became pregnant cause they were

teaching me stuff I already knew.

Kaylen: I really didn’t feel that I could use for it. I felt I wished we would have

did that before high school or in another school somewhere else.

Kimberley: I can remember we were just sitting there talking about, “When I had

my baby, it felt like this and it felt like that,” Some girls were pregnant, girls

pregnant. Some had already had their kids … several of us talking about that. I

felt like they should have been teaching us, “You shouldn't be having sex or

whatever.”

All of the participants stated that they had started using healthy sexual practices

after attending the program because they were using contraception and only sleeping with

one regular partner. However, nearly all the interviewees had gone on to have more

children at a relatively young age. All but one had had another child since participating

in the program; for 6 however, this was not until several years later, and 7 said their

subsequent pregnancies were planned. Of the eight women interviewed, only one

reported having another child while still in the program. When asked specifically if the

program had assisted them in not having a second child at an early age, many answered

affirmatively, but those who explained their response cited the practical difficulties of

combining their education while looking after a baby, rather than the sex education they

had received:

Erica: Yes. It was hard when having a baby getting on the bus with car seat and

books and doing that every day, getting on and off the bus that was hard.

Jada: A lot of days they used to close the daycare facility early and we used to

89
 have to lug our kids around with us along with our books. It was hard and it was

stressful. Some of the kids were crying. We can’t concentrate on our work …

Practical benefits of program participation. The findings indicated that the

greatest perceived benefit of attending the Center for most of the interviewees was the

availability of daycare for their baby or child; a factor that had facilitated continued

participation in their education. Many of the women emphasized this benefit and

expressed gratitude that they were able to see their child during the school day.

Kaylen: It meant everything to me, because I didn’t want to leave my baby, then I

had to go to school …. My mom, she’s at work and it would be important for me

find somebody to watch my baby while I try to graduate or whatnot. If I didn’t go

to TAPP then I wouldn’t had nobody to keep my baby.

Erica: Me being young and this my first child like I really used to miss him even

when he was in daycare I would like ask my teacher if I could have a pass to go

check on him and stuff, so I think it was better that he was close to me instead of

you know with someone else while I am in school and I’m worried about him.

Nicole: It gave me more time to spend with my child, meaning my mom didn't

have to take care of him while I was at school. It was times when I'd get out of

class, I could still go see my son. I mean, it's a good mothering thing, so I

preferred to stay where I was at that time. That’s why I stayed there until I

finished.

Kimberley: Yes, they assisted with my needs as far as daycare. That helped

because I don't have to pay nobody to watch my kids or anything while I am at

school. I can just take them to school with me, so that helped. It didn't matter

90
 what side of town you stayed on, they were going to come and get you.

Nicole: They helped me better myself many days watching my kids while I got

my education.

Kaylen: If I would have never went to TAPP, I wouldn’t have had a daycare to

get to school. I’d do it again if I had to.

Overall, the interviewees expressed satisfaction with the standard of daycare

provided, although a minority noted concerns about the care and perceived inexperience

of some of the staff.

Erica: They was a good day care because every day when I would go to pick up

my child they would check things in the bag like how many Pampers they used

and how many times they ate and what they did today like books and activities

like during naptime, how long they slept and stuff like that.

Mia: I think they had too many kids in one room but for the amount of teachers

they had. It was good that they had a day care but the people they had working in

the daycare I felt could have been better … They could have did a better job …

The people who work there, they should have had more experience or something.

The interviewees were also asked whether the parenting classes had taught them

anything they did not already know about parenting. A few (n = 3) reported that they had

learned useful practical things about how to look after a baby, and emphasized its

importance, especially for teenage mothers, who have little practical support outside the

program.

Kaylen: It taught me lots of things. If I’m a new parent, how would I know what

to do, and what not to do?

91
 Jada: They gave a lot of demonstrations on the right way to change a diaper, the

right way to clean your baby, the right way to feed them, hold them. The right

way to nurture your child. It teaches you a lot of stuff that your parents or friends

or friends of the family teach you, but the right way.

Most of these research participants, however, reported learning about childcare

from their own mothers or other relatives and did not feel that the program had helped

them much in this area. One participant, who had not been aware of or attended any

parenting classes, expressed the view that the inclusion of these would represent a

significant improvement to the program.

Mia: I really didn’t need their help cause my mama was teaching me.

Kimberley: No. Everything I learned, I learned from my mom and sisters that

had kids. No, the center didn't teach me anything

Erica: They didn’t really have no real parenting classes … they had like regular

computer class that we could read on stuff about parenting and your baby…

classes like that … I think for the girls that go into the school pregnant they

should have a class for them to teach them how to be a parent because some girls

they might not have a mother so they might need that class to teach them how to

be a parent stuff like that … If I could change one thing it would probably be to

have a class that teaches teenagers that are already pregnant how to be a mother

and how to - you know - change the baby, feed the baby, stuff about babies …

Although nearly all the participants reported having used the practical facilities

offered to them through the program, such as the WIC Office and transportation to

healthcare appointments, none remarked on any specific benefits of these. Most (n = 5)

92
said that they had not attended parenting classes or any off-campus events and only one

had used the program’s counseling service.

Academic benefits of program participation. There was a general consensus

among most of the research participants, that attending the program had helped them to

graduate from high school. However, this was perceived as being mainly due to practical

factors such as daycare for their babies, as well as special educational privileges such as

being able to take more days off in the academic year than would be allowed in a regular

school, and having the opportunity for a rest break in the school day if they were very

tired.

Kimberley: Yes, I think it assisted me in graduating, because I missed a lot of

days and I would say they are understanding. They know that you're pregnant and

that you got to go to the doctors and all those things …

Erica: Being a parent and going to school is very hard because the child will

wake up in the night and you don’t really get any sleep and at TAPP we had a

nurse office and they had two rooms and each room had two beds in it, so if the

teacher saw you were tired or sleeping through their class cause I had it happen to

me a few times especially when I was pregnant I couldn’t stay awake for nothing

but if I fell asleep in class my teacher would wake me up, write me a pass to go to

the nurses office and the nurse would let you go back there and take a nap for an

hour and then they would wake you up and you have to back to class.

Beyond these types of factors, views were very mixed on the standards of

academic teaching and support offered by the program. A few interviewees expressed

the view that these were higher than they would have received in a regular school:

93
 Erica: We had a real cool principal. She did try to help, she didn’t play like she

was real cool like she would see you putting in effort, you come to school every

day and you try and pass your class and you try to graduate and when it got time

for you to graduate and you fail you know you missed a test by a couple of points

or one point she would wave it so you could stay and graduate.

Jada: A lot of people just think they’re going there to have an easy way out. It’s

not easy. It’s harder than a regular high school, but they teach you more than in a

regular high school.

Nicole: They had tutorials after school. They had a bus to make sure you got

home. The thing is, when it came to graduation, they made you run over question

that was on the graduation test. They went over the tutorial, so there was

basically no reason why you shouldn't pass that graduation test.

Others were less positive, however, about their academic experiences at the Center or

reported more variable standards of teaching:

Mia: I won’t say all the teachers but certain teachers was like, “You got to do

this. You going to fail.” Other teachers was like ... well, it was just like they

didn’t care for real.

Kimberley: I don't feel like they taught you. They just gave you a book and you

read a chapter and you take a test. It was kind of like you were teaching yourself

… I think they were being lazy. That's what I think. I think it was laziness.

That's why I say if there were better teachers, probably a better principal; it would

have been a whole lot better I think.

Jennifer: I wasn’t learning anything. Things that they were showing me I already

94
 knew; I could have done that at home. No it did not (help). I had to go on after

that and get a GED. If I say I’m trying to get an education and all, no, that would

not be the place I would choose, TAPP, because they really didn’t really help me

in that area.

Perceived impact of program participation on subsequent life experiences.

The interview data suggest that the main positive impact of program participation for

most of these women was their ability to graduate high school while being pregnant or

looking after a young baby, mainly due to the practical benefits such as daycare and

greater flexibility in their studies. Following graduation, half (n = 4) of the women had

continued their education at Technical or Community College and in one case at

university level.

Generally, some (n = 4) of the interviewees felt that participation had prepared

them more generally for life as a teenage mother, though others were less positive about

this.

Erica: They help me understand I had to graduate and get a job so I could take

care of myself and my baby. The program made me understand if I wasn’t going

to do it for myself, at least do it for baby. And I did I graduated, in college, got

my own apartment and car and live with my children father.

Kierra: Yes, they taught us a lot of things important about life, they taught us

about how to handle things and how to know what to do.

Jada: Yes. Because being a teenage mother is a lot of stuff you think you know,

but you don’t know.

Kaylen: I don’t feel like it prepared me for life. I just felt like it was something

95
 just willing to help with us and the how to care for our babies.

Though it is difficult to isolate the specific effects of the program on their

subsequent experiences and on their attitudes to life, it is nonetheless notable that at least

some of these program participants reported that becoming pregnant at an early age had

not had an adverse effect on their lives and had even had positive impacts. It might be

cautiously inferred from these findings that their ability to graduate high school, through

participation in the program, contributed to their positive outlook and experiences.

Mia: It didn’t make stuff better but it has pushed me a lot harder. I knew oh, I’ve

got to do this. I’ve got to do this for my baby … I graduated, went to college and

everything. I think it was okay my being a mother at such a young age. If I

wouldn’t have gotten pregnant I probably would have stopped going to school …

It pushed me hard because I got to do this. I got to get me a good job.

Jennifer: It made me a better woman. I believe if it wasn’t for my child I

wouldn’t be the woman that I am today. For one when I had him I automatically

changed dramatically. It’s not about me anymore; it’s about him, so I wouldn’t

change anything. I wouldn’t go back and redo anything.

Erica: My son really didn’t stop me from doing anything I wanted to do before I

got pregnant, he just gave me more motivation. I did graduate on time. I was

working while I was in school. He didn’t stop me from going to the prom. I went

to my junior and senior prom. I went to my junior prom pregnant but I had a

maternity dress and I basically did everything that you would do during high

school.

However, other interviewees, when asked how their early pregnancy had affected their

96
lives, expressed considerable regret about lost opportunities and indicated they would

have liked to have done things differently.

Kaylen: I was too young, because I really didn’t get a chance to enjoy my life. I

really didn’t have enough chance to go to out with any of my friends or go parties.

I would have to go to work and get back to my baby. I feel that I was just really

too young. If I could have waited, I would have waited. If I could go back, I

would. I should have just waited.

Kimberley: It really did affect my life. I always have been an A, B or a principle

A student. Once I became sexually active and had a child everything changed.

I'm not as close with my family anymore. I didn't get go actually to the college.

I'm 21 and I am just now able to sign up for school, because I didn't have no help,

but I have some now. So, yes it affected my life a lot. I always say this, still to

this day, if could turn back the hands of time, I would not have sex at all. I

wouldn't have had sex.

Nicole: If I could do it again I would change it all. I would have waited, because

if I could do what I do now, back then, I would finish school college-wise, career

started, married before I had my first child, probably in the NBA doing like I

wanted to do; so I would have waited.

Survey Findings

A short survey was administered in conjunction with the interview and written

reflection. The participants were asked to rate the degree to which the education program

had helped them in 11 areas using a 5-point Likert-type scale, where 1 = none and 5 = a

lot. Table 2 shows the participants’ individual and average responses to the survey

97
questions as well as the standard deviation of the responses per item. Standard deviation

is a measure of the variability of a group of answers. Larger standard deviations indicate

a large amount of variability; smaller standard deviations indicate a small amount.

Because there was a large amount of variability, the median rather than the mean

response was considered more representative of the participants’ views.

Overall, participants’ responses indicated that they believed the program had

helped them a fair amount, as the median response to all questions was 4 out of a possible

5. Their lowest median response was 3 out of a possible 5 on item 1 (Learning things I

didn’t know before), slightly above which was item 4 (Discovering or recognizing values

and beliefs that are important to me) at 3.5 out of a possible 5. Thus, participants felt the

program was least helpful in conveying new information and helping them consider their

values. Their highest median response was 5 out of a possible 5 on item 6 (Thinking

about and planning for my future). Four items received mean response of 4 out of a

possible 5: item 2 (Developing good feelings about myself), item 3 (Learning things that

can help me in my everyday life), item 8 (Learning how to handle problems and pressures

that come up in life), and item 10 (Learning how to stay away from things that could

cause problems for me later). Thus, the areas in which the participants felt they had

received the greatest amount of help related to planning ahead, whether about the future

(item 6) or about avoiding problems (item 10), dealing with problems and stress (item 8),

practical information (item 3) and improving self-esteem (item 2). Survey descriptives

are listed in Table 2.

98
Table 2

Survey Descriptives

Question M SD Median

1. Learning things I didn’t know

before 3.38 1.51 3
2. Developing good feelings
about myself 4.13 0.99 4.5

3. Learning things that can help

me in my everyday life 4.13 0.99 4.5
4. Discovering or recognizing
values and beliefs that are
important to me 3.63 1.30 3.5

5. Learning how to choose good

friends and be a friend to
others 3.50 1.69 4
6. Thinking about and planning
for my future 4.38 1.41 5

7. Learning how to make good

decisions and choices 3.88 1.25 4
8. Learning how to handle
problems and pressures that
come up in life 4.00 1.20 4.5
9. Learning how to understand
other people 4.00 0.93 4
10. Learning how to stay away
from things that could cause
problems for me later 4.13 0.99 4.5
11. Helping me and my parents
communicate better about
important things 3.75 1.49 4

99
 Personal Reflection Findings

A third form of data, a written personal reflection, was also included for the

participants to complete. Specifically, participants were instructed,

Write about your experience at the Teen Age Parenting Program (TAPP) while

attending the school. Do you feel it was helpful during and after your pregnancy?

Why or why not? Would you recommend other pregnant teen mother to attend

the school or continue in regular high school? Why or why not? If you could have

changed one thing positive or negative about the school/program what would it

be?

The participants’ responses were sufficiently short that their statements pertaining to each

question can be presented whole and verbatim, as follows.

Do you feel it was helpful during and after your pregnancy? Why or why

not?

Mia: I do not feel it was helpful during my pregnancy. The education was OK.

My mother and family help me with parenting my child.

Erica: My experience was good. It was really like being in regular high school

just all girls and a baby.

Jada: My experience at the TeenAge Parenting Program was wonderful. It was

helpful to me and my daughter. If was hands on. I learned a lot of things I did

not know about parenting and safe sex. It taught me a lot of things I use now in

the future.

Kaylen: My experience at TAPP overall was OK I guess. It only really helped

me get thru school because I didn’t want to be a drop out…. It really helped with

100
 the daycare but they really didn’t help me with being parenting.

Kimberly: Yes I feel like it was helpful but only because of the daycare because I

didn’t have anyone to keep my kids while I was in school.

Jennifer: My experience was really not as pleasant as I thought it would be. It

was really no help at all. I did not learn anything extra about parenting skills at

all.

Nicole: I think TAPP was a very good school as far as my education. I learned

everything about being a mother and going out into the world the good thing

about TAPP is they were there for you to watch your child while you get your

education…

Kierra: I feel like TAPP was helpful during and after my pregnancy because they

helped me learn to be independent and get out on my own to get things done for

me and my child.

Ways in which the program was considered helpful related to having daycare

while the participant attended classes and received a good education. Participants had

mixed views regarding the parenting education they received, with some (n = 6) viewing

it as helpful and three viewing it as not helpful or not conveying anything they did not

already know at the time.

Would you recommend other pregnant teen mothers attend the school or

continue in regular high school? Why or why not?

Mia: I not would recommend other teen mom to attend the program because

you’ll learn and be prepared for the world the same way in public school if you

don’t need daycare.

101
 Erica: I would recommend TAPP because it’s hard being a parent and mother

and if you fall asleep in class cause your baby kept you up they would be able to

go to the nurses office and take a nap.

Jada: I miss the TAPP Center, and I will recommend it to other teen parents.

Kaylen: I would attend again because I would have been a drop out if I didn’t

have TAPP to go to because I had no one to keep my baby while going to school.

Kimberly: Yes I would recommend other pregnant teenagers and no, yes because

of the daycare and the sympathy that they have for pregnant girls, and no because

the teacher didn’t really teach us anything.

Jennifer: My advice is not to attend there anymore.

Nicole: But at the end of the day if I had to make a chose do I want to go to

regular school or TAPP while I am pregnant or when I had my child I would

choose TAPP.

Kierra: Yes, I would recommend other pregnant teenage mothers to attend TAPP

because they work with you with your schoolwork and your child.

Overall, participants would recommend the program or would go there again,

although two said they would not. Reasons for recommending the program included the

support they received. Support included parent classes, a smaller workload, peer support,

and daycare.

If you could have changed one thing positive or negative about the

school/program what would it be?

Mia: If I could change anything about the school it would be for the faculty to be

more concerned about the teen’s future and education and not give grades cause

102
 they are a teen mother but let them earn them.

Erica: I can’t think of anything negative but positive I enjoyed the parenting class

cause some girls don’t have mothers.

Jada: The only negative thing about the program is the girls are messy.

Kaylen: The thing I would change about the school would be they teach you there

and not have so many messy girls. All lot of girls in one school is always messy.

I think if the teachers would have taught us better instead of thinking we already

knew stuff it would have been better.

Kimberly: If I could change something about the school it would be to have

better caring teachers. I did like the fact that teachers would work with you if you

miss days out to school if you baby was sick cause regular school would not have

work with me as much and kicked me out.

Jennifer: One thing I would change is the teachers. They need more caring and

helpful teachers. They need to act like they care and not judge us because we are

teen mothers. I think if the program had more teachers who went through what

we were going through as teen mothers the program would be better.

Nicole: …the bad thing is that some girls just use it for free baby sitter while they

go do what they want (skip school) to do or make more kids.

Kierra: If I could change one thing about TAPP it would be they workers in the

nursery. I feel they could have been more qualified but having daycare made it a

lot easier on me.

The most frequently mentioned change regarded the teachers, whom some

participants viewed as not caring, being judgmental, or too easy in terms of grades. The

103
second most frequently mentioned change was the messiness of some students, followed

by one comment regarding the perceived lack of qualification on the part of the day care

staff.

Summary of Findings

This study explored the phenomenon of teenage pregnancy and the effectiveness

of a teenage pregnancy prevention program through the lived experiences of eight

African-American women who had formerly been enrolled in the program. Answers to

the research questions were developed using three forms of data: interviews, survey, and

personal reflection. The conclusions are as follows.

Research question 1: What factors prompted participants’ decision to enter into

the Teen Pregnancy and Prevention Program? According to the interview and personal

reflection, participants chose to attend TAPP because they wished to complete their high

school education without interruption. Also, the interview discussion of the theme of the

overall perception of the program, presents evidence that the girls initially thought that

the program was coed. Some stated they would have been reluctant to attend if they had

known in advance it was an all girls’ school. A positive aspect of the program that

encouraged girls to attend was the childcare. The availability of child care was a major

motivator, as indicated in the personal reflections of the participants; however, in

hindsight the participants were glad the program had stressed responsibility and planning

for their futures, which is concluded in the survey with a median of 5 revealing in item 5,

Thinking about and planning for my future was valuable in the program. All data

converged with the girls wanting to do better for themselves despite being teenagers who

were pregnant.

104
 Research question 2: How did the Teen Pregnancy Prevention Program reduce

participants’ risk of having a second child and/or engaging in sexual activity(ies) after

participating in the program? The theme, ‘Impact of program participation on healthy

practices,’ indicated the program failed to discourage the participants of the study to

discontinue sexual activity after the completion of the programs. All except for one of

the participants planned their next pregnancies, instead of accidentally becoming

pregnant as they had prior to entering the program. Three questions in the survey

pertained to the theme: item 4, Discovering or recognizing values and beliefs that are

important to me; item 7, Learning how to make good decision and choices; and item 10,

Learning how to stay away from things that could cause problems for me later. The

median numbers reflect 4.5, 4 and 3.5 respectively; therefore, the participants did not

believe that continuing to have sex was a negative reflection of the problem. They chose

to remain sexually active, but they incorporated healthier behavior to not have more

unplanned pregnancies. Although participants continued to engage in sexual activities

after leaving the program, and all but one had at least one more child, participants did

indicate in their interview and personal reflections they had begun to use contraception

and to observe safer sexual practices such as having only one partner after participating in

the program.

Research question 3: How did the Teen Parenting Program help prevent

participants from having a second baby out of wedlock after leaving the program? The

participants did have more children outside of marriage after leaving the program;

therefore, it can be concluded that the program did not prevent them from having children

out of wedlock, as indicated in the interview portion of ‘Practical benefits of program

105
participation’. The participants expressed the helpfulness of the day care facility while in

the program, but after leaving the program and graduating from the challenging school

day, they had children that they could take care of without the need of the program’s

daycare. From the participants’ point of view, the program may have been more

successful, as all but one was living in a stable, monogamous relationship with a man

who was the father of the subsequent child(ren). It is apparent in the interview and

personal reflections, however, that these participants do not view their current living

arrangements as sinful. They did not indicate they were taught not to have any more

children until after they were married. The publicly funded program did not include

religious or moral benefits.

Research question 4: How did attending the Teen Pregnancy Prevention Program

assist participants in finding a job and being self-supporting? In this respect, the program

can be seen as a success when looking at the data. The theme ‘Impact of program on

subsequent life experiences’ along with the interview and the personal reflections

revealed the participants believed they were doing well for themselves. With the

exception of one woman, whose scores on the state exam were not of passing quality, all

participants graduated from high school and all but one, who is caring for a child with a

disability, are gainfully employed. The survey questions that reveal their idea of the

program regarding their future were: item 2, Developing good feelings about myself; item

3, Learning things that can help me in my everyday life; and item 11, Helping me and my

parents communicate better about important things. The medians were 4.5 for the first

two and 4 for the last item, indicating the program prepared them positively for their

independent futures of having a high level of self-confidence, developing, and

106
communicating affectively with their parents. The participants admitted listening and

cooperating with their parents, which shows a degree of respect for adults. A common

theme throughout the data was that the program motivated the participants to become

serious about being responsible and supporting their children financially.

Research question 5: How did the program affect participants’ desire to pursue

further education? In this respect, too, the program was successful in that six of the eight

participants have attended or are attending community or four-year colleges, and others

have aspirations to get more education. The theme, ‘Academic benefits of program

participation,’ indicated that many of the girls believed they would have dropped out of

high school if the program was not in place to take care of their babies as they continued

education, as well as in the personal reflections. The participants needed to continue their

high school education in order to pursue higher learning. The interview and personal

reflections show the participants were furthering their education. The items in the survey

that support this question is item 6, Thinking about and planning for my future; and item

9, Learning how to understand other people. The data shows that the participants did

learn to think about their future as well as how to understand and respect people with the

medians being 5 and 4 respectively. Therefore, the participants had a desire to continue

their education with other teachers and people of authority in their new facilities after the

program.

Conclusion

The purpose of this chapter was to present the data derived from the interviews,

surveys, and personal reflections conducted with the eight participants. Several

important patterns emerged from the combined data. The first was that participants

107
generally felt TAPP was helpful to them in terms of providing support while they

completed high school. Participants agreed that the availability of child cares,

transportation, and other practical supports were beneficial to them. The second was that

opinions overall were mixed regarding the quality of the education the participants

received while attending the program. Although several participants expressed

satisfaction, a common complaint was that teachers did not seem to care, were

judgmental, or were lax in their academic standards. The third was that participants

expressed the greatest appreciation for the ways in which the program helped them to

mature. Several participants expressed that learning to plan ahead, think about the future,

and make responsible choices was the best aspect of the program. Related to this was the

fourth pattern, which was engaging in more responsible sexual behavior. Although most

participants had had another baby after leaving the program, the subsequent babies

generally had been planned, and the participants reported using safe sexual practices such

as being monogamous and using contraception.

The final chapter of the study will summarize chapter one through four, as well as

address discussions, conclusions, and recommendations.

108
 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION

In this final chapter, a summary of the key elements presented in the previous

chapters will be presented. In the first section, a summary of the study is provided,

followed by conclusions drawn from the analysis of the data in relation to the research

questions. The discussion section follows, along with the limitations of the study. The

final section of the chapter provides recommendations for action and further research.

Summary

Although there was a steady decline in teenage pregnancy during most of the

1980s, in recent years it has once again begun to climb (Gilbert et al., 2004; Santelli et

al., 2009). Approximately one million adolescents become pregnant in the U.S. every

year, with nearly 500,000 births occurring to school-aged mothers, with the median age

being between 11-19 (Gilbert et al., 2004). The birthrate among teenagers in the U.S.

“remains one of the highest among other industrialized countries” (Hamilton, Martin,

Vetura 2007). In 2011, a total of 333, 771 teens gave birth (Solomon-Fears, 2013).

Teenage mothers are at risk of not completing their education and of becoming dependent

on welfare because of the potential interruption posed by their pregnancy. Therefore,

programs that focus on helping them avoid risky behaviors in the future and helping them

become self-reliant adults are needed. However, the effectiveness of such programs,

particularly from the participants’ point of view, has not been well researched. The

present study evaluated the effectiveness, as perceived by former program attendees, of

the Teen Pregnancy and Prevention Program provided by the Teenage Parenting Center

located in southeast Georgia. The purpose of this phenomenological case study was to

examine the lived experiences of a sample of eight African-American young women who

109
had become pregnant as teenagers and had participated in a Teen Pregnancy prevention

program in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the program from the women’s point of

view. A second purpose was to obtain outcome data pertaining to the women, such as

whether they prevented further pregnancies, continued their education, or sought

employment after participating in the program. For the purposes of this research,

pregnancy prevention was generally defined as reduced sexual activity and thus lowered

risk. The core research questions investigated in this research study were as follows:

1. What factors prompted participants’ decision to enter into the Teen

Pregnancy and Prevention Program?

2. How did the Teen Pregnancy Prevention Program reduce participants’ risk of

having a second child and/or engaging in sexual activity(ies) while in the

program?

3. How did the Teen Parenting Program help prevent participants from having a

second baby out of wedlock after leaving the program?

4. How did attending the Teen Pregnancy Prevention Program assist

participants in finding a job and being self-supporting?

5. How did the program affect participants’ desire to pursue further education?

IRB approval was sought and approved, after which a sample was recruited.

Snowball sampling was used to obtain a sample of 8 women who had attended the Teen

Preventive Program within the three years prior to the study period who were currently

between the ages of 18 through 21. The researcher interviewed, observed, and conducted

a survey to find out the students' beliefs on the effectiveness of the program in terms of

reducing the risk of teenage pregnancy and sexual activity after leaving the program. The

110
researcher asked if the participants believed the program was helpful with parenting

skills, reducing the chance of a second baby, completing high school, decreasing

unhealthy sexual practices, and preparing for life after the program. The participants’

data from the three different types of data collection (interview, survey, and personal

reflections) were tallied, compared, and analyzed to determine the students’ beliefs

regarding the effectiveness of the program. A full verbatim transcription was returned for

participants to review for accuracy, validity and reliability. The data were categorized

and analyzed using open coding to reveal common themes and patterns.

Discussion

Bandura's (1986, 1982) social-cognitive model served as part of the conceptual

framework of the study. Bandura’s approach addresses self and social goals, mental

representations of self and others, and the role of social facilitation in decision-making,

memory, and judgment. The model emerges in the impact of the program on sexual

healthy practices as students stated that they started using contraceptives and having sex

with one partner. Self-efficacy consists of the confidence in one’s own ability to carry

out a particular behavior. The theory of self-efficacy predicts that behaviors such as

sexual preventive behaviors are performed if one perceives oneself to have control over

the outcome, encounters few external barriers, and has confidence in one’s ability

(Bandura, 1992). The theory emerges in the theme of academic benefits as seven out of

eight participants graduated from high school and four participants pursued higher

education.

The theory of reasoned action was also used as a conceptual framework.

Behavioral intentions are assumed to be a function of a person's attitude toward

111
performance of a particular preventive behavior, the individual’s subjective perception of

what significant others wish the individual to do with respect to the behavior in question,

or both. This theory emerges in the themes of academic benefit of program participation

and life experiences, because participants who graduated or completed the program did

so voluntarily and six participants, including the two who did not graduate, were working

full-time jobs. Another predictor of intentions is perceived behavior control, similar to

Bandura’s (1982) concept of self-efficacy. In this study, it was proposed that sexual

preventive behavior is a function of behavioral intention to perform a particular act.

The literature supports the factors influencing teen sexual practices and pregnancy

in this study. These factors include poverty and welfare dependence, cultural and social

environment, sex education, and teen-parent communication. Poverty and welfare

dependency were apparent as all of the participants lived in public housing and most

received some form of public assistance. According to Bridgeland et al., (2006),

Gallagher (1999), Hardy and Landry (2000), Meade et al., (2008), and Santelli et al.,

(2009) teenagers who give birth are more likely to come from economically

disadvantaged families and neighborhoods. All participants live in low-income housing;

therefore, the findings of this study are consistent with the research. Parent-teen

communication and knowledge of sex education play a factor in the participants’

pregnancies. Four out of eight participants said their parents told them not to have sex

and none received any type of sex education prior to their first pregnancies. Resnick

(1997) found communication and parent support lowered the risk of teenage pregnancy,

but participants stated they never received any form of sex education before their first

pregnancy.

112
 The purpose of this phenomenological case study was to examine the lived

experiences of a sample of eight African-American young women who had become

pregnant as teenagers and had participated in a teen pregnancy prevention program in

order to evaluate the effectiveness of the program from the women’s point of view. A

second purpose was to obtain outcome data pertaining to the women, such as whether the

program prevented further pregnancies, if they continued their education, or sought

employment after participating in the program. For the purpose of this research,

pregnancy prevention was generally defined as reduced sexual activity, which lowered

the risk of repeat teenage pregnancy. The core research questions investigated in this

research study were as follows:

1. What factors prompted participants’ decision to enter into the Teen

Pregnancy and Prevention Program?

2. How did the Teen Pregnancy Prevention Program reduce participants’

risk of having a second child and/or engaging in sexual activity(ies) while

in the program?

3. How did the Teen Pregnancy Prevention Program help prevent

participants from having a second baby out of wedlock after leaving the

program?

4. How did attending the Teen Pregnancy Prevention Program assist

participants in finding a job and being self-supporting?

5. How did the program affect participants’ desire to pursue further

education?

This study explored the phenomenon of teenage pregnancy and the

113
effectiveness of a teenage pregnancy prevention program through the lived experiences

of eight African-American women who had formerly been enrolled in the

program. Participants in this study chose to attend TAPP because they wished to

complete their high school education without interruption. The availability of childcare

was a major motivator; however, in hindsight the participants were glad the program had

stressed responsibility and planning for their futures. The privilege of taking their babies

to school with them and being able to nurture and attend to them during the course of the

school day, encouraged the participants to leave their current schools and enroll in the

program.

The TAPP program can be compared to a well-rounded teen pregnancy

prevention program. Although participants continued to engage in sexual activities after

leaving the program and all but one had at least one more child, participants did indicate

they had begun to use contraceptives and to observe safer sexual practices such as having

only one partner after participating in the program.

Sex education programs that are balanced and realistic, encourage students to

postpone sex until they are older, and promote safer-sex practices among those

who choose to be sexually active, have been proven effective at delaying first

intercourse and increasing use of contraception among sexually active youth

(Planned Parenthood, 2013).

Fortunately, the participants in this study completed the program prior to having

subsequent children. Continuing to get pregnant without having a traditional family

setting of being a married couple, appeared to not affect the participants. It is evident in

our society that marriage is not always a prerequisite of getting pregnant. The media

114
showcases celebrities having babies out of wedlock and so do television shows and

movies. In their research study investigating how sources of sexual information relate to

adolescents' beliefs about sexual activity, Bleakley, et al. (2009) found that adolescents

reported learning the most about inappropriate premarital behavior from television.

Many celebrities are celebrated for their pregnancies and there is more concern on the sex

of the baby, the baby’s unique name, and when the first photos will be published.

Likewise, reality television shows shadow teenagers who are pregnant and display their

lives leading to the birth. Some shows indicate a slightly negative undertone showing the

difficulty of labor, but when they show the excitement of preparing for the baby shower

and the teen father being supportive throughout the pregnancy, it could lead a teen to

believe having a baby as a teen is glamorous, a way to get attention, or a way to make a

teen boy commit to them.

This study found that participants generally felt the program was worthwhile, but

we must question of program’s effectiveness. If a goal of the program were to prevent

additional pregnancies outside of wedlock or early stage of life then it would seem that in

this respect the program has not been effective. However, if effectiveness is defined as

preventing STDs, promiscuity, and unintended pregnancies, the program appears to be

more effective. Unfortunately, none of the participants were married to the men they

currently live with, which suggests that the program’s healthy sexual teachings regarding

the sanctity of marriage or child in their early stage of life, was not absorbed. It can be

concluded that the program was unsuccessful in preventing them from having children

out of wedlock, because participants did have more children outside of marriage after

leaving the program. From the participants’ point of view, however, the program may

115
have been more successful, as all but one was living in a stable, monogamous

relationship with a man who was the father of the subsequent child(ren). It is apparent

that these participants do not view their current living arrangements as sinful because of

what they perceive is acceptable in society.

Most of the participants said their subsequent pregnancies had been planned. The

participants may have the idea that being a pregnant teen mom and being a pregnant

young adult in their early 20s is substantially different. High moral standards, which

include not having sex outside of the realm of marriage or during the early stage of life,

were not a goal or objective of the program. However, one of the program goals was to

assist the girls to not have a repeat pregnancy during their teenage years and the early

stages of life. The program was also designed to assist the girls with their current

dilemma of being a pregnant teenager, who needed to continue their education with more

flexibility as they learned to care for their babies and become productive citizens to

society. The findings of this study do not indicate the culprit of the teenager’s first baby,

but they attended a pregnancy prevention program after becoming pregnant with their

first child and still had one or more children following their exit. There would be no

question of the program’s effectiveness if the participants were married before becoming

pregnant with their subsequent children. Because they were unmarried, there is a concern

whether the curriculum included teaching the teen moms to not have sex or not have

unprotected sex.

Comparing the effectiveness of teenage parenting and prevention programs can be

difficult. This is due to the fact programs can be found in different settings such as

clinics, agencies, churches, schools and other locations (Lerner, 1995). There is a

116
possibility a church setting may produce different results as well as a clinical setting. For

example, a program in a church setting can use God and the Bible to teach principles

about not having sex. Similarly, a program within a clinical setting may allow a

counselor to have a one on one session with a teen and discover and begin to heal any

emotional, abandonment, or sexual abuse issues that may pertain to the participant and

their desire to have sex and babies. Some teens get impregnated by their stepfathers and

other adults they trust, some teens get pregnant intentionally because they feel unloved

and want someone to love them, and some teens get pregnant accidentally by succumbing

to peer pressure to have sex. Unless all programs allow for the same type of treatment

and teachings, they are challenging to compare.

Similarly, teenage pregnancy prevention programs also have different goals

(Wright et al., 1998 & Meyer, 2001). There are many pregnancy prevention programs

across the nation, but only a few of the programs have sufficient evaluation components

to provide meaningful data about their success or the efficacy of their intervention or

impact on teens (Admin & Soto, 2004; Elliot, 1998). A question that should be answered

is whether teens should attend a teenage prevention program prior to them having their

initial pregnancy. It is unknown from the participants if attending a program prior to

their first child would have prevented them from having sex, unprotected sex, and getting

pregnant. The program they attended was strictly for teen girls who had already begun a

sexual lifestyle. There is a possibility that a result of the first child could have begun the

cycle for these teens to continue to have children without being married. It is apparent

the participants did not discontinue their sexual lifestyle after completing the program.

Programs have different goals, objectives, and therefore measures for success. In

117
studies conducted by Brace (2009) and Thomas and Dimitrov (2007), their teenage

parenting programs were considered to be successful. Brace (2009) found that a teenage

parenting program appeared to achieve success in terms of reducing teen pregnancies,

increasing educational achievement and reducing child neglect and abuse, but

participants failed to complete the program. In the research by Thomas and Dimitrov

(2007) it was concluded that a program intervention was able to change the adolescents'

perceptions about risky and inappropriate behavior. Their research involved a program

that centered on providing planned sexual health information and addressed various

dimensions of sexual health over time which included spiritual, social, mental, and

emotional dimensions (Thomas & Dimitrov, 2007).

A common theme throughout the data was the program motivated the participants

to become serious about being responsible and supporting their children financially.

Unless the parents of these pregnant teenagers are able to afford a baby, these teenagers

learn at an early age they need to financially support their baby. After purchasing the

necessary items, such as diapers, bottles, medications, etc. the teenager soon realizes that

it is expensive to take care of a baby. Teenagers sometimes have jobs while in school in

order to have their own money, but it is a different dynamic when they are working to

care for their babies. The teenagers who become pregnant are not allowed to think solely

about themselves and their own needs. These young girls have to make decisions based

on having a baby; for instance, they may have to decide if they want to buy a new pair of

shoes for themselves in order to attend an event, or whether to buy shoes for their baby

who has outgrown his/her shoes. These types of decisions do not affect teenagers who

have the liberty to make decisions based on their wants and not a baby’s needs.

118
 The program was successful in this respect because the participants had jobs and

they were providing for their children. Although most (n = 7) of the participants in this

study live in government-administered housing, all but one was gainfully employed at the

time of the study and one participant is not employed due to caring for a child with a

disability. It is unfortunate that the participants all live in housing provided by

government assistance. This could be due to a number of reasons, and it is not known if

the participants would have the same living situation if they had not become pregnant as

teenagers. There is a possibility they did not want to appear to be a burden on their

parents and moved out before they could support themselves without the need of

government funded housing. Also, the parents of the participants may have wanted them

to be independent after high school and asked them to move out.

In respect to the completion of high school, the program can be seen as a

success. With the exception of one woman, whose scores on the state exam were not of

passing quality, the participants graduated from high school. Six of the eight participants

have attended or are attending community or four-year colleges, and others have

aspirations to get more education. These young mothers were at risk of dropping out of

school and becoming dependent on welfare. Since the girls selected to participate in the

program and continue their high school education, they did not add to the high school

dropout rate. A student’s high school years are years where they are able to experience

things such as homecoming dances, proms, school games and pep rallies. Unfortunately,

when the girls become pregnant they are uprooted from their familiar surroundings,

teachers, and friends and are grouped together with other girls with one distinct

similarity, which is pregnancy. Dropping out of high school would have caused them to

119
not complete their high school education, but getting pregnant caused them to eliminate

the traditional high school years.

The participants of this type of program had to mature and take on the

responsibility of adults, yet they were teens. They had babies to care for instead of

having freedom of being a normal teenager. Their years of adolescents were shared with

years of motherhood. Instead of the teens having their parents to only take care of them

and teach them how to be responsible students, friends, and neighbors, they also had to

help teach them how to be mothers and responsible adults. These teens lived with their

parents during their pregnancies, so they also had to share the attention of their parents

with their babies. Babies can take a lot of attention away from teens’ frequent high

school concerns, such as self-esteem problems, bullying, and eating disorders. These

problems may appear trivial to a teenager who has a baby who is crying, hungry, or needs

a diaper change. Unfortunately, these types of teen problems need to be addressed and

attention needs to be dedicated to them, but the complexity of motherhood during this

stage of their life may cause these issues not to be addressed. This shows the need for

teenage pregnancy prevention programs for young girls, prior to the start of their sexual

lifestyle, in order to prevent their first pregnancy.

Implications of Study

The TAPP program appears to have the advantages of helping the participants

take care of their babies as they continued their education and helping them to make good

educational and work choices, but it is a major disappointment that the participants

became pregnant again after participating in the program. It is even more disheartening

that they did not learn how to make better moral decisions. The majority of them are

120
living with boyfriends and having sex, which is against God’s law. Although the

program is successful in encouraging attendees to continue their education, pursue a

career, and was beneficial in practical important purpose. The program failed to achieve

its objective due to participants’ continuous behavior of unhealthy sexual practices after

leaving the program. The participants continued to have sex outside of marriage, perhaps

not surprising, given the influences of society and the media preceded those of the

program and continued afterward. The participants’ views of healthy sexual practices

were not the views of the program’s healthy sexual practices. Therefore, all participants

felt they were having healthy sexual practices since leaving the program, even after

having subsequent pregnancies, because the pregnancies were with their current

boyfriends.

Recommendations

Based on individual interviews, survey responses, and the participants’ written

reflections, I have developed several recommendations for the TAPP program.

Recommendations for Action

Conduct exit and follow-up interviews with participants. Administrators of

the TAPP could gather valuable data regarding client satisfaction and long-term impacts

of the program. Such data could enable administrators to improve program offerings as

well as to monitor the quality of instruction and day care provision in the program.

Longitudinal data would enable administrators to examine client outcomes in the years

following program participation, and would make it possible to demonstrate program

success to funding agencies and other interested parties.

Monitor and if necessary improve quality of instruction and day care

121
provision. Although most participants were generally satisfied with the education they

received and the childcare their children received, there were some negative comments as

well. Teachers could benefit from in-service instruction and other professional

development opportunities if these are not already available. Some participants

experienced teachers as judgmental; while this may not be universally true, it could be

beneficial if teachers received training on the way in which they present themselves to

program attendees in order to improve the teacher-student relationship.

Remain in contact with participants after they leave the program. A number

of participants expressed great appreciation of the help they received at TAPP. As

satisfied customers, these individuals constitute a resource that should not be overlooked.

Satisfied alumnae could be recruited to speak to groups of students or to conduct outreach

to teen girls in their community who are experiencing a pregnancy and need support.

Limitations

A limitation of this study was that results are not generalizable to a wider

population, due to the participants being from one prevention program in the United

States. Another limitation was that the students might not take the research seriously or

might not answer forthrightly due to fear of being judged adversely. In addition, the

research was limited by the small sample of eight respondents who completed the

program. The respondents do not reflect the experiences of all who may have attended or

became pregnant with a second child while in the program, and could no longer attend

due to school/program policy. Finally, the research topic was sensitive in nature and

could have been uncomfortable for participants to discuss with a stranger leading to

vague answers regarding unhealthy sexual topics.

122
 Recommendations for Future Research

Further research on a larger sample of this population should be conducted in

order to replicate and expand the findings. As noted above, conducting exit interviews or

surveys when participants leave the program could provide valuable insight for

improvement, and longitudinal data could demonstrate longer-term impacts of the

program.

Several participants voiced the feeling that early motherhood had made them

more serious and better people. This suggests that there may be unrecognized benefits of

teen motherhood, particularly if young mothers receive the support of programs such as

TAPP. Additional research could be conducted that explored the effects on the life

course of becoming a mother as a teenager. Such information could be incorporated into

the psychosocial guidance components of teen pregnancy programs, stories of other

women’s positive experiences, and personal growth when faced with the challenge of

teen pregnancy. This could serve as a model for teen mothers who are searching for

ways to become productive citizens.

Conclusion

This study was significant because it examined the lived experiences of young

women who became pregnant as teenagers and participated in a teen pregnancy

prevention program in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the program from the

women’s point of view. Too often, teenage mothers are judged solely on the basis of

having had an unintended, out-of-wedlock pregnancy. Conducting this study has given

me the opportunity to see these young women as Jesus would see them, which is with the

eyes of forgiveness. Yes, they are sinners, but we should remember what Jesus did when

123
 confronted by the Pharisees regarding the woman who committed adultery:

So when they continued asking him, he . . . . said unto them, He that is without sin

among you, let him first cast a stone at her . . . . And they which heard it, being

convicted by their own conscience, went out one by one, beginning at the eldest,

even unto the last: and Jesus was left alone, and the woman standing in the midst.

When Jesus had lifted up himself, and saw none but the woman, he said unto her,

Woman, where are those thine accusers? hath no man condemned thee? She said,

No man, Lord. And Jesus said unto her, Neither do I condemn thee: go, and sin

no more. (John 8: 7-11, Authorized Version)

If they continue to sin, then let us remember what Jesus said about how many times to

forgive, when Peter asked if he should forgive seven times: “Jesus saith unto him, I say

not unto thee, Until seven times: but, Until seventy times seven.” (Matthew 18:21-22)

124
 REFERENCES

Admin, R., & Sato, T. (2004). Impact of a school-based comprehensive program for

pregnant teens on their contraceptive use, future contraceptive intention, and desire

for more children. Journal of Community Health Nursing, 21(1) 39-47.

Avert. (2010) Averting HIV and AIDS. Retrieved from http:// www.avert.org/sex-

education.html

Babbie, E.R. (2003) The practice of social research (10th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth

Thomson Publishing.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:

Prentice Hall.

Bandura, A. (1992), Self-efficacy mechanism in psychobiologic functioning. In R.

Schwarzer (Ed.), Self-efficacy: Thought control of action (pp. 355-394)

Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere.

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: W. H.

Freman.

Bleakley, A., Hennessy, J., Fishbein, M, Coles, H.C., & Jordan, A. (2009). How sources

of sexual information relate to adolescents' beliefs about sex. American Journal of

Health Behavior, 33(1), 37-48.

Bogden, R. I., & Biklen, S. (1998). Qualitative research for education. Boston, MA:

Allyn & Bacon

Brace, A.M. (2009). Analysis of the effectiveness of the Circle of Care program in

increasing life outcomes among teen mothers in Troup County, Georgia. Doctoral

125
 Dissertation, Mississippi State University, Mississippi. Department of Food

Science, Nutrition, and Health Promotion.

Bridgeland, J., Dilulio, J., Jr., & Morison, K. (2006). The silent epidemic: Perspectives of

high school dropouts. Washington, D. C: Civic Enterprises, LLC.

Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development. (2005). Turning points preparing

American Youth for the 21th century. New York: Carnegie Corporation.

Center for Assessment & Policy Development (CAPD). (1999). Helping the education

system work for teen parents and their children. Bala Cynwyd, PA: Center for

Assessment & Policy Development.

Christensen, L., & Johnson, B. (2008). Educational Research: Quantitative, qualitative,

and mix approaches. (3rd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Saga Publications.

Clandinin, D.J., & Coneely, F.M. (2007). Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in

qualitative research. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Comstock, G., & Scharrer, E. (2009). Media and the American child. Children, Youth

and Environments, 19(1), 1546- 1550.

Creswell, J.W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five

approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

D’Angelo, D., Gilbert, B., Rochat, R., Santelli, J., & Herold, J. (2004). Differences

between mistimed and unwanted pregnancies among teens who have live birth.

Perspective on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 36(5), 192-197.

Donenberg, G.R., Bryant, F.B., Emerson, E., Wilson, H.W., & Pasch, K.E. (2003).

Tracing roots of early sexual debut among adolescents in psychiatric care. Journal

of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 42(5), 594-608.

126
Elliot, V.J., & Okwumabua, T.M. (1998). Let the circle be unbroken" helps African-

Americans prevent teen pregnancy. Contemporary Women’s Issues Database, 26,

pp. 12-17.

Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention and behavior: An introduction

to theory and research. Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley.

Fishbein, M., & Middlestadt, S. E. (1989). Using the theory of reasoned action as a

framework for understanding and changing AIDS-related behaviors. In V. M.

Mays, G. W. Albee, & S. F. Schneider (Eds.), Primary prevention of AIDS:

Psychological approaches (pp. 93-110). Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley.

Focus Adolescent Service. (2008). Teen sexual behaviors: issues and concerns. Retrieved

from http://www.focusas.com/SexualBehavior.html

Gallagher, M. (1999). A report to the nation. The Age of the unwed mothers: Is

pregnancy the problem? Institute for American Values.

Gilbert, W., Jandial, D., Field, N., Bigelow, P., & Danielsen, B. (2004). Birth outcomes

in teenage pregnancies. The Journal of Maternal-Fetal and Neonatal Medicine,

16(4), 265-270.

Guidelines for comprehensive sexuality education. Third edition. (2004). Sexuality

Information and Education Council of the United States (SIECUS).

Hamilton, B.E., Martin, J.A., & Ventura, S.J. (2007). Births: Preliminary data for 2006.

National vital statistics reports, 56(7). Hyattsville, MD: National Center for

Health Statistics.

Hardy, J., & Landry, D.(2000). Pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases, and related risk

behavior among United States adolescents. New England Journal of Medicine,

127
 33(2),1161-1162.

Hipwell, A.E., Keenan, K., Loeber, R., & Battista, D. (2010). Early predictors of sexually

intimate behaviors in an urban sample of young girls. Developmental Psychology,

46(2), 366-378.

Kirby, D. (2007). Emerging answers 2007: New research findings on programs to reduce

teen pregnancy: A full report. National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy.

Retrieved November 4, 2011 from http://www.thenationalcampaign.org/

resources/reports.aspx

Lawrence, G. (2004). Final report on audit of the teen-age parent program. Savannah-

Chatham County Board of Education, Internal Audit Department and Teen-Age

Parent Program (TAPP), a joint venture by Parent and Child Development

Services, Inc. Georgia.

Lear, J.G. (2007). Health at school: A hidden health care system emerges from the

shadows. Health Affairs, 26(2), 409-419

Lerner, R.M. (1995). Youth in crisis: Challenges and options for programs and policies.

Family Relations, 47, pp. 185-194.

Little, C., & Rankin, A. (2001). Why do they start it? Explaining reported early-teen

sexual activity. Sociological Forum, 16, 703-737.

Mangino, J.G. (2008). Voices of teen mothers: Their challenges, support systems, and

successes. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Pittsburg, School of Education.

Martino, S.C., Collins, R.L. Kanouse, D.E., Elliott, M., & Berry, S.H. (2005). Social

cognitive processes mediating the relationship between exposure to television's

sexual content and adolescents' sexual behavior. Journal of Personality and

128
 Social Psychology, 89(6), 914-924.

Meade, C.S., Kershaw, T.S., & Ickovics, J.R. (2008). The intergenerational cycle of

teenage motherhood. Health Psychology, 27(4), 419-419.

Meyer, V.F.(2001). A critique of adolescent pregnancy prevention research. Adolescence,

26, pp. 217-222.

Miller, B.C. (1998). Families Matter: a research synthesis of family influences on

adolescent pregnancy. American Journal Medical, 78, pp. 919-922.

Mueller, T.E., Gavin, L.E., & Kulkarni, A. (2008). The association between sex

education and youth's engagement in sexual intercourse, age at first intercourse,

and birth control use at first sex. Journal of Adolescent Health, 42, pp. 89-96.

Olsen, J., Weed, S., Nielsen, A. & Jensen, L. (1992). Student evaluation of sex education

programs advocating abstinence. Adolescence, 27(106), 369-80. Retrieved from

http://search.proquest.com/docview/195938521?accountid=12085

Pietrofesa, J. (1996). The school counselor and education. Personnel and Guidance

Journal, 54, pp. 358-361

Planned Parenthood Federation of America, Inc. (2012). Reducing teenage pregnancy.

Retrieved from

http://www.plannedparenthood.org/files/PPFA/reducing_teenage_pregnancy.pdf

Portman, T.A. (2009). Faces of the future: School counselors as cultural mediators.

Journal of Counseling and Development, 87(1), 21-27.

Price, M.N., & Hyde, J.S. (2009). When two isn't better than one: Predictors of early

sexual activity in adolescence using a cumulative risk model. Journal of Youth

and Adolescence, 38(8), 1058-1071.

129
Punch, K.F. (2005). Introduction to social research: Quantitative and qualitative

approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Raffaelli, M., & Crockett, L.J. (2003). Sexual risk taking in adolescence: The role of self-

regulation and attraction to risk. Developmental Psychology, 39(6), 1026-1046.

Resnick, M. D., Bearman P. S., Blum, R. W., Bauman, K. E., Harris, K. M., Jones, J.,

Tabor, J., Beuhring, T., Sieving, R. E., Shew, M., Ireland, M., Bearinger, L. H., &

Udry, J. R. (1997). Protecting adolescents from harm: Findings from the National

Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health. Journal of American Medical

Association, 278(10), 823–832.

Roche, K.M., & Leventhal, T. Beyond neighborhood poverty: Family management,

neighborhood disorder, and adolescents' early sexual onset. Journal of Family

Psychology, 23(6), 819-827.

Santelli, J.S., Orr, M., Lindberg, L.D., & Diaz, D.C. (2009). Changing behavioral risk for

pregnancy among high school students in the United States, 1991 - 2007. Journal

of Adolescent Health, 45(1), 25-32.

Solomon-Fears, C. (2013). Teenage pregnancy prevention statistics and programs (Report

No. RS20301). Retrieved from http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RS20301.pdf

Thomas, C.L., & Dimitrov, D.M. (2007). Effects of a teen pregnancy prevention program

on teens' attitudes toward sexuality: A latent trait modeling approach.

Developmental Psychology, 43(1), 173-185

US Centers for Disease Control (2002). Sexually transmitted diseases. Author.

Washington, DC.

Wright, D., Abraham, C., & Scott, S. (1998). Towards a psycho-social theoretical

130
framework for sexual health promotion. Health Education Research, 13 (3), 317-330.

Yin, R. K. (2002). Case study research: Design and methods. (3rd ed.). Newbury Park,

CA: Sage.

131
 APPENDIX A

IRB Approval Letter

February 5, 2013

Marsha Brown
IRB Approval 1494.020513: Effectiveness of Teen Pregnancy Prevention Program
That Offers Special Benefits for Pregnant and Parenting Teens

Dear Marsha,

We are pleased to inform you that your above study has been approved by the
Liberty IRB. This approval is extended to you for one year. If data collection
proceeds past one year, or if you make changes in the methodology as it pertains to
human subjects, you must submit an appropriate update form to the IRB. The forms
for these cases were attached to your approval email.

Thank you for your cooperation with the IRB and we wish you well with your
research project.

Sincerely,

Fernando Garzon, Psy.D.

Professor, IRB Chair
Counseling

(434) 592-4054

Liberty University | Training Champions for Christ since 1971

132
 APPENDIX B

Informed Consent Form

EFFECTIVENESS OF TEEN PREGNANCY PREVENTION PROGRAM THAT

OFFERS SPECIAL BENEFITS FOR PREGNANT AND PARENTING TEENS
Marsha Brown
Liberty University
Education Department

You are invited to be in a research study that is examining the effectiveness of the Teen Age
Parenting Program (TAPP). You were selected as a possible participant because you attended the
TAPP program. I ask that you read this form and ask any questions you may have before
agreeing to be in the study.

This study is being conducted by: Marsha Brown, Liberty University

Background Information:

The purpose of this study is to examine experiences of the girls participating in a teen pregnancy/
prevention program. Determining effectiveness could lead to a better understanding of students’
benefits from attending the program or any program of a similar nature.

Procedures:

If you agree to be in this study, we would ask you to participate in an interview, complete a
survey, and write a personal reflection. The interview will be audio recorded and last
approximately an hour. The survey will take approximately 10 minutes to complete, and will
consist of 11 questions about their teenage pregnancy/prevention program on a Likert-type scale.
The personal reflection will take approximately an hour to complete and will consist of writing
your personal views of the program
Risks and Benefits of being in the Study:

The research will be of minimal risk, which will be no greater than every day activities. Subjects
will sit at a desk and answer interview and research questions. The interview questions may result
in emotional discomfort. Participants interested in receiving counseling services can contact the
American Association of Christian Counselors by calling (800) 526-8673, or visiting www.
AACC.net

Participants of this study are helping society by providing their perspectives of a teenage
pregnancy/prevention program they attended. Participation in this study may benefit society by
helping to determine whether or not programs like TAPP are effective.

Compensation:

Participants will not receive any compensation for their participation.

Confidentiality:

133
The records of this study will be kept private. In any sort of report we might publish, we will not
include any information that will make it possible to identify a subject. Research records will be
stored securely and only researchers will have access to the records.

The researcher will take preventative measures to maintain the confidentiality of

participant information. The actual names of participants will not be used in this study,
and all files, data files, and paperwork related to this study will be secured in a locked file
cabinet in the researcher’s home office. Only the researcher will have access to the files.
After three years all data will be destroyed.

Voluntary Nature of the Study:

Participation in this study is voluntary. Your decision whether or not to participate will not affect
your current or future relations with Liberty University. If you decide to participate, you are free
to not answer any question or withdraw at any time without affecting those relationships.

How to Withdraw from the study:

You can withdraw from this study at any time. To do so, contact the researcher by phone or
email. Any data collected, audio recorded interviews and surveys, from your participation in the
study will be destroyed.

Contacts and Questions:

The researcher conducting this study is Marsha Brown. You may ask any questions you have
now. If you have questions later, you are encouraged to contact the researcher, Marsha Brown,
at (404) 259-1411, or [email protected]. You may also contact the researcher’s advisor,
Dr. Shante Moore-Austin at (757) 678-6304, or [email protected].

If you have any questions or concerns regarding this study and would like to talk to someone
other than the researcher(s), you are encouraged to contact the Institutional Review Board, Dr.
Fernando Garzon, Chair, 1971 University Blvd, Suite 1837, Lynchburg, VA 24515 or email at
[email protected].

You will be given a copy of this information to keep for your records.

Statement of Consent:

I have read and understood the above information. I have asked questions and have received
answers. I consent to participate in the study.

By checking this box you agree to be audio-recorded.

Signature: ____________________________________________ Date: ________________

Signature of Investigator:_______________________________ Date: __________________

IRB Code Numbers: 1494.020513 [Risk] IRB Expiration Date: 02/05/2014

134
 APPENDIX C

Interview Questions

A) Background demographic

1. Can you tell me about your current working situation?

2. What are your present living arrangements? (Prompt: partner, children, renting or
owner occupied)

3. How many children do you have?

B) Prior to pregnancy

1. Prior to attending the program, did you use any contraceptives before you became
pregnant? If so, what method?

2. Were you using contraception when you became pregnant? (Prompt: were you
intending to get pregnant?)

C) Discovery of pregnancy

1. Who was the first person you told you where pregnant and why? (Prompt: partner,
family, GP, friend)

2. How did you feel when you found you were pregnant? (Prompt: surprised,
pleased, worried)

3. How did other people respond to your pregnancy? (Prompt: partner, parents,
friends)

D.) Sexual Practices and Sex Education

1. How did you feel about having to attend the sex education classes at the Teenage
Parenting Center?

2. Did the sex education classes teach you anything new you did not already know
about healthy relationships?

3. Did you start using healthy sexual practices after attending the program? How?

4. Did you make changes in your sexual practices after attending the program?

5. Did you have another child after attending the program?

135
 6. Do you feel the program assisted you in not having a second baby during or after
the program?

E) Feeling about Teenage Parenting Center

1. Can you tell me how you felt about having to attend the Teenage Parenting
Center?

2. Did the parenting classes teach you anything new you did not already know about
parenting?

3. Did the program assist you with all your needs as a mother? Why or why not?

4. Did you use all of the facilities that were available to you? (child care, wic office,
Medicare office, counseling, parenting classes, off campus events)

5. Do you think the program assisted you in graduating? How?

F) The child

1. Did the program help you learn how to take care of your baby?

2. Do you think the onsite daycare program was beneficial for your child? Why or
why not?

3. Did your child seem to enjoy the daycare facility?

4. Did you have any problems with the workers concerning your baby? If so, what?

G.) Life after the program

1. How has life been since leaving the program?

2. Did you continue your education? If so, where?

3. Have you continued to have healthy sexual practices since leaving the program?

4. Have you had any other children since leaving the program?

H) Overall perspective

1. How do you feel about having had your first child as a teenager affected your life
(Prompt: too young, just right, would you do the same again; education,
employment, relationships)

136
2. Do you think attending the Teenage Parenting Center helped prepare you for life
as a teenage mother? Why?

3. If you could do it all over again would you attend the program?

137
 APPENDIX D

Personal Refection

Write about you experience at the TeenAge Parenting Program (TAPP). Do

you feel it was helpful during and after your pregnancy? Why or why not?
Would you recommend other pregnant teenage mothers attend TAPP or
continue in a regular high school? Why or why not? If you could have
changed one thing, positive or negative, about the school/program what would
it be?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

138
 APPENDIX E

Survey

The following questions were asked of students after they had been presented one of the
sex education programs advocating abstinence from sexual activity:

Has the sex education program helped you in the following areas?

Statement Response Range

None some a lot

a. Learning things I didn’t know before. 1 2 3 4 5

b. Developing good feelings about myself 1 2 3 4 5

c. Learning things that can help me in my everyday life 1 2 3 4 5

d. Discovering or recognizing values and beliefs that are

important to me
1 2 3 4 5
e. Learning how to choose good friends and be a friend to
others 1 2 3 4 5

f. Thinking about and planning for my future 1 2 3 4 5

g. Learning how to make good decisions and choices 1 2 3 4 5

h. Learning how to handle problems and pressures that come

up in life 1 2 3 4 5

i. Learning how to understand other people. 1 2 3 4 5

j. Learning how to stay away from things that could cause

problems for me later 1 2 3 4 5

k. Helping me and my parents communicate better about

important things 1 2 3 4 5

Olsen, J., Weed, S., Nielsen, A., & Jensen, L. (1992). Student evaluation of sex education
programs advocating abstinence. Adolescence, 27(106), 369-80. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/do

139
 APPENDIX F

Coding Scheme

Theme 1: Overall perceptions of the program

Sub-themes:
Positive responses
Negative responses
Other feelings about attending program

Theme 2: Impact of program participation on healthy sexual behavior

Sub-themes:
Whether learned anything new from sex education classes
− Positive responses
− Negative responses
Did not attend classes

Theme 3: Practical benefits of program participation

Sub-themes:
Daycare while studying
Learning how to look after baby
Use of practical facilities such as WIC Office
Special privileges such as taking time off

Theme 4: Academic benefits of program participation

Sub-themes:
Views on teaching standards and practices
− Positive responses
− Negative responses
Enabling them to graduate high school/program
Attend college after graduating from program
Theme 5: Perceived impact of program participation on subsequent life experiences
Sub-themes:
Positive responses
Negative responses
What they would have do differently if given another opportunity
Preparation for life as teenage mother
Employment
Other

140
 APPENDIX G

Survey Approval

Subject: Re: (no subject)

Date: November 19, 2012 7:22:19 PM EST

Marsha,
You have my permission to use the survey tool from our earlier article. I assume that
you find that it fits well with the goals and objectives of the program that you are
evaluating.

Sincerely,
Stan E. Weed, Ph.D.
Director, The Institute for Research & Evaluation

In a message dated 11/19/2012 12:17:34 P.M. Mountain Standard Time,

November 19, 2012

Dr. Stan Weed

6068 S. Jordan Canal Rd.
Salt Lake City, UT 84129

Dear Dr. Weed,

My name is Marsha Brown, and I am a doctoral student at Liberty University. For my

dissertation, students are evaluating a sex education/parenting program they completed.
In my research, I uncovered your survey, which fits well with this topic. I would be
honored to further your research by using your survey. I am requesting permission to use
and/or modify the questions in the instrument developed by the Institute for Research and
Evaluation I found in the article you co-authored, Student Evaluation of Sex Education
Programs Advocating Abstinence.

Per our conversation I am sending you a copy of the questions I would like to use for my
qualitative study. Please forward any surveys you think would be appropriate for
evaluating a teen parenting program parenting. I will ensure that you receive full credit
for its authorship in my dissertation. Please send an email confirming permission to use
your instrument(s).

Thank you for your kind consideration.

Sincerely,

Marsha Brown

141