Theories of Learning

The definition of learning presented earlier describes a general perspective

of what learning is. In this section, we will see that different theoretical groups have
their own definition of learning. Before we examine these various explanations,
accomplish the task below.

Activity 1B​. ​Complete View​. Imagine looking at Mt. Apo from four
different locations:
A. Camp Sabros
B. Kabacan*​1
C. Lake Agco
D. Peak of Mt. Apo

Based on the options above, where should a person stand to get a ​complete view of
Mt. Apo? Indicate your choice and provide an explanation in your notebooks before
you proceed.

Figure 1B. A view of Mt. Apo taken from Camp Sabros, Digos.

In the question above, all of us agree that each location gives us a different
view of the same mountain. And some, if not most, probably figured out that there
is actually not a single location where you can get a COMPLETE view of Mt. Apo.
Camp Sabros may have the best view. However, the question asks for a
complete picture. At Camp Sabros, we can see only one side of Mt Apo, not the
whole mountain. On a good day in Kabacan, we can see the other side of Mt. Apo
that's hidden from Camp Sabros. Still, like Camp Sabros, we get only a macro view
from Kabacan. When we're at Lake Agco or at the peak, we get a closer, more
detailed look. But just the same we don't get a complete perspective. In order to see

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​*On a good day, Mt Apo is visible from Kabacan.

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Mt. Apo in its entirety, we have to look at it from all the four locations mentioned
and probably more. Collectively, we get a whole view.
Now, how does this relate to the learning theories that are central to our
discussions in FLCT? Before we go into that, let's make sure we have the same
understanding of what theories are first.
Theories are explanations to some situations/phenomena that are complex
(e.g. learning, motivation to learn). They help simplify our understanding of
complex situations. Learning theories include ​behavioral​, ​cognitive​, ​social
cognitive​, and ​constructivist perspectives (Woolfolk, 2016). Other references (e.g.,
Ormrod, 2014) include the sociocultural theory of learning.
In my 10 years of teaching, I get asked, "What is the best theory of learning?"
"What is the best theory of motivation?" The answer: ​There is no single best theory of
learning or motivation.​ Each theory "sees" and explains a different kind of learning
that the other theories do not explain or only partially explain. Just like in our Mt.
Apo problem where each location views a different part of the mountain, each
theory looks at a different aspect of learning and tries to explain that part. In order
to get a complete picture, we have to combine the explanations from all these
theories.
For us to accomplish the goal of designing environments that help our
students learn better, we need to view the theories of learning as complementary,
not contradictory perspectives. These theories may define learning differently, and
in some instances their ideas may be contrasting, however, each perspective is
appropriate in certain conditions, and using a combination of these approaches in
our teaching is the best practice.
In this module, we will focus on four theories, namely: behavioral, cognitive,
social cognitive, and constructivist views. Figure 1C graphically shows these theories
along with some key concepts and their most prominent proponents. In the
succeeding parts of this module, we will discuss the theories in greater detail.

Figure 1C. Theories of learning.

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 Behavioral theories emphasize learning that can be observed directly. For
instance, improvement in skills such as speaking, dancing, baking. They emphasize
drill, repetition, and rote memorization. You encountered the term rote
memorization last semester - it's memorizing without deeper understanding. Like
when you were asked to memorize the multiplication table in math, the scientific
names of different plants in your science subject, the authors of certain literary
pieces in your language arts classes, or the endless names and dates in ​Araling
Panlipunan.​ These theories place heavy emphasis on the effect of external events
(i.e., environmental experiences) on learning, particularly behavior.
Not all learning can be observed, however. There are some changes that
happen in the mind and they cannot be observed directly. This is a limitation of the
behavioral theories of learning - it cannot explain changes in memory or thinking.
This is where the cognitive views come in. Cognitive theories of learning explain
changes related to memory and thinking. For cognitive theories, what's important is
the role of prior knowledge in new learning. We connect the new information with
the old - with what is already stored in our memory, with what we have already
learned. If behavioral theories emphasize drill and repetition, cognitive theories
emphasize the use of learning strategies. And while behavioral theories explain
learning as change in behavior, cognitive perspectives explain learning as change in
knowledge.
The third set of theories are explanations of learning that combine the ideas
from the behavioral and cognitive perspectives - the social cognitive views of
learning. We can look at this third theory as a bridge between behaviorism and
cognitivism. The emphasis is observational learning, imitating or copying someone's
behavior, and demonstrating. If behaviorism explains learning as change in
behavior, and cognitivism explains it as change in knowledge, social cognitive
theory focuses on potential for behavior. Individuals may have learned certain
behaviors they do not demonstrate unless the situation or motivation is right.
Lastly, we have the constructivist theory. This is similar to cognitive theories
in its emphasis on the role of prior knowledge in learning. What's different with the
constructivist view is the emphasis on "building your own understanding." The
output of learning may be different from the input. And the understanding that
each student builds may be different from one student to another. This is because
each one has different prior knowledge and experiences.
These theories are described in greater detail in Tables 1A and 1B. As you
read, try to figure out the meaning of the following keywords which you will use in
Activity 1C:
Agency Punishment Self-efficacy
Consequence Reinforcement Self-regulation/
Information processing Response Self-regulated learning
Modeling Schema Stimulus

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Table 1A. General Theoretical Approaches to the Study of Learning (Ormrod, 2014
pp. 22-23)
Theoretical Perspective​. General Description. ​Examples of Prominent Theorists
Behaviorism.​ Behaviorists argue that because thought processes cannot be
directly observed and measured, it is difficult to study thinking objectively and
scientifically. Instead, they focus on two things that researchers ​can​ observe and
measure: people’s behaviors (​responses)​ and the environmental events (​stimuli,​
reinforcement)​ that come before and follow those responses. Learning is viewed as
a process of acquiring and modifying associations among stimuli and responses,
largely through a learner’s direct interactions with the environment. ​B.F. Skinner,
Edward Thorndike, Ivan Pavlov
Social Cognitive Theory.​ Historically, social cognitive theorists have focused on
the ways in which people learn from observing one another. Environmental stimuli
affect behavior, but cognitive processes (e.g., ​awareness​ of stimulus-response
relationships, ​expectations​ about future events) also play a significant role.
Oftentimes, people learn from ​modeling:​ They watch and imitate what others do.
Whether people learn and perform effectively is also a function of their ​self-efficacy,​
the extent to which they believe they can successfully accomplish a particular task
or activity. As social cognitive theory has evolved over time, it has increasingly
incorporated the concept of ​self-regulation​, in which people take charge of and
direct their own actions. ​Albert Bandura, Dale Schunk, Barry Zimmerman
Information Processing Theory.​ While not denying that the environment plays a
critical role in learning, information processing theorists concern themselves with
what goes on ​inside​ learners, focusing on the cognitive processes involved in
learning, memory, and performance. From observations of how people execute
various tasks and behave in various situations, these theorists draw inferences
about how people may perceive, interpret, and mentally manipulate information
they encounter in the environment. They speculate about what internal
mechanisms underlie human cognition (e.g., ​working memory​ and ​long-term
memory)​ and about how people mentally process information (e.g., through
elaboration a​ nd ​visual imagery​). Initially, some information processing theorists
believed that human thinking is similar to how a computer works (hence, they
borrowed terms such as ​encoding,​ ​storage​, and ​retrieval​ from computer lingo), but
in recent years many theorists have abandoned the computer analogy. ​Richard
Atkinson, Richard Shiffrin
Constructivism.​ Constructivists, like information processing theorists, concern
themselves with internal aspects of learning. They propose that people create
(rather than absorb) knowledge from their observations and experiences. They
suggest that people combine much of what they learn into integrated bodies of
knowledge and beliefs (e.g., these might take the form of ​schemas​ and ​theories)​
that may or may not be accurate, useful understandings of the world. Some
constructivists focus on how individual learners create knowledge through their
interactions with their environment; this approach is known as ​individual
constructivism​. Others emphasize that by working together, two or more people
can often gain better understandings than anyone could gain alone; this approach
is called ​social constructivism​. ​Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, Lev Vygotsky

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Table 1B​. Four Views of Learning (Woolfolk, 2016 p.462)
BEHAVIORAL COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVIST SOCIAL
COGNITIVE
Applied Information Individual Social/ Social
Behavior Processing Jean Piaget Situated Cognitive
Analysis J. Anderson Lev Vygotsky Theory
B.F. Skinner Albert Bandura
Knowledge​. Fixed body of Changing body Socially Changing body
Fixed body of knowledge to of knowledge, constructed of knowledge,
knowledge to acquire. individually knowledge. constructed in
acquire. Stimulated constructed in Built on what interaction with
Stimulated from outside. social world. participants others and the
from outside. Prior Built on what contribute, environment.
knowledge learner brings. construct
influences how together.
information is
processed.
Learning​. Acquisition of Active Collaborative Active
Acquisition of facts, skills, construction, construction of construction of
facts, skills, concepts, and restructuring socially defined knowledge
concepts. strategies. prior knowledge and based on
Occurs through Occurs through knowledge. values. Occurs observation,
drill, guided the effective Occurs through through socially interacting in
practice. application of multiple constructed the physical and
strategies. opportunities opportunities. social world,
and diverse and developing
processes to agency--
connect what is becoming more
already known. self-regulating.
Teaching​. Transmission. Challenge, Co-construct Presenting
Transmission, Guides students guide thinking knowledge with models,
presentation toward more toward more students. demonstrating,
(Telling) “accurate” and complete supporting
complete understanding. self-efficacy
knowledge. and
self-regulation.
Role of Teach and Facilitator, Facilitator, Model,
Teacher​. model effective guide. Listens guide. facilitator,
Manager, strategies. for student’s Co-participant. motivator.
supervisor. Correct current Co-constructs Model of
Corrects wrong misconceptions conceptions, different self-regulated
answers. ideas, thinking. interpretation learning.
of knowledge;
listens to
socially
constructed

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 conceptions.
Role of Peers​. Not necessary Not necessary Ordinary and Serve as
Not usually but can but can necessary part models.
considered. influence stimulate of process of Ordinary and
information thinking, raise knowledge necessary part
processing. questions. construction. of process of
knowledge
construction.
Role of Active Active Active Active
Student​. processor of construction co-construction co-construction
Passive information, (within mind). with others and with others and
recipient of strategy user. Active thinker, self. Active self. Active
information. Organizer and explainer, thinker, thinker,
Active listener, reorganizer of interpreter, explainer, explainer,
direction- information. questioner. interpreter, interpreter,
follower. Rememberer. questioner. questioner.
Active social Active social
participator. participator.

Activity 1C. Learning Theories and Related Concepts

Part 1. Match the definition/description in Column A with the corresponding

concept in Column B. Write the letter of your choice on the space before each item.

Column A Column B

_____ 1. Observable reaction to a stimulus. A. Agency

B. Consequence
_____ 2. The human mind’s activity of taking in, storing,
C. Information
and using information.
processing
_____ 3. Event that activates behavior; Environmental D. Modeling
condition that activates the senses. E. Punishment
_____ 4. Information—concepts, knowledge, information F. Reinforcement
about events—that already exists in a person’s G. Response
mind. H. Schema
I. Self-efficacy
_____ 5. The state of being active, usually to reach a goal; J. Self-regulation/
the capacity to coordinate learning skills, Self-regulated
motivation, and emotions to reach your goals. learning
_____ 6. Imitation of others’ behavior; Changes in K. Stimulus
behavior, thinking, or emotions that happen
through observing another person.
_____ 7. Use of consequences to strengthen behavior; A
consequence that increases the probability that a
behavior will occur.

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_____ 8. Process that weakens or suppresses behavior; A
consequence that decreases the probability that a
behavior will occur.
_____ 9. Pleasant or unpleasant environmental condition
that follows behaviors and affects the frequency
of future behaviors.
_____ 10. Beliefs about personal competence in a particular
situation; an individual’s subjective perception of
his or her capability to perform in a given setting
or to attain desired results.
_____ 11. The ability to think and solve problems without
the help of others; The process of continuously
monitoring and controlling one’s learning. For
example, students studying for a test might
periodically test themselves to determine what
they have learned, and then they might devote
additional studying to the material that is not as
well learned.

Part 2. Connect all concepts listed below and create a multi-level concept map of
learning theories.
Agency Reinforcement Stimulus
Consequence Response Learning theories
Information processing Schema Behavioral
Modeling Self-efficacy Cognitive
Punishment Self-regulation/ Social cognitive
Self-regulated learning Constructivist

As emphasized earlier, rather than arguing about the value of each theory,
consider their contributions to understanding learning and improving teaching
(Woolfolk, 2016). Don’t feel that you must choose the “best” approach--there is no
such thing. Chemists, biologists, and nutritionists rely on different theories to
explain and improve health. In the same way, different views of learning can be used
together to create productive learning environments for the diverse students you
will teach.
Behavioral theory helps us understand the role of ​cues (stimuli that come
before a behavior) in activating behaviors and the role of ​consequences (stimuli that
come after a behavior) and ​practice in encouraging or discouraging particular
behaviors. But much of humans’ lives and learning is more than behaviors.
Language and higher-order thinking require complex information processing and
memory--something the cognitive models help us understand.
And what about the person as a creator and constructor of knowledge, not
just a processor of information? Here, constructivist perspectives have much to
offer. Social cognitive theory illustrates the powerful learning opportunities

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provided through ​modeling and ​observational learning and highlights the important
role of agency and self-direction. Finally, life requires self-regulated learning, and
promoting effective self-regulation skills promotes greater success in learning
regardless of the operational process of learning.
One way to understand the four main learning theories is to consider them
as four pillars for teaching. Students must first understand and make sense of the
material (constructivist); then, they must remember what they have understood
(cognitive--information processing); then, they must practice and apply (behavioral)
their new skills and understanding to make them more adaptable and automatic--a
permanent part of their knowledge/learning. Finally, they must take charge of their
own learning (social cognitive). Failure to attend to any part of the process results in
lower-quality learning.

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