Physics is FUNdamental

A Handy Guide to Constructing Explanations for All the Really Important “Stuff” in Everyday Physics

2020 EDITION

Normal

Angle of Angle of
Incidence Reflection

Mirror

Ms. Francette Fey

Mr. William J. Koren
Dr. Michael H. Suckley
Physics Is FUNdamental

Prof. Francette Fey

Prof. William J. Koren
Dr. Michael H. Suckley

Macomb Community College

Published by:

12305 Lavender West, Fenton, Michigan 48430

Copyright ©2020 by Dr. Michael H. Suckley

ISBN: 0-9703732-0-1

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any process
without the permission in writing from the copyright owner.

The PHET assignments provided in this book are available from the PHET website. These are open
source items available for anyone to use for free. Those included in this text have been modified by
the authors to support the curriculum for Macomb Community College’s Physical Science course.

Printed in the United States of America

i
 Table of Contents
(Click on underlined text to select)

Topic Page
Acknowledgments .................................................................................. iv
Introduction .............................................................................................. v

01 Measurement ........................................................................................... 1
Self-Evaluation

02 Experimental Models ........................................................................... 13

Self-Evaluation

03 Structure of Matter ............................................................................... 19

Self-Evaluation

04 Motion .................................................................................................... 31
Self-Evaluation

05 Forces and Simple Machines .............................................................. 35

Self-Evaluation

06 Energy .................................................................................................... 43
Self-Evaluation

07 Heat ........................................................................................................ 52
Self-Evaluation

08 Waves and Sound ................................................................................. 60

Self-Evaluation

09 Electricity............................................................................................... 68
Self-Evaluation

10 Magnetism ............................................................................................. 73
Self-Evaluation

11 Electromagnetism and Light ............................................................... 83

Self-Evaluation

12 Color....................................................................................................... 89
Self-Evaluation
Self-Evaluation Answers ...................................................................... 97
Glossary .................................................................................................. 98
Formula and Common Units Pages ……………………………………108,109

ii
iii
iv
 Acknowledgments

This book was written to support student centered active learning experiences in the Physical
Sciences. These learning experiences are based upon laboratory activities designed to promote
discovery and application of fundamental concepts. It is our belief that true understanding is based
upon direct observation and manipulation of variables leading to the development of concepts
which can be applied to daily life.
The laboratory experiences investigated in this book provide the opportunity to visit the most
exciting world one could conceive. A world so large that galaxies fit easily inside and, yet so
small, the behavior and interaction of the tiniest particles of matter become visible. This is the
emerging world of today's physics. It has changed all of our lives no matter what our age, and we
have only seen the beginning.
Since the first edition of this book in nineteen seventy-four, students, laboratory assistants,
instructors and colleagues have contributed to the improvement and development of this book.
At the end of each academic year the book is revised to include the suggested changes for that
year. We wish to thank these individuals for their encouragement and useful suggestions and ideas
for the improvement of this textbook.

v
 Introduction

This textbook explores the conceptual nature of Physics and includes the structure of matter and
various concepts of energy. The purpose of this textbook is to help understand how scientists use the
experimental method in comparing hypotheses with reality and how the laboratory gives insights into the
concepts of nature. To get the greatest benefit, regard each concept as a problem to which you are forcing
nature to give an answer. From this experience, a better understanding of the process of science and the
work of the scientists should result. The most usable part of all will be your own experiences discovering
these processes of science.

Specifically, this book has the following goals:

1. To provide the opportunity to experience the successes, failures, certainties, uncertainties,

drudgery and the rewarding achievements of scientific investigation.

2. To give practice in recording, graphing, interpreting, and drawing logical inferences based
on empirical data.

3. To give insight into the relation between experimentation and physical concepts.

4. To give practice in developing hypotheses and using them for predictive purposes.

5. To provide the opportunity to generalize physical science concepts in order to understand

and apply them to daily life.

6. To provide the opportunity to develop concepts through hands-on cooperative learning

experiences.

7. To give practice in mathematically solving basic physical science formulas.

vi
 MEASUREMENT
Topic 01

Objectives

1. Given the following list of terms, identify each term's correct definition. Conversely, given definitions identify their
correct terms.

average, centi, deci, error, gram, kilo, liter, mass, measurement, meniscus, meter, metric system, milli, percent of
error, temperature, time, volume, unit, and density.

2. Given a piece of laboratory apparatus used for measurement, identify the smallest division on the instrument, and record
measurements using the measurement rule.

3. Given a solid object, measure its length using metric units. Convert these units to all the other linear units (millimeter,
centimeter, meter, kilometer).

4. Given a mass scale and various objects, measure and convert these measurements to the other units of mass (milligram,
gram, kilogram).

5. Given a graduated cylinder and measure the volume of liquid and other objects. Convert these volumes to all the other
metric units of volume (milliliter, liter, kiloliter).

6. Given a Celsius thermometer and an object, measure the temperature of the object. Convert the measurement to
Fahrenheit. Also be able to convert from Fahrenheit to Celsius.

7. Given a set of measurements and a theoretical (accepted) value, obtain the average of the set of measurement, compute
the error, and determine the percent of error.

8. Given the appropriate conversion factors and various measurements, convert the measurements from English to Metric,
and Metric to English.

9. Calculate density based on volume and mass measurements.

10. Know the SI units for length, volume, and mass.

INTRODUCTION

Concept of Measurement
One of the important features of science is that it deals not only with the qualities of things (whether something is big,
hot, or blue), but it also concerns itself with quantities (how big? how hot? how blue?). Quantification is accomplished using
measurements. Measurements have a number with an associated unit that describes the type of measurement made, or we can
say the unit defines the quantity for us. For example, the Moon is far away, but more precisely it is 384 million meters away
from Earth, or using a different set of units the distance is 239,000 miles. It also says that atoms are small, but that if you could
count the atoms along the edge of a table, you would find 10 billion atoms in each meter.
Why are numbers so important? Usually, there are several possible ways of thinking about things, and there may be
several possible models to use in order to describe them. But if numbers are used in the descriptions, the models must also
give the right numbers. With numbers we have a way of carefully checking whether an idea is right or wrong. We have a way
of improving our models. It is one thing to say that hydrogen gas burns with oxygen to produce water. It means much more
to say that for each kilogram of hydrogen burned 9 kilograms of water will be produced.
Our understanding of nature is based on models we hold in our minds; models of how we think things work. In science,
models are much more useful when they are expressed in quantitative terms. The idea of an atom as a permanent unchanging

Physics is FUNdamental 1
entity came about when researchers saw that even though dissolving, burning, and boiling could change the form of materials,
the total mass of the materials being analyzed did not change.
The power of science depends on the ability to make reliable predictions. Much effort has been devoted to developing
measuring techniques and tools that improve our ability to make predictions. How big is something? How often or how fast
does it happen? A scientific observation involves not only seeing what exists or what happens, it also involves measuring the
results of definite procedures.
Every measurement is a process of comparing something to a unit of measurement. All measurements can be categorized
into various dimensions. For example, there are dimensions of length, time, mass, etc.… When measuring length, we can use a
measuring device that is scaled with centimeters, or a different device that is scaled with inches. Regardless of whether we
indicate our measurement in centimeters or inches the measured dimension is that of length. We indicate what measuring device
we have used to make the length measurement by including units with the numerical value. For example, my object may have
measured 1.0 inch using an inch scaled ruler, or with a centimeter rule it will measure 2.5 centimeters. The general rule (there
are a few exceptions) in this physical science course is that there are NO NAKED NUMBERS! They must be accompanied by
a unit to have meaning. For example, if I simply say I am 5, what does this mean? The number is naked. There is no unit to
identify what value the number 5 represents. It could mean 5 feet tall, 5 dollars richer, 5 dollars poorer, 5 minutes late, 5 pounds
heavier, etc…. To have meaning make sure your numbers are always accompanied by a unit.

The Characteristics of Measurement

Any reported measurement must tell us three things:

1) units which tell us what type of measurement was made. (e.g. meters, grams, and liters etc. was
measured)
2) an order of magnitude (the size of the measurement which is read from your measuring device)
3) a statement about the uncertainty of the measurement
The units indicate whether the data is expressed in meters, grams, or liters of whatever quantities are being measured.
(Note that usually abbreviations for the units are used instead of writing out the entire word. You will need to become accustomed
to these abbreviations. They are provided in the cover of your book in parentheses.) The order of magnitude identifies the size of
the measurement.
Uncertainty provides a statement concerning how closely (small a division) the measuring device can measure
something. Suppose, for example, we are measuring the width of a door by using a meter stick having only centimeter marks on
it. This means we can be reasonably certain of the door width to the nearest centimeter. Let us suppose this width to be between
71 and 72 cm. To be more accurate we need to estimate to the tenth of a centimeter between the two readings. We might write
this reading as 71.3 cm, with the 3 underlined to show that not all people would agree on the exact tenth. To write a fourth digit
would require 10 times greater accuracy and would be very misleading.
Note: Never round off your measurements when recording them! What you write on your data sheet must accurately
reflect your measuring instruments capabilities. However, after using the measurements in calculations, you may need to round
off the answer.

The Measurement Rule: Determine the smallest division on the measuring device and then divide that
number by 10. In general, the measurement will be written out to the number of decimal places obtained
from dividing the smallest division by 10.

Example: The smallest division on the pictured ruler on the next page is 0.1 cm. Applying the measurement rule
tells us that 0.1 divided by 10 equals 0.01. When we write our measurement, we must write it out to the hundredths
place. Using the same ruler below, your eye has the ability to see that the length of the line underneath it falls
between 4.5 and 4.6. Some students think that they should just guess whether the measurement is 4.5 or 4.6. But,
in science we can do better than just guess the 1/10th decimal place in this situation. You can determine if the
measurement is closer to 4.5 cm or closer to 4.6 cm. First, we take the difference between 4.6 and 4.5. The
difference is 0.1. Now divide by 10. The result is 0.01. We should write the measured value out to the hundredths
position. In this case we guess what the next decimal value should be. Doing this provides a more accurate
measurement than simply ignoring the fact that the measured value falls somewhere between 4.5 cm and 4.6 cm.
Let’s say that the measured value is very close to 4.5. I see that the guessed position would be around 0.03. I write
my measurement as 4.53 cm. My guessed number is in the 1/100th position. This rule is true in general though
there are many exceptions. Do not apply the measurement rule to digital instruments or any instrument where you
cannot judge whether your measurement falls between two measured values or not.

Physics is FUNdamental 2
 • The basic unit of measurement on this scale is the centimeter.
• Smallest division is 0.1 cm.
• Your guess must be to the nearest 0.01 of a centimeter.

What is the smallest division of the following protractor? (1 degree) What is the smallest part of a degree that must be
reported? (0.1 degree) NOTE: If a reading were to be exactly 10 degrees, it must
be reported to tenths. In other words, the reading would be 10.0°. Writing 10°
would be incorrect. Writing 10.0° is correct.

Identify the: 1) smallest unit (division), 2) correct way to record the smallest
measurement applying the measurement rule for the following
measuring devices.

A. (Wall Clock) 1. __________________

2. __________________

B. (Mass scale) 1. __________________

2. __________________

C. (Graduated cylinder) 1. __________________

2. __________________

Answers: A.) 1s, 1s (Wall clocks with second hands don’t stop moving. Our eyes cannot provide a more accurate measurement
than 1 second. We cannot see the second-hand fall between two 1 second positions accurately). B.) 0.1gram, 0.1gram (This is
a digital instrument. The uncertainty in the measurement is already taken care of by the device. C.) 1mL, 0.1mL (We must
apply the measurement rule since we have the ability to see the measurement fall between divisions.

Physics is FUNdamental 3
Accuracy and Precision
When taking measurements, it is important to note that there is a difference between the accuracy of the measured values
and the precision of those measured values. Accuracy compares your measured value to some predicted value. The closer your
experimental measurement is to that predicted amount the more accurate your measurement is considered. Accuracy is dependent
on the measuring instrument you utilize and how well you use that instrument. We usually calculate the percent error (discussed
on the next page) to inform us of accuracy. Your instructor will let you know what percent errors are acceptable for your
experiments throughout the semester. Precision is how consistent your measured values are. For example, if you are timing the
oscillation of a pendulum you might collect the following data for 3 trials: 1.3 s, 2.2 s, and 1.5 s. We can’t tell how accurate these
measurements are without being informed of the expected outcome. However, we can tell that there is not good precision. The
second trial time is very different than the first and third trial. It doesn’t seem to fit any pattern and the discrepancy is large
relatively speaking. In this course, when your experiments have poor precision you are required to repeat the measurement for
the value or values that don’t appear precise.

Measurement of Length
Most nations and all scientists use a method of measurement called the Metric System. Unlike the English System of
measurement used in the United States, the Metric System is based on units of 10.
The SI unit for length is the meter (m). The meter is approximately 39.37 inches. The meter can be subdivided into 10
smaller units called decimeters. Each decimeter, in turn, is composed of 10 small units called centimeters, and each centimeter
is composed of 10 millimeters. These relationships are:

1 m (meter) = 10 dm (decimeters)
1 dm (decimeter) = 10 cm (centimeters)
1 cm (centimeter) = 10 mm (millimeters)

The most commonly used units of length are the meter, centimeter, and millimeter. In this system, any measurement
can be expressed in any of the above units by using decimals. For example, a rod 17.0 mm long can be described in the
following units:

17.0 mm or 1.70 cm or 0.170 dm or 0.017 m

Examine a meter stick in the classroom. Note that it is divided into 100 units. Each labeled unit, such as 1, 2, 3 and 4,
represents the number of centimeters. Note that the meter stick is also divided into groups of 10, from 0 to 100. You can easily
see heavily printed numbers such as 10, 20, 30, etc. The length from 10 to 20 represents one decimeter. The number 30
represents 30 centimeters. The smallest subdivision on the meter stick is the unit called a millimeter. One thousands of these
tiny units are found on the meter stick. When using a meter stick you should place it on its edge and avoid using the extreme
left and right edges of the scale. These may be ragged from excessive use.

NOTE: When applying the measurement rule the measurement for this instrument
must be recorded to the nearest 0.01 cm.

Measurement of Volume
The basic unit of volume in the Metric System is the liter (1.056 quarts). The SI unit
is the Liter (L). Note that1 liter (L) = 1000 milliliters (mL). Another common unit is the
cubic centimeter (cc) which is equal to 1 mL.
When working with fluids notice that the top level of the fluid being measured in the
cylinder is not a flat level surface. It is a concave surface called a meniscus. All volume
measurements are made using the bottom of the meniscus.

Physics is FUNdamental 4
Measurement of Mass
Ease in conversion of units is also found in measuring mass, where the basic unit is the gram. Again all multiple units
or sub units are based on 10, for example 1 kilogram = 1000 grams or 1 milligram = 0.001 gram. The kilogram, gram and
milligram are the most frequently used units of mass.
To determine the mass of a sample using a balance, place the balance firmly on a level surface. Check the balance to be
certain that it is reading zero when empty.

Measurement of Time
A. The proper use of a timer requires that you recognize the following about its operation.
1. It will be necessary that, upon examination of the particular timer you will be using in an experiment, you
identify the button or switches that start it, stop it, and reset it.

2. Determine the units of time that you are measuring with the device. It will be necessary that you examine the
scales of the timer and identify:
a. The numbers on the scale which represents hours, minutes, and seconds
b. Does the timer measure fractions of seconds such as a tenth of a second, a hundredth of a second, etc.….?

Measurement of Temperature
A thermometer is a device that measures temperature. Most substances expand when heated and contract when cooled.
The thermometers you use are designed around this property of matter. The familiar mercury-in-glass thermometer works
because mercury expands more than glass when warmed. Thus, the length of the mercury column in the glass tube provides a
measure of surrounding temperature.
The metric system measures temperature on the Celsius scale. On this scale, ideally, water freezes at 0o C and boils at
100o C. This corresponds to 32o F and 212o F respectively. It is possible to convert from English to Metric and vice versa
using the following mathematical statements:

T°Fahrenheit = (9/5 x Celsius) + 32

T°Celsius = (T°Fahrenheit - 32) x 5/9

Notice when using these formulas that what you are looking for is on the left side of the equal sign, and what you know is entered
into the right side of the equation.

Measurement of Density
The density of an object can be obtained by measuring the mass of the object and its volume.

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = .
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

An old trick question is what has more mass, 1 kg of bricks or 1 kg of feathers? Some students automatically say 1 kg of bricks.
The real answer is they are both equal. A kg of anything = a kg of anything else. But your instincts tell you there is something
different, and you are correct. The density of a kg of bricks is different than that of a kg of feathers because the volume of a kg
of bricks is very different than the volume of a kg of feathers, although they both have the same mass! Why are their volumes
different? Because the spacing between feathers and the spacing between the bricks is vastly different. A 1-kg bag of feathers
would take up a lot more volume than a 1 kg bag of bricks. Why? Because the feathers are further apart from each other than the
bricks are. The more compact an object is the higher it’s density will be and vice versa. In other words objects with a higher
density have molecules that are more closely spaced to each other than objects with a lower density. Objects with a density higher
than that of the fluid they are placed in will sink, and those objects that have a density lower than the fluid they are placed in will
float. For example a lead sinker has a higher density than water and it will sink, but oil has a lower density than water and thus is
floats on water.

Determining Average, Error, and Percent Error

When conducting an experiment, measurements are repeated several times (trials), in order to minimize errors to improve
the reliability of the findings. Each measurement obtained may be (even if it is only slightly) a different value. In order to find
which value is most likely to be the true or the best value of your measurement we turn to the mathematical science of statistics.
Statistics indicates that in order to get the best of all values obtained (in terms of being the closest to the true value), one must
calculate their mean or average. To obtain an average add up all the measured values and divide by the number of trials

Physics is FUNdamental 5
performed. In symbols, if the values involved are x1, x2, x3, ------- xn, which means that there were a certain number of n trials
performed, their average is computed by:

x1 + x2 + x3 + -----------xn
average = –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
n
For Example:
1 Apple was purchased in three different markets. What is the average price?
Market 1 = 5 ¢ = x1
Market 2 = 7 ¢ = x2
Market 3 = 12 ¢ = x3
Note: n = 3 since prices were obtained at 3 markets.
x1 + x2 + x3 + -----------xn 5 + 7 + 12 24
average = ––––––––––––––––––––––– or –––––––––– or –––––– or 8 ¢
n 3 3
You have calculated the average value which will often be the experimental value for many of the experiments in this
book. The difference between your experimental value and the scientific theoretical value is the error for this set of
measurements.
Error = | Experimental value - Theoretical value |
(Notice the absolute value bars. This means you can neglect any negative signs.)

For Example:
If you measured the width of several pieces of wood from a manufacturer to average 25.50 cm. The manufacturer indicates
that the width of the wood should average 25.00 cm. Determine the error in our measurement.
Theoretical value = 25.00 cm.
Experimental value = 25.50 cm.
Error = Experimental value - Theoretical value or 25.50 cm - 25.00 cm.
Error = 25.50 cm - 25.00 cm. = 0.50 cm

It would now appear that your task has come to an end, but a problem arises when you wish to report your error to
someone not involved with your experiment. To illustrate the problem, let us say that in measuring the width of an object you
tell a friend that the error was 0.50 cm. That seems small enough if the total width of the object is 25.00 cm or more. In
comparison we can see that 0.50 cm is indeed a small error compared to the measured value of 25.00 cm. But what if the total
width of the object was only 1.00 cm? Then your error of 0.50 cm is not so small when compared to 1.00 cm. In fact, it may
be too large to be acceptable.
The moral of this story is that the error is not a measure of your success or failure in performing the experiment. A
better way in reporting the error is to use the percent error (% Error). Expressing your error in the form of a percentage enables
one to understand accurately the magnitude of the error involved regardless of the size of the theoretical value.

100 x Error
% Error = –––––––––––––––––––––––––
Theoretical value

For Example:
A) If the theoretical value of the length of the object is 25.00 cm and your error is .50 cm the

100 x 0.50
% Error = –––––––––––––––––––––– = 2.0%
25.00

B) But, if the theoretical value of the total length of the object is 1.00 cm the

100 x 0.50
% Error = –––––––––––––––––––––– = 50.0%
1.00

Physics is FUNdamental 6
 In both cases, A and B, the errors were both 0.50. The calculation of the percent of error allowed us to clearly see the
difference between the two.

An Example of Average, Error & Percent Error

1. The following set of values was obtained when measuring the length of 5 different ball-point pens. According to the
manufacturer the length of the pens should be 14.00 cm. Determine the average length measured, the error, and percent error.
pen 1. = 13.80 cm = x1
pen 2. = 13.90 cm = x2
pen 3. = 13.80 cm = x3
pen 4. = 14.10 cm = x4
pen 5. = 14.20 cm = x5

Their average is obtained as follows:

x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 +x5 13.80 + 13.90 + 13.80 + 14.10 + 14.20

1) x = ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– = –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– = 13.96 cm
5 5
2) The error is computed as follows:
The theoretical value given in the problem = 14.00 cm.
Error = |Experimental value – Theoretical value|
Error = |13.96 - 14.00 | = 0.04 cm

3) The percent error is now computed:

100 x Error 100 x 0.04 cm

% Error = –––––––––––––––––––––––– = ––––––––––––––––––––– = 0.3%
Theo. 14.00 cm

Conversions
Converting from one unit of measurement to another can be a fairly simple procedure.
Example: Convert 24 inches to feet. To accomplish this, we need to know:
1. The conversion factor from inches to feet. 12 inches = 1 foot
2. The final answer will be a smaller number of feet. (This is known by looking at the conversion factor.)
We propose two possible approaches to solve conversion problems.

Method 1: Ask and answer the following three questions:

1. What is the conversion factor?
2. Will my final answer be larger or smaller?
3. Multiply or divide to produce the results of question 2?

Example:
A. If a line was 9.5 in. long, how many centimeters would this be?
1. 2.54 cm = 1 in.
2. Larger
3. 2.54 cm / in. x 9.5 in. = 24.1 cm.

B. How many cm is 14.3 km (kilometers)? (Use the three questions.)

1. __________________
2. __________________
3. __________________
(Answer 1,430,000 cm) Can you read this number? It is 1 million 4 hundred 30 thousand centimeters.

Physics is FUNdamental 7
Method 2: This approach uses a more structured set-up using fractions. The units are treated algebraically like the numbers.

Example:
A. If a line is 9.50 in long, how many centimeters would this be?

9.50 in 2.54 cm (9.50 in) x (2.54 cm)

x ––––––––––– = ––––––––––––––––––––––––––– = (9.50) x (2.54 cm) = 24.1 cm
1 in. 1 in
B. If the distance from your home to MCC was 4.3 km, how many miles would this be?

4.3 km 1 mi (4.3km) x (1 mi)

x ––––––––––– = ––––––––––––––––––––––––––– = 2.7 mi
1.61 km (1.61 km)
Important Note: Using all of the numbers that appear on your calculator after performing a calculation does not make your
answer more accurate. Your calculations cannot be more accurate than your measured values. You must evaluate your
final answers and determine where the calculated answer should be rounded. There are precise methods for making these
determinations in science, but these are beyond the scope of this class. For this course, rounding your answers off to match
the number of decimal places in your measured values will usually be acceptable. Your instructor will let you know when
it’s not. It is also very, very important to understand that it’s okay to round off calculations you make using your measured
values, but you should not round off your measurements!!!!! For accuracy, you should always record the number of
decimal places your measuring instrument provides along with the measurement rule.

Physics is FUNdamental 8
 MEASUREMENT
Self-Evaluation
Test 011

Directions: Select the best answer

1. 01,1 Indicate the metric units for volume, length, mass, and temperature, in order.
A. liter, meter, pound, Celsius
B. liter, meter, gram, Celsius •
C. gallon, meter, pound, Celsius
D. liter, yard, gram, Celsius
E. none of the above

2. 01,1 In reading a graduated cylinder we always read to the bottom of the

A. liquid being measured
B. meniscus •
C. nearest marking on the cylinder closest to the liquid
D. all of the above
E. none of the above

3. 01,2 What is the smallest measurable division on the clock pictured?

A. 10 s
B. 1 s•

C. 0.1 s
D. 0.01 s
E. none of the above

4. 01,2 To correctly apply the measurement rule to the cylinder on the right, the measurement should
include a numeric value to which place?
A. 10
B. 1
C. 0.1
D. 0.01 •
E. 0.001

5. 01,3 143 m are how many km?

A. 143 km
B. 14.3 km
C. 1430 km
D. 14300 km
E. 0.143 km •

Physics is FUNdamental 9
 6. 01,3 4.8 m are how many cm?
A. 0.48 cm
B. 48 cm
C. 480 cm •
D) 4800 cm

7. 01,4 100 mg = __________ cg = _________ g = __________ kg

A. 1 cg = 10 cg = 100 kg
B. 1 cg = 0.1 g = 0.001 kg
C. 10 cg = 1 g = 0.01 kg
D. 10 cg = 0.01 g = 0.0001 kg
E. 10 cg = 0.1 g = 0.0001 kg •

8. 01,4 Given a 5.25-kilogram mass determine its mass in grams.

A. 5250 g
B. 525 g
C. 0.525 g
D. 0.053 g
E. 0.00525 g

9. 01,5 12.02 liters are how many mL?

A. 0.1202 ml •
B. 0 .01202 ml
C. 1.202 ml
D. 120.2 ml
E. 12020 ml

10. 01,5 6.01 liters are how many mL?

A. 60.1 ml
B. 601 ml
C. 6010 ml •
D. 0.601 ml 19
E. 0.0601 ml

11. 01,6 Applying the measurement rule, what is the correct reading for the thermometer
(shown on the right.?
A. 19.61 Co 18
B. 19.5 Co
C. 19.6 Co
D. 19 Co
E. 19.51 Co •

Physics is FUNdamental 10
12. 01,6 What is the correct reading for the thermometer (shown on the right. when applying the measurement rule.
A. 13.51 Co
B. 13 Co
C. 13.1 Co
D. 13.15 Co •
E. 13.05 Co

13. 01,7 An experiment is performed three times and the following results were obtained. Find their average
and compute the percent error. The theoretical value is 0.051.
TRIALS: 1) 0.053 2) 0.050 3) 0.047 14
A. 1.96% •
B. 1.52%
C. 7.30%
D. 1.01%
E. none of the above 13
14. 01,7 In an experiment to determine the specific gravity of an object, the average of the results was 8.4.
Calculate the percent error if the theoretical value is 6.2.
A. 60.5%
B. 23.5% 12
C. 35.5% •
D. 0.355%
E. none of the above

15. 01,8 How many cm in 5.0 inches?

A. 1.968 cm
B. 12.7 cm •
C. 15 cm
D. 10.1 cm
E. 7.54 cm

16. 01,8 254 miles are how many km?

A. 157.764 km
B. 415 km
C. 409 km •
D. 40.9 km

17. 01,9 Calculate the density of a rock based on the following measurements. The volume of the rock equals 2.3 mL and the
mass is 6.4 g.
A) 2.8 g/ml
B) 0.42 g/ml
C) 1.0 g/ml
D) 14.72 g/ml

18. 01,6 Convert 45.6oC to oF.

A) 75.5 oF
B) 114.1 oF
C) 42.1 oF
D) 57.3 oF

Self Evaluation Answers

Physics is FUNdamental 11
 EXPERIMENTAL MODELS
Topic 02

Objectives

1. Given the following list of terms, identify each term's correct definition. Conversely, given the definition, identify the
correct terms.

amplitude, constant, dependent variable, hypothesis, independent variable, law, mass, observation, oscillation,
pendulum, period, prediction, scientific method, and theory.

2. Identify the independent and dependent variables given an experimental situation with a list of variables.

3. You will be expected to make a graph including a title, labeled axes with units, appropriate scales, and best fit line.

4. List or identify the steps needed in developing variables for an experimental situation that would yield the most reliable
data.

5. Based upon a fictional experiment be able to identify the steps in the scientific method (examples: research question,
hypothesis, and conclusion), and list the correct order of steps.

INTRODUCTION

Prior to the time of Galileo (about 1580), the progress of scientific investigation was confined to observable facts in nature
and the theories of the early philosophers. As often as not, the observed facts failed to correspond in any way with the theories.
Experimental results often contradicted the theories. The only measure of the theories worth was the reputation of the person
who proposed them. Quite often, theories that were later disproved existed for many centuries because their author was a person
of great respect.
In the 16th century, people who proposed ideas on the behavior of matter used experimental results to modify their theories.
In any case, the scientific method was born, and progress was made along logical steps. Among the early proponents of the
scientific method was Galileo Galilei who by a series of simple experiments was able to make several important generalizations
on the nature of gravity. His methods are generally the same as those used today, namely:

1. Observations are made of some phenomena that generated a problem/question.

2. Research questions are developed to predict untested behavior.
3. Variables are identified, and. hypotheses generated to make predictions.
4. Experiments are used to examine the validity of the prediction.
5. Data is analyzed and further research identified. Theories are modified or strengthened. Theories that withstand the
test of experiments of very large periods of time can become scientific laws.

Usually, once a law has been stated, further experimental work is carried on to test it. The objective is to reach a point where
an explanation of all related occurrences in nature may be found in the simplest and concise law possible. It will take many years
of work by many people to arrive at this ultimate end.

The Problem
The scientific method can be studied by investigating the behavior of a simple device called the pendulum. A pendulum
consists of a string with a mass attached at the end. When released from some amplitude the pendulum will oscillate (swing
back and forth). The problem is: What are the factors which affect the period of the pendulum?

Physics is FUNdamental 12
Variables
The variables to be considered for the pendulum would include mass, length, amplitude, and the period of the pendulum.

Independent Variables
In an experiment there are three kinds of variables: independent, dependent and constant. The conditions which are
selected to produce various results are called independent variables. For example, the mass of the string could be an
independent variable. When experimenting with the pendulum, you will select a mass, conduct an experiment, and then select
another mass and repeat the procedure. Until enough data was collected you would be controlling or selecting the independent
variable.

Dependent Variables
The dependent variable is the result you measure. In the case of the pendulum, it is the period (the time to make one
swing). We could change the mass of the pendulum (independent variable) and observe how the period (dependent variable)
changes.

Constant Variables
It should be noted that there may be other variables which must be held constant during the described procedure to
insure consistent results. These variables which are fixed are called constants. In our example while investigating mass, the
length and amplitude of the pendulum must be held constant. In other words, investigate only one variable at a time while
holding the other variables constant.

Research Question
All experiments try to answer a question. This question is referred to as the research question and has a very specific
format that describes the effect of the independent variable upon the dependent variable. In general, the question will be of the
form, Does the dependent variable depend upon the independent variable? More specifically Does the period of a pendulum
depend on mass?

Hypothesis
When preparing to perform an experiment it’s important that an educated guess as to what the answer to the question is
provided. This allows us to test if we are correct or not. All hypotheses must include a very specific prediction. The general form
of the hypothesis can be, As the independent variable is increased the dependent variable will increase/decrease/remain the
same/etc…. Then we can run a test to see if our hypothesis is correct or not.

Collecting the Data

The period of a pendulum is the time (in seconds for this experiment) for the pendulum to make a complete oscillation.
An oscillation is the movement of a pendulum from its one maximum position all the way over to its other maximum and back.
There are three variables of the pendulum which could possibly affect the period. These are:
a. The mass of the pendulum bob.
b. The amplitude of the swing, i.e., the angular distance from the vertical to maximum.
c. The length of the pendulum (distance from point of support to the middle of the mass). It is measured in centimeters for
this experiment.
When there are three properties like the above, the procedure is to fix any two, and then vary the other. Thus, we would
get some idea how this property affects the period. In this experiment, we will measure the period of the pendulum by recording
the time for 10 complete oscillations, and then divide this number by 10 to get the period of one oscillation. This is done to
reduce the experimental error of starting and stopping the pendulum by a factor of 1/10. Remember to measure and record all
data to the correct number of digits indicated by the Measurement Rule discussed in Topic 1.

Data Analysis
The purpose of analyzing our data is to answer the research question. To answer the research question, we must analyze
one of three conditions existing with the data. First, the data could be all the same, indicating that the dependent variable does
not depend upon the independent variable. Second, the data could clearly vary in some systematic way, indicating the dependent
variable depends upon the independent variable. Third, the data varies a small amount and it is unclear whether the data is
really the same or is different. This variation may be a result of systematic errors, uncertainty in your measurements, errors in
how the data is collected and recorded by you, or how well you performed the experiment.

Physics is FUNdamental 13
 Errors in experiments are an inherent part of experimental science. There’s no escape! However, there is one type of
error that is within your control. If you perform an experiment incorrectly, misread the measuring instruments, incorrectly
record data, etc….. then you can expect to re-do the experiment or the portion that is affected by your mistakes. Many students
think that writing off their mistakes as human error is acceptable. It’s not. Following instructions and taking care to execute
those instructions carefully is a critical part of the laboratory learning experience.
There will be systematic errors that will be out of your control. These can cause the accuracy (expected value) to be off,
but these do not affect precision (repeatability of your measurements). For example, when measuring the swing of a pendulum
we will be taking our measurements in a room filled with air, but the predicted value is based on measurements taken in a
vacuum. The air resistance your pendulum experiences will affect the time measurements by a very small amount. Your
instructor will discuss these types of errors with you before or during each laboratory.
Another type of error is the uncertainties in the measurements. Remember the guessed portions of your measurements
from Topic 1 when applying the measurement rule? These guessed measurements will always have an effect on your results.
In other words, we do not expect you to obtain zero percent errors during any lab experiment. This doesn’t make the experiment
invalid or somehow meaningless. Our results are controlled by the measuring instruments we have available and the design of
the experiment. Your instructor will let you know the typical percent error for each experiment during the semester. If your
percent error is equal to or less than this amount, then your results indicate that the uncertainty in measurements and systemic
errors are what is expected. You can conclude that your results support the prediction. However, if your percent error is greater
than what is expected then you should discuss this with your instructor to determine whether you incorrectly completed the
experiment, performed your calculations, or recorded the data.
Example: The following represent three possible outcomes or results of an experiment and the analysis of those results. (Note:
The experiment was designed to determine if the period of a pendulum depends on mass. The time in seconds for one swing
(period) is recorded for 4 different masses.)

Mass 1 Mass 2 Mass 3 Mass 4

Result 1: 1.92 s 1.92 s 1.92 s 1.92 s
Analysis: They are the same.
The dependent variable does not depend upon the independent variable

Result 2: 1.92 s 2.30 s 3.45 s 4.41 s

Analysis: They are different.
The dependent variable depends upon the independent variable

Result 3: 1.92 s 1.94 s 1.98 s 1.96 s

Analysis: Uncertain. Statistical analysis is needed.
There is variation but is it enough to say the data is not the same?

The variation of the data in Result 3 is obvious in terms of magnitude. However, how much variation must exist to
indicate that the numbers are really different? The variation observed could be due to uncertainty in the measurements, or it
could be due to the dependency of the dependent variable upon the independent variable.
When the variation is small statistical analysis is used to determine the cause of the variation. It is not the intent of this
book to introduce the formal use of statistics. Our use of statistics will be based on an informal, or a common-sense approach.
Our analysis will help us determine if the variation is small enough to be disregarded due to uncertainties in our measurements.
The analysis will be fairly simple and based on the variation in the data. The variation in the data is the difference
between the largest and the smallest piece of data. If the variation is smaller than the size of the guessed position, then the
variation would be due to uncertainties in our measurements and we can consider the data to be the same. If the variation is
larger than the size of the guessed position, then we cannot conclude that the data is the same. For example:

• Sample data: 1.92 s 1.94 s 1.98 s 1.96 s

Note: The guessed position is underlined. For this example, the guessed position is the hundredths position. Therefore, the
size of the guessed position is 10 hundredths.
• Variation = 1.98 s – 1.92 s or 0.06 s
Variation: difference between the highest and lowest data
• 0.06 is less than 10 hundredths therefore the variation is due to uncertainty in the measurements. We can view all 4 data
points as the same.
• Since the variation is due to uncertainty (we can view all data points as equal to each other) we can conclude that the
dependent variable does not depend upon the independent variable.

Physics is FUNdamental 14
 It is important to understand that this analysis will work well if we have not made any gross or large errors while making
our measurements. If we have made gross errors our analysis will actually cause us to arrive at a wrong conclusion. Careful
experimentation is extremely important.
Research Answer/Conclusion
The research answer is very specific. A general statement would be, As the independent variable (increases/decreases)
the dependent variable (increased, decreased, remained the same). For our example experiments above we would write, As
the mass increased, the period of the pendulum (increased or decreased or remained the same). The period, of a pendulum
depends/does not depend on the mass of a pendulum.

Physics is FUNdamental 15
 EXPERIMENTAL MODEL
Self-Evaluation
Test 021

Directions: Select the best answer.

1. 02,1 In an experimental situation, the factors which are held static are called:
A. constants •
B. dependent variables
C. experimental group
D. variables
E. independent variables

2. 02,1 One complete swing of the pendulum is called:

A. an oscillation •
B. a frequency
C. an amplitude
D. pendulum
E. none of the above

3. 02,2 Given a problem such as the complete burning of a substance, the variables are: time taken for complete combustion,
mass of substance, specific gravity, composition of substance, and caloric output of burning material. Identify the
best measurable dependent variable.
A. time •
B. mass
C. experimental group
D. composition
E. caloric output

4. 02,2 In the experiment concerning the pendulum (involving the variables, mass, amplitude, length, and period. which was
used as the dependent variable?
A. period •
B. mass
C. length Time vs. Distance For The Race Car
D. amplitude 18
E. all of the above
16
Time Distance (m) Time (sec)
5. 02,3 Is the following graph correct? 12
A. YES (sec) 2.0 2.5
8
B. NO • 4.0 4.2
(You can ignore the connect the dot line.)
6 6.0 8.5
4
8.0 12.5
10.0 16.2
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Distance (m)

Physics is FUNdamental 16
6. 02,3 Is the following graph correct? Growth of Wealth
A. YES
B. NO • Time (years) wealth (Thous. dollars)
120

Wealth 20 20.0
(Thousands_80 30 35.0
of 40 40.0
Dollars) 50 60.0
40 60 85.0
(You can ignore the connect the 70 100.0
dot line). 80 130.0
0
0 20 40 60 80 100

Time
(Years)
7. 02,4 How many dependent variables do we handle at one time in our labs?
A. no more than one dependent variable at a time •
B. no more than two dependent variables at a time
C. no more than three dependent variables at a time
D. all of the above

8. 02,4 An experiment is going to be developed that investigates how the amount of time students study affects their exam
scores. Identify the dependent variable.
A. Study time
B. Exam scores
C. Final course grade
D. Both study time and exam scores
E. The type of exam given

9. 02,5 Arrange the following steps of scientific investigation in order.

1. develop conclusion
2. identify variables
3. conduct experiment
4. analyze data
5. identify research question
6. develop hypothesis

A. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
B. 1, 5, 3, 2, 4, 6
C. 6, 4, 3, 2, 5, 1
D. 1, 4, 3, 2, 6, 5
E. 5, 6, 2, 3, 4, 1
•

10.02,5 A research question asks; Does the period of a pendulum depend on gravitational forces? Which of the following is
a correctly written hypothesis?
A. Gravity depends on the period of the pendulum.
B. The period of a pendulum depends on gravity.
C. The gravity changes as the period of the pendulum increases.
D. The period of the pendulum increases the gravitational forces.
E. As the gravitational force increases the period of the pendulum will decrease

Physics is FUNdamental 17
 Self-Evaluation Answers

STRUCTURE OF MATTER
Topic 03

Objectives

1. Given the following list of terms, identify each term's correct definition. Conversely, given the definition, identify the
correct term.

acid, anion, atomic number, atomic weight, atoms, base, cation, catalyst, compounds, covalent bond,
dissociation, electrolyte, electrons, elements, gas, groups, heterogeneous, homogeneous, indicator, inorganic,
ion, ionic bond, isotopes, liquid, litmus, matter, metals, mixtures, molecules, neutrons, non-metals, non-pure
substance, organic, period, phenolphthalein, pHydrion, protons, pure substance, salt, energy levels or orbits,
solid

2. Identify or describe the major components of the atomic theory as stated in this unit.

3. Identify and describe the degree of chemical activity, and the arrangement of the elements in the Periodic Table.

4. Identify and describe the characteristics of compounds having either covalent or ionic bonds.

5. Identify or describe a model that can be used to depict the structure of an element or a molecule.

6. Identify whether elements will produce ionic or covalent bonds in a molecule.

7. Identify or describe the four states of matter (solids, liquids, gas, and plasma), and rank them according to the energy
of their component atoms or molecules. Identify the fifth state of matter.

8. Identify or describe the properties of metals and non-metals, as outlined in this unit.

9. Identify or describe the importance of the Law of Definite Proportions.

10. Given a specific indicator and an unknown solution, identify whether the solution is an acid or base, and determine
the pH level.

INTRODUCTION

Classification of Matter
Matter is defined as any substance which takes up space and has mass. Looking at the materials which make up our
world, shows us that they can be easily classified based on their physical properties. They can be further divided into finer
subparts until we have different subdivisions, each containing substances which possess common physical properties. A
classification system used by many scientists begins by dividing matter into pure, and non-pure substances.
Pure substances are composed of the same molecule such as water (H20). The rock, granite, is classified as a non-
pure substance, because it is made up of quartz, mica and feldspar, each of which is composed of several elements. This

Physics is FUNdamental 18
classification scheme further divides pure substances into elements and compounds and classifies non-pure substances into
homogeneous mixtures and heterogeneous mixtures.

Physics is FUNdamental 19
 Elements are such materials as hydrogen, helium, lithium, neon, sodium, and others that make up the Periodic Table
of Elements. Elements are divided into metals, non-metals, and metalloids. Examples of non-metals are oxygen, hydrogen,
and chlorine. Examples of metals are copper, silver, and iron. The general properties of non-metals and metals are:

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF NONMETALS:

1. Little luster.
2. Insulators or nonconductors.
3. If solid, they are brittle.
4. May be solid, liquid, or gaseous at room temperature.
5. Non-metals tend to acquire negative charge particles (electrons), and thereby form
negatively-charged bodies, (anions).

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF METALS:

1. High luster, therefore they reflect light and heat.
2. Good conductors of heat and electricity.
3. Machinable, ductile, malleable, not brittle.
4. Normally solid at room temperature.
5. Metals tend to lose negative charged particles (electrons) and form positively-charged
bodies, (cations).

Catalysts are chemicals used to speed up a reaction without becoming affected by the reaction.

Compounds are pure substances formed by the chemical combination of two or more different elements in definite
proportions by weight. The new compound has entirely different properties from the original elements from which it is formed.
The chemist's shorthand for a compound is called a formula. It consists of two or more symbols, which represent one molecule
of an element or a compound. Compounds are such things as sodium chloride (table salt), ammonium chloride, silver nitrate,
and potassium sulfate--- materials in which the elements that form the compound conform to the Law of Definite Proportions.
For example, one atom of sodium always combines with one atom of chlorine, in a definite proportion ---one to one to form
salt. Different compounds may have a different ratio of one element to another, but whatever it is, it is fixed or a definite
proportion (small, whole numbers). Compounds are divided into two categories, organic and inorganic. Organic compounds
are those that contain the element carbon. Inorganic compounds are those made up of salts, acids, bases, and oxides. Inorganic
materials could be represented by the combination of oxygen with other materials, such as Iron oxide (Rust).

Mixtures are formed when substances of any kind are physically mixed, with no chemical activity taking place thus no
new substances are formed, and each substance retains its original properties. These substances may be mixed in any
proportion. Homogeneous mixtures are such things as gases dissolved in liquids, gases dissolved in solids, etc.
In homogeneous mixtures the molecules are distributed throughout the materials uniformly. Dirt is a heterogeneous mixture
because the components of the dirt are mixed randomly, and not according to a fixed proportion. Muddy water could also be
considered a heterogeneous mixture.

Physics is FUNdamental 20
States of Matter
Matter exists as solids, liquids, gases, and plasma. We know that solids are substances which have a definite shape,
and a definite volume. Liquids can take the shape of the portion of the container in which they are placed (but unlike gases
don’t fill the volume of the container unless there is enough fluid to do so), and also have a definite volume. Enclosed gases
spread out in all directions and take the shape of a container. They have neither definite shape, nor definite volume. Plasma is
a high temperature gas made of ions which contain both negatively and positively charged particles. The vast majority of our
universe is in the plasma state. If we take a solid, and add enough energy, it can be converted to a liquid. If more energy is
added to the material, it is changed to a gas. The addition of more energy produces the plasma state. A fifth state of matter has
recently been discovered in a laboratory called a Bose-Einstein condensate.

Atomic Theory
All matter is composed of atoms. You are surrounded by matter. Examples include the air you breathe, the blood in
your veins, every cell in your body, your neurons, the textbook, the chair you are sitting on, the food you eat, vitamin
supplements, the water in lakes and oceans, the helium that fills balloons, etc…. A molecule is when two or more atoms are
bonded together. Individual atoms and molecules are extremely tiny and cannot be seen with the naked eye. A water molecule
consists of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen (H2O). You can easily learn these structures by studying atomic
models. An atomic model helps explain the behavior of substances in terms that are understandable.

The following is a list of the basic properties of atoms:

1. The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom. The number of protons defines the chemical
element. (1 proton = Hydrogen, 2 protons = Helium, 3 protons = Lithium, etc….)

2. Atoms always contain at least one or more protons. Most atoms also have neutrons and electrons. The simplest atom
is a Hydrogen atom. It has one proton and one electron.

3. Electrons are negatively-charged particles, protons are positively-charged particles, and neutrons carry no electrical
charge.

4. Neutral atoms contain equal numbers of electrons and protons.

5. Changing the number of neutrons produces an isotope of that chemical element. For example if we add a neutron
to hydrogen, it is still a hydrogen atom, but it is now an isotope of hydrogen.

6. Changing the number of electrons produces ions of that chemical element. Helium typically has two protons, two
neutrons, and two electrons. If we remove (or add) one or more electrons, we still have a helium atom, but we now
call it a helium ion. Or we can say it is ionized.

7. The atom consists of a dense nucleus surrounded by electrons, which are arranged in various energy levels, or orbits.
The energy levels are quantized (the electrons can only be in one energy level or another and not in between).

8. The nucleus of an atom contains the heavier particles; protons and neutrons. The atomic weight of an atom is equal
to the sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the atom.

9. There are a specific maximum number of electrons that can be contained in each electron energy level. The K
energy level, which is the energy level nearest the nucleus, has a maximum of 2 electrons. The L energy level
contains a maximum of 8; and the M energy level, 18. This holds true in all cases, except when M is the outermost
energy level of an atom, in which case it may contain no more than 8 electrons. Electrons move successively to fill
the lowest energy levels (energy levels or orbits), as their number increases.

Physics is FUNdamental 21
The Periodic Table
The construction of the first true periodic table of the elements is credited to Dmitri Mendeleev in about 1869. Dmitri
was a chemist in the Russian Czar's employ, and his aim was to group the known 63 elements into families with common
characteristics. His table had many gaps, but it allowed for the inclusion of elements then undiscovered, which, when found,
would usually possess the characteristics that Mendeleev had predicted. Today, some 118 chemical elements are known,
though not all are naturally occurring. These are arranged in the periodic table. (See a copy of the Periodic Table included in
this topic after the lab instructions.)
In the periodic table, the vertical columns are known as groups, or families. Each group contains only elements that
have physical, electrical, and chemical characteristics in common. In each group, atomic weight increases from top to bottom.
Each horizontal row is called a period. The elements in each period are related by similarities in the way the electrons of the
atoms are arranged around the nucleus.

How quickly a chemical element responds to the presence of another chemical element is called reactivity. For example,
sodium is highly reactive with water and other substances, and helium is not. The most reactive elements in the periodic table
are to be found in two groups, the first group, and the seventh. The elements of the first group are the alkali metals, and the
seventh group is the halogens. The alkali metals typify the method of reaction of the metals in general. Atoms of the metallic
elements have one to three loosely-held electrons orbiting around the stable nucleus. These atoms located in the outermost
energy level are called valence electrons. These loosely-held valence electrons are easily lost to other atoms, leaving behind
an electrically-charged metal ion.
Non-metals, like the halogens, are elements whose atoms have an almost complete layer of outer electrons, usually 5-
8 valence electrons. Halogens have 7 valence electrons. When a metallic atom loses an electron, it is the atoms of the non-
metals, like the halogens, which pick up these electrons to complete their outer electron layer. As these extra electrons are
acquired, the non-metal atoms take on an electrical charge, and become ions. Because of these tendencies to give up electrons
to become ions, the metal elements are known as electron donors. The non-metal elements are known as electron acceptors
because they tend to receive the electrons. This type of reaction forms a bond between the atoms known as an ionic bond. In
these compounds, metal and non-metal ions are held together by their attraction for each other due to the electrical charge each
carries. Ionic compounds will often dissolve in water. When ionic compounds are dissolved in water the ionic bonds are broken
producing charged ions that are capable of conducting electricity. Even though pure distilled water will not conduct electricity,
a solution of an ionic compound in water will. Ionic compounds often have very high melting points, and are not usually
flammable, except when exposed to great heat.
A covalent bond occurs if one or more pairs of electrons combine to share electrons to form a valence of 8 electrons.
For example, two fluorine atoms (each has 7 valence electrons) will share one electron from each other. One electron from
each atom combines to form one pair that is shared by both fluorine atoms creating a stable valence of 8 electrons for each
atom. Two oxygen atoms (each has a valence of 6 electrons) will share two pairs of electrons (one pair from each atom) to
form a stable molecule. See the Lewis Dot Structures in the figure in the next section.

Physics is FUNdamental 22
Lewis Dot Structures
Lewis Dot Structures, also known as Electron Dot Structures are diagrams that show the bonds between atoms and
molecules. These are drawn using the chemical symbol for the elements involved in the bond. (A list of chemical elements and
their symbols is provided in this topic after the lab instructions.) The chemical symbol is surrounded by dots that represent the
valence electrons that the element has. The number of valence electrons is obtained from the periodic table provided in this
topic (just after the lab instructions). Notice to the left of the chemical symbol there is a narrow column that contains a list of
numbers. The very last number on the list informs us how many valence electrons this element has. For example, Sodium,
chemical symbol Na and atomic number 11, has a list of numbers to the left that reads 2, 8, and 1. The last number 1 represents
the number of valence electrons. In this week’s lab you will work with a relaxed form of the Lewis Dot Structure. The figure
on the left shows dot structure diagram for covalent bonds in fluorine and oxygen gases, and the one on the right is the dot
structure diagram for the ionic bond in sodium chloride.

Formation of Compounds
As mentioned previously, some chemical elements tend to participate in chemical reactions in which they share their
electrons with other atoms. When these elements form a chemical bond in which electrons from atoms are shared, then the
resulting bond is called covalent. Covalent compounds are often not soluble in water. Even when one does dissolve in water,
like sugar, the solution will not conduct electricity. When ranked according to frequency of occurrence, covalent compounds
are most frequently gases, then liquids, and least often found to be solids. When elements form a chemical bond in which
electrons from one atom are taken by another atom, the resulting bond is called ionic. Ionic compounds are most frequently
solids, then liquids, and lastly gases, when ranked in the same manner.

Covalent Ionic

Gases Liquids Solids

Where a material is composed of two or more elements joined by some kind of chemical bond, that material is called a
compound. Some compounds can have both of the types of bonds at separate points in their structures. Sometimes, the type
of bond involved in a compound can be successfully predicted by seeing which elements are involved. In many cases, however,
we can only discover whether a bond is ionic or covalent by finding out some of the electrical, physical, and chemical
characteristics of the compound. There are definite characteristics of ionically-bonded compounds, which are quite different
than those for covalently- bonded compounds.
As you look at the way two different elements combine, note that the structure of valence electrons will always involve
8 electrons. If two different elements combine in the following ratios: 7 electrons to 1 electron, 6-to-2, or 5-to-3, the resulting
compound will tend to be ionic. Examples include sodium chloride and potassium oxide. If the ratio is 4-to-4 the resulting
compound will tend to be covalent. Carbon atoms tend to participate in many covalent bonds. Examples include methane and
carbon dioxide. Methane contains 1 carbon atom that has 4 valence electrons and 4 hydrogen atoms that each has 1 valence
electron. Carbon dioxide has 1 carbon atom that has 4 valence electrons, and 2 oxygen atoms that have 6 valence electrons
each. Only 2 pairs (4 electrons) from the oxygen participate in the covalent bond.

Ions
When certain compounds such as sodium hydroxide, NaOH, are put in water, we say it dissolves. Water is a solvent
that dissolves the material and the material dissociates, leaving positive and negative ions moving about in the water. Sodium
lends its outermost (valence) electron, leaving an electron-proton imbalance. This imbalance leaves sodium with a +1, or a
positive charge. When this situation occurs, the sodium is said to be an ion; specifically, a cation. In other words, it has a
charge associated with it, and is no longer electrically neutral. When atoms gain electrons becoming negatively charged they
are also ions, specifically anions.
When a solution has an equal number of positive and negative ions, it is called an electrolyte. The larger the number of
ions in a given volume of a solution, the better it will conduct electricity. The presence of an electrolyte can be measured by
measuring its electrical conductivity. This measurement, however, will only give an apparent degree of ionization. The strength
of an electrolyte is determined by its degree of ionization. A strong electrolyte is one which is ionized almost completely.
Weak electrolytes are those that produce few ions. The terms strong and weak are not to be confused with diluted and
concentrated. Strong and weak refer to the degree of ionization. Diluted and concentrated refer to the amount of solute,
dissolved material, dissolved in a solvent.
Ionic solutions conduct electric current. We find ionic solutions in all living things to conduct nerve impulses. We also
find them in the battery of our car to conduct electricity.

Physics is FUNdamental 23
Acids, Bases and Salts
Acids are compounds that contain hydrogen, turn litmus paper red, and have a sour taste. The three most common acids
used in the chemical laboratory are hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, and the "king" of all acids, sulfuric acid. Each of these has
many important commercial uses. Lemons, oranges, grapefruit, and limes have characteristic sour tastes because they contain
citric acid. Other important acids are acetic acid (vinegar), tartaric acid (found in grapes), and boric acid.
A base is a compound made up of a metal that is united with a group of elements containing oxygen and hydrogen,
known as the hydroxide group, (OH-). The two strongest bases in common use are lye, (sodium hydroxide) and potash
(potassium hydroxide). They are employed in soap making, the manufacture of dyes, paper, and many other important products.
Household ammonia (ammonium hydroxide) is a mild base that is used for laundering and cleaning.
If an acid and a base are added to each other, EXTREME CAUTION SHOULD BE TAKEN. When the two are
combined, if there are an equal number of positive and negative ions present, neutralization will take place which results in the
formation of a salt and water.

Sodium Hydroxide + Hydrochloric Acid Sodium Chloride + Water

Na+OH- + H+Cl Na+Cl - + H2 O
Salt Water

A salt is a compound whose water solution contains positive ions other than hydrogen ions, and negative ions other
than hydroxide ions. Common table salt (NaCl), is a member of a large class of compounds which chemists call salts.

pH Scale and Indicators

The strength or concentration of an acid or base is indicated by a number referred to as the pH. The pH scale indicates
the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution. The scale ranges from 0 to 14. Neutral solutions have a pH of exactly 7. A
pH number less than 7, indicates the presence of an acid while a number greater than 7 indicates the solution is a base. You
may have used the pH scale if you have a swimming pool or used certain hair shampoos or deodorants. A pictorial
representation of the pH scale is found in the following diagram.

Hydrogen Ions H H H
H H OH
Acid OH
H OH Base
H OH Hydroxyl Ions
OH OH OH

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Acid 14 Neutral Base

Indicators are chemicals that reveal the presence of an acid or a base. They can change color, depending upon the
presence of hydrogen ions, or hydroxyl ions. Selected indicators and their color changes are listed in the table below.

Indicator Acid Neutral Base

Red Litmus Red/Pink Red/Pink Blue
Blue Litmus Red/Pink Blue Blue
Phenolphthalein Colorless Colorless Red/Pink

pHydrion - Indicates pH value by color for acids and bases. Neutral is typically yellow/green.

Physics is FUNdamental 24
 The Elements

Element Symbol Num. Element Symbol Num.

Actinium Ac 89 Mercury Hg 80
Aluminum Al 13 Molybdenum Mo 42
Americium Am 95 Neodymium Nd 60
Antimony Sb 51 Neon Ne 10 Activity Series
Argon Ar 18 Neptunium Np 93 Of The Metals
Arsenic As 33 Nickel Ni 28
Astatine At 85 Niobium Nb 41
Barium Ba 56 Nitrogen N 7 1. Potassium
Berkelium Bk 97 Nobelium No 102
Beryllium Be 4 Osmium Os 76 2. Calcium
Bismuth Bi 83 Oxygen O 8
Boron B 5 Palladium Pd 46 3. Sodium
Bromine Br 35 Phosphorus P 15
Cadmium Cd 48 Platinum Pt 78 4. Magnesium
Calcium Ca 20 Plutonium Pu 94
Californium Cf 98 Polonium Po 84 5. Aluminum
Carbon C 6 Potassium K 19
Cerium Ce 58 Praseodymium Pr 59 6. Manganese
Cesium Cs 55 Promethium Pm 61
Chlorine Cl 17 Protactinium Pa 91 7. Zinc
Chromium Cr 24 Radium Ra 88
Cobalt Co 27 Radon Rn 86 8. Chromium
Copper Cu 29 Rhenium Re 75
Curium Cm 96 Rhodium Rh 45 9. Iron
Dysprosium Dy 66 Rubidium Rb 37
Einsteinium Es 99 Ruthenium Ru 44 10. Cadmium
Erbium Er 68 Samarium Sm 62
Europium Eu 63 Scandium Sc 21 11. Cobalt
Fermium Fm 100 Selenium Se 34
Fluorine F 9 Silicon Si 14 12. Nickel
Francium Fr 87 Silver Ag 47
Gadolinium Gd 64 Sodium Na 11 13. Tin
Gallium Ga 31 Strontium Sr 38
Germanium Ge 32 Sulfur S 16 14. Lead
Gold Au 79 Tantalum Ta 73
Hafnium Hf 72 Technetium Tc 43 15. Hydrogen
Helium He 2 Tellurium Te 52
Holmium Ho 67 Terbium Tb 65 16. Copper
Hydrogen H 1 Thallium Tl 81
Indium In 49 Thorium Th 90 17. Silver
Iodine I 53 Thulium Tm 69
Iridium Ir 77 Tin Sn 50 18. Platinum
Iron Fe 26 Titanium Ti 22
Krypton Kr 36 Uranium U 92 19. Gold
Lanthanum La 57 Vanadium V 23
Lead Pb 82 Xenon Xe 54
Lithium Li 3 Ytterbium Yb 70
Lutetium Lu 71 Yttrium Y 39
Magnesium Mg 12 Zinc Zn 30
Manganese Mn 25 Zirconium Zr 40

Physics is FUNdamental 25
Physics is FUNdamental 26
 STRUCTURE OF MATTER
Self-Evaluation
TEST 031

1. 03,1 Isotopes of the same kind of element differ in their number of:
A. protons
B. neutrons •
C. electrons
D. charges

2. 03,1 An atom that has acquired an additional electron(s) is called a(n):

A. cation
B. electrolyte
C. anion •
D. catalyst
E. isotope

3. 03,2 Aluminum has an atomic weight of 27, and an atomic number of 13. Which of the following indicates electron
placement?
A. 2-7-4
B. 2-8-17
C. 2-8-3 •
D. 2-8-8-8-1
E. none of the above

4. 03,2 Which of the following is part of the atomic theory?

A. An atom always contains electrons, protons, and neutrons.
B. Atomic weight is the sum of protons and electrons.
C. An atom of an element contains the same number of electrons as protons, and is electrically neutral. •
D. Atoms consist of a dense nucleus, surrounded by protons, which are arranged in various energy levels known
as energy levels or orbits.
E. None of the above.

5. 03,3 Which of the following is most correct, concerning the organization of elements in the periodic table?
A. elements progress horizontally with the addition of one proton •
B. elements progress vertically with the addition of one neutron
C. elements progress vertically with the addition of one electron
D. elements progress horizontally with the addition of one neutron

Physics is FUNdamental 27
6. 03,3 Using the following diagram of the periodic table, which metal would be most active? (Choose A, B, C, D, or E).
ANS A

7. 03,4 Covalent compounds are materials which tend to be __________ at room temperature:
A. solids
B. solids and liquids
C. liquids and gases •
D. ionic solutions
E. solids and gases

8. 03,4 When forming molecules by either ionic bonding or by covalent bonding, the atoms seem to:
A. take 8 electrons
B. share 8 electrons
C. attain the outer structure of inert gases •
D. none of the above

9. 03,5 Which one of the following represents an electron dot model of Na2S?

A. B. C. D. E. none of them
•

10. 03,5 Which one of the following represents and electron dot model of LiCl?

A. B. C. D. E. none of them

Physics is FUNdamental 28
11. 03,6 Using the following diagram of the periodic table, which two elements could be predicted to form a covalent bond?
A. A and D
B. D and E •
C. B and F
D. C and A

12. 03,6 Covalent compounds will most likely form between two neutral elements having the following number of valence
electrons?
A. 2 and 1
B. 1 and 7
C. 4 and 4
D. 3 and 1

13. 03,7 Which one of the following best represents a model of liquid?
A. Atoms which are very tightly bound to each other and organized.
B. Atoms are loosely bound and conform to the shape of whatever volume contains them•
C. Atoms that are constant random motion and exert weak forces on each other
D. Atoms are tightly bound and arranged in a random fashion.

14. 03,7 Which one of the following best represents a model of a solid?
A. Atoms are tightly bound and arranged in a random fashion.
B. Atoms are loosely bound and arrange themselves to take on the shape of whatever vessel contains them.
C. Atoms that are constant random motion and exert weak forces on each other
D. Atoms which are very tightly bound to each other and organized.

15. 03,8 Which of the following is not a property of a nonmetal?

A. forms cations in solutions •
B. insulator
C. brittle
D. forms anions in solutions
E. none of the above

16. 03,8 The general properties of metals are:

A. brittle
B. high luster •
C. form anions
D. A and C
E. B and C

Physics is FUNdamental 29
17. 03,9 The Law of Definite Proportions indicates:
A. the number of atoms of one element to another in a molecule •
B. the way a molecule reacts
C. the way an element reacts
D. Periodic Law is incorrect
E. that all matter is electrically neutral

18. 03,9 The statement which describes the way the number of atoms of one element combine with the atoms of another
element to form a molecule is called:
A. Periodic Law
B. Atomic Theory
C. Law of Molecular Structure
D. Law of Definite Proportions •
E. none of the above

19. 03,10 The following indicators will turn pink in a base:

A. red litmus
B. blue litmus
C. phenolphthalein •
D. pHydrion
E. C and D

20. 03,10 This indicator will be yellow/green if it is neutral:

A. red litmus
B. ions
C. electrolytes
D. pHydrion •
E. salts

Self Evaluation Answers

Physics is FUNdamental 30
 MOTION
Topic 04

Objectives

1. Given the following list of terms, identify each term's correct definition. Conversely, given the definition, identify the
correct term.
acceleration, constant acceleration, constant velocity/speed, kinetic energy, linear motion, mass, momentum, speed, time,
velocity, and weight.
2. Given the formula v = d / t, be able to calculate the speed (v), distance traveled (d), or time of travel (t) of some object.
3. Given the formula a = (vfinal - vinitial) / time, compute the acceleration of a moving object.

4. Given the formula momentum = m x v, calculate the momentum of an object with a mass, (m), moving with a speed (v).
5. Given the formula KE = ½ m x v2, calculate the kinetic energy of an object.

6. Identify and describe the speed and acceleration of an object from a position vs time graph and a speed vs time graph.

INTRODUCTION

Motion occurs when an object changes position. Motion is a relative rather than an absolute term. An object may be in
motion in relation to another object, and yet two moving objects can be stationary with respect to one another. For example, we
may go for a ride and pass a person standing by the side of the road. To the person standing by the side of the road we will be in
motion, and in regards to the friend on the seat next to us we will be at rest.
The study of motion is of great significance because it involves every single object in the universe. When investigating
motion, there are some basic concepts that are indispensable:

(1) the distance traveled by an object in a specific amount of time (speed).

(2) the changing speed or velocity of an object during a specific amount of time (acceleration).

Average Speed
When discussing how fast an object moves, we usually use the term speed.

The speed (v) of an object traveling a distance (d) in a period of time (t) is described by the following formula
v=d/t.
Example: Consider a person walking a distance of ten meters at a steady pace (d = 10 m), in five seconds (t = 5 s). This
person's speed would be calculated like this:

v = d / t or (10 meters) / (5 seconds) = 2 m/s

This result means that the person will walk (in a straight line) 2 meters every second if they maintain a constant speed (no
acceleration). If they start at position zero, the person will have walked two meters in the first second. After two seconds the
person will have walked four meters, and after three seconds the person will have walked six meters.
The dimensions of speed are length over time. The SI unit for speed is m/s. The formula permits us to use other units
as well. We can find speed in units of kilometers per hour, inches per minute, miles per year, etc…..

Physics is FUNdamental 31
Average Acceleration
An object is accelerating if it speeds up or slows down. Acceleration is the measure of how much the speed changes
during a certain period of time. An object moving in a straight line with constant speed has no acceleration. Think about it.
The object is not speeding up or slowing down.
You are familiar with the changing speed of your car in traffic as you push the accelerator to pass the slow moving
vehicle in front of you. In order to find the rate of acceleration of a moving object you need the following information:
(1) the original speed of the moving object (v1).
(2) the final speed of the moving object (v 2).
(3) the time (t) that it took for the object to change from v 1 to v2.
To find the acceleration (a) divide the change in speed (v2 - v1) by the corresponding time (t) needed to affect such change.
a = (v2 - v1) / t .
Let’s try one example to make sure you understand the idea. An ant is clocked moving at a speed of 0.03 m/s (v1),
before being disturbed. When disturbed, it is observed that in a period of 2 seconds (t), it quickly changes its speed to 0.08
m/s (v2). What was its rate of acceleration during this 2-second period?
Solution: a = (v2 - v1) / t = (0.08m/s - 0.03 m/s) / 2 s = 0.025 m/s/s.
The acceleration is read as 0.025 meters per second squared. What does this answer mean? It means that the speed of the ant
increases 0.025 m/s every second. If the ant starts with zero speed it will attain a speed of 0.025 m/s after one second assuming
its acceleration remains constant. After two seconds its speed will be 0.050 m/s, after three seconds it’s speed will be .075 m/s.
What will the speed be after four seconds?
Please note that if v1 (the initial speed) is greater than v2 (the final speed) that the object is decelerating (slowing down).
The formula remains the same whether an object speeds up or slows down. Using the above formula yields a negative sign in
the final answer indicating that the object is decelerating.
The SI unit for acceleration is m/s2. The above formula is flexible with the units you can use. For example, miles/hour2,
inches per minute2, kilometers/day2 all have dimensions of length over time squared which describes the dimensions of
acceleration.

Momentum
Any object that is in motion has momentum. A very massive object moving slowly has a large momentum, as does a
very low mass object moving at a great speed.
momentum = mass x speed or momentum = m x v

When using the momentum formula, the unit of mass must be kilograms and the unit of speed must be m/s. The unit for
momentum is kg m/s.

Mass and Weight

Have you noticed that the formula for momentum uses the mass of an object and not its weight? You will also find that
this is true when calculating the energy of an object associated with its motion. It is important to note that mass and weight do
not mean the same thing. Mass is how much of the object there is. Weight is the amount of gravitational force between two
objects that have mass. We will discuss weight in more detail in the next seminar. If you were to magically transport to the Moon
right now your weight would change, but your mass would not. For now, make sure not to confuse mass with weight though we
will find that there is a relationship.

Energy
When an object has momentum, it also has kinetic energy called the energy of motion. The kinetic energy of an object
is one-half of its mass multiplied by its speed squared. The unit for energy is the Joule (J).
KE = 1/2 m x v2
This energy is changed into work when one object strikes another. For example, the energy of an automobile at 60 km
an hour (16.7 m/s) is approximately nine times as large as at 20 km an hour (5.6 m/s). [Note: since mass is constant, the
difference depends upon the square of the velocity, or 16.72 = 16.7 x 16.7 = 279 and 5.62 =5.6 x 5.6 = 31.4. 279 is almost nine
times larger than 31.4.] This helps explain why an object hit by a car traveling at 60 km. per hour sustains much more damage
than an object hit at 20 km per hour. We will discuss energy in more detail in Topic 06.

Physics is FUNdamental 32
 MOTION
Self-Evaluation
Test 041

Directions: Select the best answer. The Pre-Lab prep problems are highlighted.

1. 04.1 The shortest length between two points located on the same plane is:
A. average speed
B. distance •
C. acceleration
D. acceleration of gravity

2. 04.1 A fundamental characteristic of matter, which causes an object to occupy space and gravitationally attract other
bodies is:
A. force
B. weight
C. distance
D. mass •

3. 04.2 After walking steadily for 3 hours, you find yourself 9.6 kilometers away from your point of departure. What was
your walking speed?
A. 4.5 km/hr
B. 2.3 km/hr
C. 5.4 km/hr
D. 3.2 km/hr •

4. 04.2 An airplane is observed to travel a distance of 300 kilometers in two hours without changing its rate of speed. What
is its speed?
A. 100 km/hr
B. 45 km/hr
C. 50 km/hr
D. 150 km/hr •

5. 04.3 A sports car goes from zero to 120 km/hr (33.33 m/s) in 6 seconds. Assuming constant acceleration, what was the
rate of acceleration for this run?
A. 55.6 m/s2
B. 5.56 m/s2 •
C. 2.025 m/s2
D. 556 m/s 2

6. 04.3 What is the acceleration of a bird which changes its speed by 5 m/s every 4 seconds of time?
A. 1.25 meter/sec 2 •
B. 1.025 meter/sec 2
C. 2.025 meter/sec 2
D. 1.045 meter/sec 2

7.04.4 A football player with mass of 95 kg is running down the field with a speed of 0.94 m/s. What is his momentum?
A. 10.1 kg m/s
B. 89.3 kg m/s
C. 94.0 kg m/s
D. 95.9 kg m/s

Physics is FUNdamental 33
8. 04.4 If car A had a mass of 150 kg and a velocity of 65 m/s, and car B had a mass of 25 kg and a velocity of 695 m/s,
which car would have the most momentum?
A. car A
B. car B •
C. neither
D. they are equal

9.04.5 Calculate the kinetic energy of a 1259 kg car traveling at 55 m/s.

A. 2.29 J
B. 69,000 J
C. 6295 J
D. 1,904,238 J

10.04.5 Which car has the most Kinetic Energy? Car A with a mass of 1250 kg and a speed of 2.4 m/s or Car B that has a mass
of 1300 Kg and a speed of 2.0 m/s.
A. car A
B. car B •
C. neither
D. they are equal

Self Evaluation Answers

Physics is FUNdamental 34
 FORCES and SIMPLE MACHINES
Topic 05

Objectives
1. Given the following list of terms, identify each term's correct definition. Conversely, given the definition identify the
correct term.
Force, Impact, Impulse, Weight, Actual Effort, Actual Mechanical Advantage, effort, fulcrum, Ideal Effort, Ideal
Mechanical Advantage, inclined plane, lever, pulley, resistance, screw, wedge, and wheel and axle.
1. Given the formula F = m x a, for a given object calculate the force acting on it, the mass, or its acceleration.

2. Given w = m x 9.8 be able to determine the weight and mass of an object on Earth.
4. Identify and apply Newton’s three Laws of Motion.
5. Identify and give examples of the six types of simple machines.
6. Identify and give examples of the three types of levers.
7. Given IMA = DE / DR be able to calculate the Ideal Mechanical Advantage (IMA), Effort Distance (DE), and the
Resistance Distance (DR) of a simple machine.

8. Given IE = Resistance R / IMA be able to calculate Ideal Effort (IE), the resistance (R), or the Ideal Mechanical Advantage
(IMA) of a simple machine.

9. Given appropriate data or equipment determine Actual Effort (E) of a simple machine.
10. Given AMA = R / E be able to calculate Actual Mechanical Advantage (AMA), Resistance (R), and Effort ( E) of a simple
machine.

INTRODUCTION
Forces
Now that you are familiar with accelerated motion, in which we analyzed the motion of an object without any concern for
its mass, we can bring into the picture a new element, the mass of the object. A man of great genius, Isaac Newton, concerned
himself with this problem of motion with mass involvement, and he was able to associate three ideas together: the mass (m)
of the object, its acceleration (a) during motion, and the force (F) needed to produce such motion. As you can see, the inclusion
of mass into the picture has introduced another very important element, the force acting on the object to produce motion. In
order to deal with these three elements, let's first examine their meaning:

1. acceleration (a), was found to be the ratio of the change of speed of an object and the time involved: a = (v2 - v1) / t
2. mass (m), can be understood to be the amount of matter contained in an object.
3. force (F), is anything that can potentially accelerate an object. ( It doesn’t have to accelerate it, but it must have the capability
to do so).

How are these three factors related? Let’s do what Newton did to answer this question. Think of any object with a mass
(m) for the duration of this explanation. If you were to pull the object with particular force (which we will call F 1), and measure
its corresponding acceleration (a1), you could divide F1 by a1 to obtain the ratio F1/a1. If you repeat this operation using another
force (F2), and measure its corresponding acceleration (a 2), [if the force is different, expect the acceleration to be different],
you could then obtain the new ratio, F2/a2. Let's continue this procedure for other forces in order to obtain the ratios: F 3/a3,
F4/a4, F5/a5, etc. A very interesting conclusion can be drawn from the above results. All the ratios (F/a) obtained are equal! It
appears that as one increases the force, the acceleration increases correspondingly in such a way that the F/a ratios are equal

Physics is FUNdamental 35
 for a particular mass. Therefore, F / a = m, or as it is more commonly written: F = m x a, which constitutes the third big idea
of motion.
When using this formula, the unit of mass must be in kilograms, the unit of acceleration must be m/s2, and the unit of
force is the Newton. N is the abbreviation for the Newton unit.
Impulse
A change in momentum, of an object, indicates that the mass, or the velocity, or both of these have changed. Change in
acceleration is produced by a force. The greater the force that acts on a body, the greater the change in speed will be with a
corresponding change in momentum. One way to change the momentum of a moving body is to increase or decrease its speed.
A simple way to increase speed is to have a force act upon the moving body for the longest possible time. To change the
momentum of an object, both force and time are important. The quantity force x time is called the impulse. A good tennis player
or golfer knows that the follow-through is important to carry the ball any distance. When following through the club or racket
acts upon the ball for the longest possible time. Therefore, the ball travels farther.

Sir Isaac Newton's Laws of Motion

The great scientist, Sir Isaac Newton identified three laws that describe the actions of motion.

Newton's First Law states that any object moving uniformly in a straight line with constant velocity, or at rest, will remain in
uniform motion or at rest, unless acted upon by some outside force. The property of matter that tends to keep it in motion (when
in motion), or at rest (when at rest), is called inertia. Inertia is a measurement of an object’s ability to resist a change in its
motion. Inertia is not a force! The mass of an object is a measure of that object’s inertia. A 50 kg child has more inertia than
25 kg child.

Newton's Second Law describes what happens when a force is applied to a moving body. The change which any force makes
in the motion of an object depends upon the size of the force, and the mass of the object. The greater the force acting on the
body the greater its acceleration will be. The greater the mass of the object the smaller its acceleration will be. The change of
motion takes place in the same direction in which the force acts.

Newton's Third Law indicates that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. This is the principle which
explains how the jet propulsion engine works. Another example is the rotating lawn sprinklers that spin when water squirts
from their nozzles. Such sprinklers have two or four arms, and as the water emerges from the nozzles, the arms are pushed
around in the opposite direction spraying water over the lawn.

Gravitational Force
Newton wasn’t finished after he developed the three Laws of Motion. He also developed what we now call the
Universal Law of Gravitation. What this law tells is that any two objects that have mass are gravitationally attracted to each,
and that this force of attraction diminishes rapidly with increasing distance. When an object is at the surface of a planet we can
calculate this gravitation attraction with a simple formula weight = mass x acceleration due to gravity = m x 9.8 m/s2. The
acceleration due to gravity is the acceleration an object has at the surface of a planet if it is in free fall. On Earth the
acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s2. On the Moon the acceleration due to gravity is 1.6 m/s2. A 10 kg object weighs (10 x
9.8) 98 N on Earth but on the Moon only weighs (10 x 1.6) 16 N. Recall that the mass of an object is how much of it there is,
but the weight is the gravitational attraction between two objects. Weight is a force and mass is not.

Frictional Force
Motion around us is almost always affected by friction. Friction is the resistance to motion. One of the most common
things that creates friction is the air. Automobiles and airplanes are streamlined in order to reduce some of this resistance to the
air.
Friction is also helpful because, unless friction existed between our feet and the Earth, we would not be able to walk.
We could not nail two boards together if it were not for friction because friction holds the nail in place. When we apply the
brakes while driving an automobile, friction stops the car.
One way in which we reduce friction is through the use of lubricating oil. Friction between liquid substances is much
less than between solid substances. There are many ways of combating friction. Friction may be greatly reduced by the use of
wheels, ball bearings, roller bearings, and lubricants. Because of these modifications of the effects of friction, one person can
push an automobile, and six people can push a locomotive.
A practical way to develop an understanding of forces is through simple machines. Trucks, railroads, and ships are
machines used to haul goods to and from markets. Without machines, the residents of our cities would find it more difficult
to live, and farmers could not raise enough food to feed us. According to many experts without machines we would still be
an agrarian society. Almost every activity of our daily life depends in some way on machines. We have constructed a wide
variety of machines to satisfy our needs. Early people made stone axes that served as weapons. The machines that we

Physics is FUNdamental 36
 gradually developed gave us great control over our environment (physical surroundings). To operate our improved
machines, we harnessed the energy of falling water and of such fuels as coal, oil, and the atom. Today, since we use so
many machines the age we live in is often called the machine age.

Principles of Machines
A machine produces force and controls the direction and the motion of force. But it cannot create energy. A machine
can never do more work than the energy put into it. In other words, a machine can change the relationship between force and
distance (Work = F x d) but the total amount of work done is constant. It only transforms one form of energy such as electrical
energy to another form of energy such as mechanical energy. The ability of a machine to do work is measured by two factors.
These factors are known as efficiency and mechanical advantage. These are concepts we will study further when we
investigate the next topic 06 Energy. For now, we will focus on the forces produced by the machines and the forces we apply
to them.
Ideal Mechanical Advantage (IMA) can be demonstrated with a crowbar, which is a type of lever. When one end of the
crowbar is directly under the resistance a part of the crowbar must rest on a fulcrum (support). The closer the fulcrum is to
the resistance, the less effort there is required to raise the resistance by pushing down on the handle of the crowbar; and the
greater the mechanical advantage of the crowbar. For example, if the resistance is 200 kilograms, and the distance from the
resistance to the fulcrum is one fourth of the distance from the handle to the fulcrum, the mechanical advantage will be four
to one. Therefore, it will take 200/4 = 50 kilograms of effort to raise the resistance. But the distance the resistance will be
moved will be only one-fourth of the distance through which the effort is applied.
IMA = Distance effort moved / Distance resistance moved = DE / DR
This sounds very good but we understand that machines are not one hundred percent efficient. This affects the
mechanical advantage of our machine. This means that IMA may not be the best way to describe our machine. In fact, the
Actual Mechanical Advantage (AMA) that is the ratio of the force exerted by the machine (resistance) to the force applied to
the machine (effort), may be the best way to describe our machine.
AMA = Resistanc / Effort = R / E

Six Simple Machines

Most machines consist of a number of elements, such as gears and ball bearings that work together in a complex way.
But no matter how complex they are, all machines are based in some way on six types of simple machines: the pulley, the
lever, the wheel and axle, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the screw.

A pulley is a wheel over which a rope or belt is passed. It is a

form of the wheel and axle. The mechanical advantage of a single
pulley is one, because the downward effort exerted on the rope
equals the resistance at the other end of the rope that passes over the effort
pulley. The advantage of the single pulley is that it changes the
direction of the force. For example, to lift a resistance, a person can
more conveniently pull down on a rope thus using the entire weight resistance
of their body. When one pulley is attached to a support and a second
pulley is attached to the resistance a definite mechanical advantage
is obtained.

A lever consists of a rigid body, typically a metal bar, pivoted on a

effort
fixed fulcrum (pivot point). There are three basic types of levers. resistance
Which type of lever we have depends upon the position of the
Fulcrum (F), Resistance (R), and Effort (E). The three types of
levers may seem a bit confusing at first but the word FRE (F-
Fulcrum, R-Resistance, and E-Effort) can help us remember the
types of levers. The order of the letters (FRE) refers to the class
(1st, 2nd, and 3rd) of the levers.

In a first-class lever (represented by the F in FRE) the Fulcrum (F) is between the Resistance (R) and the Effort (E). A
crowbar is an example of a first-class lever. In a second-class lever (represented by R in FRE) the Resistance (R) is between
the Fulcrum (F) and the Effort (E). A wheel barrow is an example of a second-class lever. In a third-class lever (represented
by the E in FRE) the Effort is between the Fulcrum (F) and the Resistance (R). An example of a third-class lever occurs when
a person lifts a ball in the palm of the hand. The Resistance (R) is at the hand, the Fulcrum (F) is at the elbow, and the forearm
supplies the Effort (E) to lift the ball.

Physics is FUNdamental 37
 First Class Second Class Third Class

ef f or t r esista nce r esista nce ef f or t r esista nce ef f or t

f ulcr um f ulcr um f ulcr um

F R E

The wheel and axle is essentially a modified lever, but it can move a resistance further than a lever can. In a windlass,
or winch, used to raise water from a well, the rope that carries the
resistance is wrapped around the axle of the wheel. The effort is
applied to a crank handle on the side of the wheel. The center of
the axle serves as a fulcrum. The mechanical advantage depends
upon the ratio between the radius of the axle and the distance
traveled by the crank handle. The wheel and axle machine has
important applications when it is used to transport heavy goods
effort resistance
by rolling rather than by sliding. The wheel itself is regarded as
one of the most important inventions of all time. It is widely used
in all types of machinery and motor vehicles.

The inclined plane allows the average person to raise a 200-pound box up 2 feet into the rear of a truck. By placing a
10-foot plank from the truck to the ground, a person could raise the
resistance easily. If there were no friction, the force required to
move the box would be exactly 40 pounds. The mechanical
advantage of an inclined plane is the length of the incline divided effort
by the vertical rise. The mechanical advantage increases as the
slope of the incline decreases. But the resistance will then have to resistance
be moved a greater distance.

Physics is FUNdamental 38
 The wedge is an adaptation of the inclined plane. It can be used to raise
a heavy resistance over a short distance or to split a log. The wedge is effort
driven by blows from a mallet or sledge hammer. The effectiveness of the
wedge depends on the angle of the thin end. The smaller the angle, the
less the force required to raise a given resistance.
resistance

resistance
effort
The screw is actually an inclined plane cut in a spiral around a shaft.
The mechanical advantage of a screw is approximately the ratio of the
circumference of the screw to the distance the screw advances during each
revolution. Wood or machine screws are common examples of the screw.

In the following laboratory, we will investigate the pulley, lever, inclined plane, and the wheel and axle. We will not
investigate the wedge and the screw because they are considered extensions of the inclined plane. Thus, through the study of
the inclined plane, we will gain an understanding of the screw and wedge.
In the laboratory, we will collect the same type of data for each machine and use it to evaluate the machine. For each
machine we will measure the:

• resistance R
• effort needed to move the resistance E
• distance effort moved DE
• distance the resistance moved DR

From this data you will calculate:

• Actual Mechanical Advantage AMA = R/E
• Ideal Mechanical Advantage IMA = DE / DR
• Ideal Effort IE = R / IMA

Notice that only four variables are measured; resistance, effort, effort distance and resistance distance for each of the
simple machines.

Physics is FUNdamental 39
 FORCES and SIMPLE MACHINES
Self-Evaluation
Test 051

Directions: Select the best answer

1. 05.2 What force (in Newtons) is required to act on a rocket of 2,000 kg mass to make it travel in free space with a uniform
rate of acceleration of 10,000 meter/s2?
A. 20 million Newtons •
B. 20 billion Newtons
C. 15 million Newtons
D. 15 billion Newtons

2. 05.4 Which of Newton's Laws Of Motion states "for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction"?
A. Newton's first Law
B. Newton's second Law
C. Newton's third Law •
D. Newton's fourth Law
E. Does not apply to Newton's laws

3. 05.4 Which of Newton’s Laws Of Motion states "anybody moving uniformly in a straight line or at rest will remain in
uniform motion or at rest, unless acted upon by some outside force"?
A. Newton's first Law •
B. Newton's second Law
C. Newton's third Law
D. Newton's fourth Law
E. Does not apply to Newton's laws

4. 05.5 An inclined plane cut in a spiral around a shaft is the:

A. wheel and axle
B. wedge
C. screw •
D. pulley
E. lever

5. 05.1 The force applied to a machine is:

A. resistance
B. effort •
C. IMA
D. AMA
E. wedge

6. 05.5 Simple machines that are extensions of the inclined plane are two (2) of the following:
A. pulley
B. levers
C. wedge •
D. wheel and axle
E. screw •

7. 05.1 The simple machine that consists of a rigid body, typically a metal bar pivoted on a fixed fulcrum is a:
A. pulley
B. lever •
C. wheel and axle
D. wedge
E. screw

Physics is FUNdamental 40
8. 05.6 A third class lever can be defined in the following way:
A. the resistance lies between the force and the effort.
B. the fulcrum precedes both the resistance and the effort.
C. a third class lever does not have a fulcrum.
D. the effort is between the resistance and fulcrum •

9. 05.6 A wheelbarrow is an example of which type of lever?

A. first class
B. second class •
C. third class
D. fourth class
E. fifth class

10. 05.7 If a box was pushed up a ramp 0.80 meters, and the ramp was 0.27 meters off of the ground, what is the ideal
mechanical advantage (IMA) of this simple machine?
A. 2.96 •
B. .216
C. 29.6
D. 2.70

11. 05.7 If the ideal mechanical advantage IMA is 2 and the effort distance is 0.10 meters, what would the resistance distance
be?
A. 0.10m
B. 0.05m •
C. 0.04
D. 0.15m
E. 1m

12. 05.8 If a machine has a Distance Effort of 1.00 meters and a Distance Resistance of 0.37 meters along with a Resistance
of 5.20 Newton, what is the machine's ideal effort?
A. 1.93 Joules
B. 14.08 Newton
C. 1.93 Newton •
D. 14.05 meters

13. 05.8 Determine the ideal effort of a simple machine if the resistance is 5.4 Newton and the ideal mechanical advantage
is 3.08.
A. 1.75 •
B. 2.43
C. 3.23
D. 3.10
E. 1.43

14. 05.9 An object weighs 5.20 Newtons. When lifted by a pulley 16.00 Newton force is needed to move the resistance.
Identify the actual effort?
A. 5.20 Newton
B. 16.00 Newton •
C. 83.2 Newton
D. 3.08 Newton

15. 05.9 It takes 2.20 Newtons to move an object that weighs 5.20 Newtons. What is the Actual Effort involved?
A. 2.20 Newton •
B. .220 Newton
C. 7.4 Newton
D. 11.44 Newton

Physics is FUNdamental 41
16. 05.10 Given the resistance to be 5.70 Newtons and an effort of 2.14 Newtons, what is this machine's AMA?
A. 2.66 •
B. 0.122
C. 0.375
D. 12.20

17. 05.10 Determine the actual mechanical advantage of a simple machine if the resistance is 5.4 Newtons and the actual
effort is 2.8 Newtons.
A. 1.9 •
B. 1.0
C. 1.5
D. 0.5
E. 2.7

18.05.2 Calculate the mass of an object accelerating with a speed of 1.3 m/s2 and experiencing a force of 451 Newtons.
A. 58.6 kg
B. 2.8 kg
C. 0.002 kg
D. 154 kg
E. 347 kg

19.05.3 Calculate the weight of an object that has a mass of 55 kg.

A. 5.6 N
B. 54.2 N
C. 156 N
D. 539 N
E. 55 N

20.05.3 Calculate the mass of an object that has a weight of 1000 Newtons.
A. 9800 kg
B. 988 kg
C. 102 kg
D. 98.8 kg
E. 10.2 kg

Self Evaluation Answers

Physics is FUNdamental 42
 ENERGY
Topic 06

Objectives

1. Given the following list of terms, identify each term's correct definition. Conversely, given definitions identify their correct
terms.

chemical, electrical, energy, energy conversion, force, heat, horsepower, joule, kinetic energy, light, mechanical, newton,
nuclear, potential energy, power, sound, velocity, watt, work

2. Identify the seven forms and two types of mechanical energy.

3. Correctly state and apply the two laws of energy identified in this topic.

4. Identify, explain and provide examples of the conversion of one form of energy to another.

5. Given the formula for potential energy PE = m x 9.8 x h, and the formula for Kinetic Energy KE. = 1/2 m x v2, determine
which formula to use and calculate the amount of energy.

6. Given the formula for work, W = F x d, calculate the amount of work given force and distance.

7. Given the formula where P = power, W = work, and t = time calculate the power using the formula P = W / t.

8. Given appropriate data (from Topic 5) determine Work Output (WO) of a simple machine.
WO = Resistance x Distance the resistance moved = R x DR

9. Given appropriate data (from Topic 5) determine Work Input (W I) of a simple machine.
WI = Effort x Distance the effort moved = E x DE

10. Given appropriate data (from Topic 5) determine the percent of efficiency (%E) of a simple machine.
%E = (Work output / Work input) x 100

INTRODUCTION

All life depends upon energy which allows us to move and interact with our environment. Formally energy is defined as the
ability or capacity to do work. Most of the energy on the Earth comes from the sun. The sun's rays are needed so that plants can make
food. Animals and human beings use the energy found in food to operate their bodies and muscles. The sun's energy is also stored in
coal, wood, and oil, which are burnt to do work.
People often confuse energy, force, work, and power. Force is a push or a pull on an object. Work is energy. Work and
energy are measured in the same units. The amount of work is determined by the strength of the force used to move an object times
the distance the object moves. Power measures the rate at which work is done.

Physics is FUNdamental 43
 All energy originates from four fundamental forces: strong nuclear forces, weak nuclear forces, gravitational forces, and
electromagnetic forces. We find that these fundamental forces act to produce common forms of energy in our environment. These
forms include: thermal, light, sound, mechanical, electrical, chemical, and nuclear.

Seven Forms of Energy

Thermal energy (heat), is associated with the motion of atoms or molecules in matter. Thermal energy is transmitted by
conduction through solid and fluid media, by convection through fluid media, and by radiation through empty space (and in some
cases through solids and liquids). Thermal energy conducted by radiation is an electromagnetic wave produced by the motion of
atoms and molecules.
Light is a form of energy which exists as a wave propagating as a periodic disturbance of an electromagnetic field and
having a frequency in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum. An electromagnetic field can be pictured as a force field
(with both electric and magnetic components) that is produced when an electric charge (such as an electron) is accelerated.
Sound energy is associated with a vibratory disturbance in the pressure and density of a fluid or solid. The vibrations occur
within the range 20 to 20,000 cycles per second and are capable of being detected by the organs of hearing.
Mechanical energy is associated with the motion and position in space of matter. There are two forms of mechanical energy:
kinetic and potential energy. The Mechanical energy of an object is the sum of Kinetic Energy plus Potential Energy. Kinetic
energy is the ability of a mass in motion to do work. Potential energy is the energy that is stored in some object due to its position
(i.e.. a compressed spring or a massive object at some height, h, above the ground). Mechanical energy can be transmitted in wave
form, in which kinetic energy is passed through impact from one particle of matter to the next. Examples of mechanical energy are
ocean waves and Earthquakes.
Electrical energy arises from the existence and interactions of electric charge. The movement or flow of this charge is
considered as electric current. This electric current is used as a source of energy.
Chemical energy is the energy stored in the chemical bonds that hold together the atoms or ions in chemical compounds.
Nuclear energy is associated with the nucleus of an atom. It is the energy released when atomic nuclei undergo fission or
fusion. Nuclear fission is the process in which the nuclei of a heavy element splits into two or more lighter elements, with the
release of other particles (such as neutrons and electrons) and substantial amounts of energy. Nuclear fusion is a process in which
the nucleus of several light isotopes, such as hydrogen, are forced together at ultra-high temperatures to form the nucleus of a
heavier element (such as helium) while releasing substantial amounts of energy.
Law of Conservation of Energy
In investigating energy, we find that when energy is transformed, certain conditions always occur. These conditions are
referred to as the first and second laws of thermodynamics. The first law is known as the Law of Conservation of Energy. In any
energy transformation, energy is neither created nor destroyed, but merely changed from one form to another. Let's consider what
happens when a rock is dropped. The friction created when the rock drops through the air causes the air molecules to move faster
so their average temperature rises. This means that some of the rock's original potential energy has been transferred to the air
molecules as heat. When the rock hits the ground more of its energy is transferred to the soil (as a gain in the form of heat). The
energy lost by the rock is exactly equal to the energy gained by the surroundings.
First Law- Energy input always equals energy output - energy is neither created nor destroyed.
According to the second law, energy transfers are always degraded to a more dispersed and less useful form. When a car is
driven, only about 10 percent of the high-quality chemical energy in the gasoline is converted to mechanical energy used to propel
the vehicle. The remaining 90 percent is degraded to low-quality heat that is released into the environment. When electrical energy
flows through the filament wires in a light bulb, it is converted into about 5 percent luminous energy, (light), and about 95 percent
into low-quality heat. For one system to do work on another system there must be a difference in energy between the two systems.
The first law of energy tells us we will never run out of energy, but according to the second law, we can run out of high-quality,
or useful energy. Not only can we not get something for nothing (the first law), we can't even break-even in terms of energy quality
(the second law).
Second Law - When energy is converted from one form to another, the result is to move from higher level energy (gasoline) to
lower level energy (heat).

Physics is FUNdamental 44
Energy Conversions and Energy Chains
Energy can be transformed or converted from one form or type of energy to another. A match after being struck converts
chemical energy to heat and light. A series of conversions leading to a final outcome is called an energy chain. The energy used while
typing this sentence originated with the sun. A partial energy chain illustrating this would include:

nuclear → electromagnetic radiation → stored chemical → used chemical → mechanical

sun waves photosynthesis food-digestion typing

Developing A Quantitative Concept of Energy

To develop a concept of energy we will begin by reviewing the concepts of velocity, acceleration, force and work. Since
work can only be accomplished through the use of energy, the amount of work done will be used as an indication of the amount of
energy used.

Velocity
An automobile moving down the highway needs energy to overcome frictional forces and to maintain its motion. We can
determine its average speed if we know how far it has traveled and the amount of time taken. The following will allow this
determination:

average speed = distance / time or v=d/t

Where:
v = the velocity of the automobile (Measured in meters per second).
d = the distance that the automobile has traveled, (measured in meters).
t = the amount of time taken to travel that distance, (measured in seconds).

For Example: When d = 200 Km (or 200,000 m) and t = 4.0 hr. then
v=d/t
v = 200,000 m / 4.0 hr
v = 50,000 m/hr
or 833 m/min.
or 14 m/ sec

Acceleration
Looking at our automobile more closely we note that its velocity was not constant. It varied over the course of its trip. This
indicates that the automobile had accelerated or decelerated (negative acceleration) at some point during the trip. The acceleration
can be measured by:

acceleration = change in velocity / time taken for velocity to change

a = ∆v / t
Where:
a = the acceleration of the object that moved and is an indication of a change in velocity over a period of time.
Acceleration is measured in meters / second2.

∆v = change in velocity between two points. This is measured in meters / second or m/s.

t = time taken for the change in velocity to occur measured in seconds.

For Example: When ∆v = 13.9 m / sec and t = 3 s then

a = ∆v / t
a = 13.9 m/s / 3 s
a = 4.63 m/s2

Physics is FUNdamental 45
 Force
When acceleration takes place, something caused it to occur. Some force had to be exerted on the automobile to change its
velocity. This force can be examined by taking into account the mass of the automobile and its acceleration. The following will
allow its calculation:

Force = mass x acceleration or F=m x a

Where:
F = The force (a push or a pull) that tends to produce an acceleration of some mass in the direction of its application
measured in kg - m / s2 is a unit of measurement called a Newton.
(Note: 4.5 Newtons are approximately 1 pound).

m = the mass of the object moved (measured in kilograms).

a = the acceleration of the object that moved in a straight line and is an indication of a change in speed over a period
of time. Acceleration (measured in meters / second2).

For Example: When m = 800 kg and a = 4.63 m/s 2

F= m x a
F = 800 kg x 4.63 m/s2
F = 3,704 kg-m/s2 or 3,704 N

Two Types Of Mechanical Energy

Energy is formally defined as the ability or capacity to do work. The forms of mechanical energy are potential and kinetic
energy. They are described by the amount of stored (potential) and/or dynamic (kinetic) energy an object possesses.

Potential energy is the energy stored by an object as a result of its position or the position of its parts. A rock on a table is
an example of an object that has potential energy as a result of its position in space. The rock has potential energy because of its
height that can be released and converted to kinetic energy and heat, if it is dropped. It can do work.

Potential Energy = mass x acceleration of gravity x height or PE= m x g x h

Note: this relationship is often written PE = mgh
Where:
PE = potential energy is equal to force (Force = mass x acceleration due to gravity = weight for freely falling
objects) multiplied by distance. The result is a unit of measurement labeled Newton-meters. 1
Newton-meter is a unit called a joule.

m= the mass of the object being considered

g= The acceleration of gravity on planet Earth, 9.8 meters / second2. (i.e. an object that is dropped will
accelerate at a rate of 9.8 m/s2)

h= height in meters that the object falls.

For Example: When m = 378 kg, g= 9.8 m/s2 and h = 200 m

P.E. = m x g x h
P.E. = 378 kg x 9.8 m/s2 x 200 m
Note: 1 kg- m / s2 represents a unit of measurement called the Newton
P.E. = 740,880 N-m or 740,880 Joules

Physics is FUNdamental 46
 Kinetic energy is the dynamic energy that matter has because of its motion and mass. A moving car, a falling rock, a bullet
shot from a gun or a flow of electrons are all examples.

Kinetic Energy = 1/2 mass x velocity2 or KE = 1/2 m x v2

Where:
KE = the energy that a body possesses as a result of its mass and velocity. The result is a unit of
measurement labeled Newton-meters. 1 Newton-meter is a unit called a Joule.
m = the mass of the object moved and would be measured in Kilograms.
v = the velocity measured in meters per second.
For Example: When m = 1000 kg and v 38.5 m/s
K.E. = 1/2 x m x v2
K.E. = 1/2 x 1000 kg x (38.5m/s x 38.5m/s)
K.E. = 741,125 kg-m2/s2
K.E. = 741,125 Newton-meter
K.E. = 741,125 Joules
Work
Work is defined as the expenditure of energy that occurs when a force is used to move an object through a given distance. A
quantitative measure of work is determined by the product of the force acting and the distance moved in the direction the force
acts:
Work = Force x distance or W = F x d
Where:
W = the work done and is equal to force (in Newtons) multiplied by distance moved. The result is a unit of
measurement labeled Newton-meters. 1 Newton-meter is a unit called a Joule.

d = is an indication of how far the body moved (measured in meters).

F = the force (a push or a pull) that tends to produce an acceleration of some mass in the direction of its application
(measured in kg - m / s2).

1 kg - m / s2 is a unit of measurement called a Newton.

For Example: When F = .78 N and d = .30 m then:

W=Fx d
W = 0.78 N x .30 m
W = 0.23 N-m or 0.23 Joules
Power
Power is the rate of doing work. Power is commonly measured in watts and horsepower.

Power = work / time or P=W/t

Where:
P = the rate of doing work. Power is measured in watts or horsepower. A watt is a unit of power equal to 1 Joule
/ s and 746 watts are approximately equal to 1 horsepower.
W = the work done and is equal to force (in Newtons) multiplied by distance moved. The result is a unit of
measurement labeled Newton-meters. 1 Newton-meter is a unit called a Joule.
t = time taken to do the work done to occur (measured in seconds).
For Example: When W = .23 Joules and t = 1.9 s then:
P=W/t
P = 0.23 Joules/ 1.9 sec
P = 0.121 Joules / s or 0.121 watts

Physics is FUNdamental 47
Principles of Machines
A machine produces force and controls the direction and the motion of force. But it cannot create energy. A machine can
never do more work than the energy put into it. In other words, a machine can change the relationship between force and distance
(Work = F x d) but the total amount of work done is constant. It only transforms one form of energy such as electrical energy, to
another form of energy, such as mechanical energy. The ability of a machine to do work is measured by two factors. These factors
are known as efficiency and mechanical advantage.

The efficiency of a machine is the ratio between the energy (work) it supplies and the energy (work) put into it. Machines
that transmit only mechanical energy may have an efficiency of nearly 100 percent. But some machines have efficiency as low
as 5 percent. No machine can operate with 100 percent efficiency, because the friction of its parts always uses up some of the
energy that is supplied to the machine. All machines produce some friction. For this reason, a perpetual-motion machine is
impossible.

%E = (Work output / work input) x 100

The resistance is the force exerted by the object being moved. The effort is the force that is exerted to move the object. The
effort distance is the distance the force (effort) moved. The resistance distance is the distance that the object (resistance) actually
moves. As you work on simple machines try to identify these four variables. These four variables represent the relationship
between work input, to the machine, and work output.

Work input = Work output

(Feffort x Deffort) input = (Fresistance x Dresistance) output

This relationship between input force and distance can vary as long as the equality is maintained by varying the output force
and distance.

(F D)x input = (F D )x output or (F D) x input = (F D )

x output

Physics is FUNdamental 48
 ENERGY
Self Evaluation
Test 061
Directions: Select the best answer.
1. 06,1 What quantity described the amount of matter contained in an object?
A. gravitational force
B. mass •
C. weight
D. friction
E. power

2. 06,1 A unit of energy representing 1 Newton-meter is?

A. potential
B. kinetic
C. lumen
D. watt
E. joule •

3. 06,2 A burning match would produce which of the following form(s. of energy (you may select more than one.
A. Heat •
B. nuclear
C. electrical
D. mechanical
E. light •

4. 06,2 The gasoline in the tank of your car contains energy (used to move the car. in which of the following form(s..
A. chemical •
B. nuclear
C. electrical
D. mechanical
E. light

5. 06,3 "Energy is neither created nor destroyed" is the:

A. First Law of Energy •
B. Second Law of Energy
C. First and Second Law of Energy
D. Neither law applies

6. 06,3 A piece of coal has 1000 Joules of chemical energy but when burned only 200 Joules could be converted to mechanical
energy. The remaining 800 Joules were converted to heat. Identify which law applies.
A. First Law of Energy
B. Second Law of Energy
C. First and Second Law of Energy •
D. Neither law applies

7. 06,4 Which of the following would allow heat to be converted to Kinetic Energy?
A. solar calculator
B. toaster •
C. hair dryer
D. photosynthesis
E. automobile

Physics is FUNdamental 49
8. 06,4 Which of the following would allow light to be converted to electricity?
A. radio
B. toaster
C. hair dryer
D. solar calculator •
E. automobile

9. 06,5 Which of the following has the most energy?

A. A 1 pound weight suspended at a height of 975 meters
B. A 975 pound weight suspended at a height of 1 meters
C. An object experiencing a force of 425 N is suspended at a height of 10 meters
D. An object experiencing a force of 22500 N suspended at a height of .2 meters •
E. All of the above have the same amount of energy

10. 06,5 What is the amount of kinetic energy in a 22 Kg object moving at a velocity of 20 m/s?
A. 42 Joules
B. 440 Joules
C. 1.1 Joules
D. 2,200 Joules
E. 4,400 Joules •

11. 06,6 How much work have you done to move a object with a force of 75 N through a distance of 250 cm?
A. 0.3 Joules
B. 187.5 Joules •
C. 3.3 Joules
D. 325 Joules
E. 18,750 Joules

12. 06,6 How much work will be done walking up a flight of stairs 2.7 meters high assuming you weigh 145 pounds?
A. 172 Joules
B. 391.5 Joules
C. 1,761.75 Joules •
D. 12.1 Joules
E. 0.04 Joules

13. 06,7 What is the horsepower of a car that is experiencing a force of 1,600 pounds and is moving 100 meters in 7 seconds?
A. 137.9 Hp •
B. 1,120,000 Hp
C. 1,707 Hp
D. 22.9 Hp
E. 2.4 Hp

14. 06,7 Calculate the amount of power used by a person who is experiencing a force of 145 pounds and is moving 60 meters in
10 seconds.
A. 222 watts
B. 3,915 watts •
C. 215 watts
D. 87,000 watts
E. 121 watts

Physics is FUNdamental 50
15. 06.7 Determine the work output of a simple machine. The resistance is 5.4 Newton and the resistance distance is 0.05 meters.
A. 0.27 Joules •
B. 0.54 Joules
C. 0.81 Joules
D. 1.08 Joules
E. 0.50 Joules

16. 06.7 What is the work output (Wo) of a simple machine if the resistance is 5.4 Newton and the resistance distance is 0.20
meters?
A. 6.9 Joules
B. 3.4 Joules
C. 2.5 Joules
D. 10.8 Joules
E. 1.08 Joules •

17. 06.8 Determine the work input of a simple machine. The effort distance is 0.045 meters and the actual effort is 5.4 Newtons.
A. 0.24 Joules •
B. 0.29 Joules
C. 0.32 Joules
D. 0.36 Joules
E. 0.43 Joules

18. 06.8 If the work input is 1.10 Joules and the effort distance is .20 meters, determine the actual effort.
A. 2.9 Newtons
B. 2.8 Newtons
C. 11.0 Newtons
D. 5.5 Newtons •
E. 5.2 Newtons

19. 06.10 If the work output is 0.54 Joules and the work input is 0.55 Joules, what is the percent of efficiency of a simple machine?
A. 105%
B. 108%
C. 104%
D. 103.8%
E. 98.2% •

20. 06.10 Determine the percent of efficiency of a simple machine whose work input is 1.08 Joules and the work output is also1.08
Joules.
A. 96.4%
B. 93.1%
C. 104%
D. 100% •
E. 98.2%

Self Evaluation Answers

Physics is FUNdamental 51
 HEAT
Topic 07

Objectives

1. Given the following list of terms, identify each term's correct definition. Conversely, given the definition, identify the
correct term.

calorie, calorimeter, Celsius, conduction, Conservation of Energy, convection, equilibrium, Fahrenheit, heat, Kelvin,
mass, radiation, specific heat capacity, temperature, thermal expansion, thermal heat transfer

2. Calculate the amount of Heat energy given the formula, H = m x ∆T x c, where m = mass, the T = temperature change,
and c = specific heat capacity of a substance.

3. Calculate the Specific Heat Capacity given the formula c = H / (m x ∆T).

4. Given the formula for Thermal Expansion: ∆L = ∂ x L x ∆T, calculate the thermal expansion of a substance.

5. Given the formula for Thermal Heat Transfer: H = (k x ∆T x A x ∆t) / d, calculate the thermal heart transfer, and be able
to explain it.

INTRODUCTION

Characteristics of Heat
Every body of matter, whether solid, liquid or gas, consists of atoms or molecules which are in constant motion. Their
motion gives every object internal kinetic energy. The level of internal kinetic energy in an object depends on how rapidly its
atoms or molecules move. Heat is a form of energy, which, when added to a body of matter, increases its internal kinetic energy
content, and causes its temperature to rise. Temperature is an indication of an object's internal kinetic energy level.

It is important to recognize that temperature and heat are not the same thing. Temperature is simply an indication of the
level of internal kinetic energy found in objects. Heat is the transfer of energy from one object to another, as a result of
temperature differences. As heat raises the internal kinetic energy of an object, its atoms or molecules move faster. As more
heat is added to an object, the motion of its atoms becomes even more disorderly. The addition of heat to an object will always
increase its internal kinetic energy. Usually, the heat added also raises the temperature of the object. Heat radiating out of an
object will always decrease the internal kinetic energy of that object. The heat loss also usually lowers the temperature of the
object.

Physics is FUNdamental 52
Latent Heat
When heat is continuously added to a solid, it grows hotter and hotter, and finally begins to melt. While it is melting, the
material remains at the same temperature, and the absorbed heat goes into changing the state of the substance from a solid to a
liquid. After all of the solid has melted, the temperature of the resulting liquid then increases as more heat is supplied, until it
begins to boil. Now the material again stays at a constant temperature until all of it has become a gas, after which the temperature
of the gas rises. This is explained by realizing that under certain circumstances, the addition of heat causes no increase in
temperature. Instead, the disorder of the atoms in the object increases, causing the material to change states. The heat needed
to change a material from a solid to a liquid to a gas is called latent heat. For water, the heat required to change one gram of
ice into water is 80 cal/g, and 540 cal/g additional heat is needed to change water into water vapor.

Latent Heat
Te mp.

Gas
100 Boiling
540 ca l/gr.

Liquid
1 cal/gr. fo r
ea ch degre e
0 melt ing

80 cal/ gr

so lid
-30

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time

Cal ories per gram needed for change in State

The standard unit for measuring heat transfer is the calorie. For our purposes, we can generalize this definition by simply
saying that a calorie is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of water one degree Celsius. You
may be familiar with the calories used to indicate the energy content of food. One food calorie is equal to 1 kilocalorie and is
designated with a capital C.

The Law of Conservation of Energy:

When two systems or objects of different temperatures come into contact, energy (in the form of heat) is transferred
from the warmer system into the cooler one. This transfer of heat raises the temperature of the cooler system, and lowers the
temperature of the warmer system (provided that no changes of states of matter occur in either system). Eventually, the two
systems reach a common, intermediate temperature, and the heat transfer stops. This transfer of heat from the warmer (warm
front) to the cooler (cold front) can be related to the weather. Warm and cold air masses are always trying to bring one another
into equilibrium, and this struggle causes wind. At present, there are three commonly used scales available to measure
temperature: Kelvin (or absolute), Centigrade (or Celsius), and Fahrenheit. We will use the Celsius scale for our measurements
of temperature.

Heat Measurement:
Heat is different than temperature. Temperature measures the random motion of the molecules of the material being
measured by the thermometer. Heat describes the relationship among mass, temperature change, and the specific heat of the
substance. Heat is measured in calories and is determined by multiplying the mass by the change in temperature by the specific
heat of the material. The Unit of heat energy is the calorie.

Physics is FUNdamental 53
Heat Energy Problem:
Let us determine the amount of heat energy transferred to or from a sample. Let us assume the mass (m), is 60 grams,
the temperature of the sample changes from 20o C to 220o C, (that is: ∆T = 200o C), and the specific heat capacity is
1.00 cal/g oC. To determine the number of calories of heat energy:
∆H = m x ∆T x c
Where
∆H = heat energy
m = mass of the sample,
∆T = change in temperature of the specimen.
c = the specific heat capacity of the material.

In this problem
m = 60 g
∆T = 200o C
c = 1.00 cal/g oC.
Then
∆H = m x ∆T x c
∆H = 60g x 200 oC x 1.00 cal/g oC
∆H = 12,000 calories.

In the laboratory, you will combine hot and cold water of known temperatures and masses. You will determine the
amount of energy transferred from the hot water to the cold water once they are mixed. As indicated in the Law of Conservation
of Energy whether heat energy was conserved will be determined by analyzing the results of the experiment.

Specific Heat Capacity

So far, we have looked at two closely related ideas, heat and temperature. Let's look at things thermally for a while
longer, and take a trip around the world. We will take our time, and explore the planet's surface, interior, seas, rivers, and
oceans. Let us say that the objective of the trip is to collect as many different samples of objects (solids, liquids and gases) as
possible, so that we can bring them home to analyze them from a thermal point of view. At home, a simple thermal analysis
would consist of taking the sample, heating it by giving it so many calories of heat (which we will call H), and observing its
change in temperature. This change we will call ∆T (remember ∆ means change in), one way to determine how the various
samples are thermally different is by obtaining the ratio of heat to temperature change, H/∆T. This ratio will be different for
the different samples, thus distinguishing the samples from one another.
This ratio does not take into account the mass of the sample (a real goof-up). To correct this, we simply divide the ratio
H /∆T by the mass, (m), or H/ (m x ∆T). Such a ratio is a measure of the specific thermal characteristics of a sample, and it is
assigned the symbol (c), and given the name Specific Heat Capacity.
c = ∆H / (m x ∆T)
The unit for specific heat capacity is (calories/gram oC)
.
Specific Heat Capacity Problem:
Let us take one of the various samples and run a test: assume the mass, is 60 grams, and that by heating it in the oven
with 120 calories of heat, the temperature of the sample changes from 20o C to 220o C, (that is: ∆T = = Tf – Ti = 200o C). To
determine the specific heat capacity which is the amount of heat energy stored per gram for each 1oC change in the formula:
c = H / (m x ∆T)

Where H = heat energy,

m = mass of the sample,
∆T = change in temperature of the specimen.
In this problem
H = 120 cal
m = 60 g
∆T = 200o C.
Then
c = H / (m x ∆T)
c = 120 cal / (60g x 200o C)
c = 0.01 cal/g oC.

Physics is FUNdamental 54
 You will be asked to measure the specific heat capacity of several samples using the expression c = H / (m x ∆T), which
can also be expressed as H = m x c x ∆T. This can also be interpreted as the heat (H), injected into an object of mass (m).
Specific heat (c) can be determined by multiplying the mass (m), by the specific heat (c), and then by the change in temperature
(∆T), which resulted from putting that much heat (H) into the object.

Thermal Expansion:
All gases (and most liquids and solids), expand when heated. But they do not expand equally. If a gas, liquid, and solid
receive enough heat to raise their temperatures the same amount, the gas will expand the most, the liquid much less, and the
solid the least.
Thermometers, thermostats, and many other devices work on this principle of expansion and contraction. Many
thermometers contain a liquid (such as alcohol or mercury), which expands and contracts evenly as the temperature changes.
The expansion and contraction of the materials in bridges, buildings, and other structures can cause serious problems
unless builders allow for this. For example, the steel beams in a building will bend or break if they do not have enough room
to expand. For this reason, structures have expansion joints. Expansion joints provide space for the expansion and contraction
of building materials as the temperature changes, without damaging the structure itself. Engineers can determine how much
the length of any material will be increased by a rise in temperature, if they know the coefficient of linear expansion of the
material. The coefficient of linear expansion indicates how much longer each meter of a material will become if its temperature
is increased by one degree.

Thermal Expansion Problem:

Workers place steel railroad rails exactly end-to-end for a distance of 10 kilometers on a day when the temperature
is 5o C. How much will the railroad track expand on a day when the temperature reaches 35 o C?
∆L = ∂ x L x ∆T

Where ∆L = change in length as a result of temperature change

∂ = coefficient of linear expansion of the given material
L = length of the given material
∆T = temperature change of the given material in this problem.
In this problem
∂ = 0.000011 cm/cm oC
L = 10 km x 1000 m/1 km x 100 cm/ 1 m = 1,000,000 cm
∆T = 35o C - 5o C = 30o C.
Then
∆L = ∂ x L x ∆T
∆L = 0.000011 cm/cmoC x 1,000,000 cm x 30o C = 330 cm.

If you observed the rails you would note that the workers leave a small gap between the rails to allow for expansion or
contraction of the steel due to temperature changes.

Thermal Conductivity:
Heat is transferred by three methods: (1) conduction, (2) convection, and (3) radiation.

Conduction is the movement of heat through a material. When heat travels by conduction, it moves through a material
without carrying any of the material with it. For example, the end of a copper rod placed in a fire quickly becomes hot; the
atoms in the hot end begin to vibrate faster, causing adjoining atoms to vibrate faster. In this way, the heat travels from atom
to atom until it reaches the other end of the rod.

Convection is the transfer of heat by the movement of the heated material. For example, when a hot stove heats the air
around it by conduction, this heated air expands, and thus becomes lighter than the colder air surrounding it. The heated air
rises, and cooler air replaces it. This movement of heated air away from a hot object, and the flow of cooler air toward that
object, is called convection current.

Physics is FUNdamental 55
 Infrared radiation is the transfer of heat energy through empty space. In any object, the moving atoms or molecules
create waves of radiant energy. These waves are also called infrared rays. Hot objects give off more infrared rays than colder
objects. When radiant energy strikes an object, it speeds up the atoms or molecules in that object. Most of the energy from the
sun travels through space to the Earth by this means.

Insulation is a way to control the movement of heat by keeping it in or out of a place. People commonly use three
methods of insulation because heat can travel in the three different ways discussed. Certain materials, such as plastic and wood,
make good insulators against the movement of heat by conduction. The movement of heat through the air by convection can
be controlled by blocking the space between hot and cold areas. Surfaces that reflect infrared rays can insulate against heat
traveling by radiation.

Thermal Conductivity Problem:

A thermostat in a house keeps the inside temperature of a room at 23 o C. The temperature outside the house is 0 o C.
How much energy is lost (by conduction) through a glass window in 60 seconds if the glass window is 0.5 cm. thick, and
measures 100 cm. high by 200 cm. wide?

∆H = (k x ∆T x A x ∆t) / d
Where
∆H= total heat loss by conduction through the given object
k= thermal conductivity of the material
∆T= temperature difference between the hot and cold sides of the material
A= area of the material through which heat conduction occurs
∆t= time for which heat conduction is considered
d= thickness of material through which heat conduction occurs.
In this problem
k= 0.0020 cal/sec cm oC
∆T= 23oC - 0o C = 23o C
A= 100 cm x 200 cm = 20,000 cm2
∆t= 60 s
d= 0.5 cm.
Then
∆H= (k x ∆T x A x ∆t ) / d
∆H= (0.0020 cal/s cm oC x 23o C x 20,000 cm2 x 60 s) / (0.5 cm)
∆H= 110,400 calories.

By comparison, it takes about 18,217 calories to heat an 8 oz cup of water from room temperature to boiling. In other
words, our example window is losing enough energy to heat approximately six 8 oz cups of water to the boiling point every
minute.

Physics is FUNdamental 56
 Table 1. Thermal Properties of Selected Materials:

Specific Heat Capacity c Thermal Expansion  Thermal conductivity k

Substance
cal/g oC J/g K cm/cm oC cal/sec cm oC
Aluminum 0.220 0.921 0.000026 0.4900

Brass 0.087 0.364 0.000019 0.2600

Copper 0.091 0.381 0.000017 0.9200

Glass 0.160 0.669 0.000009 0.0020

Iron 0.110 0.461 0.000011 0.2000

Steel 0.000011

Lead 0.030 0.126 0.000029 0.0830

Water 1.000 4.187 0.001430 0.0014

Ice 0.500 2.094 0.001326 0.0040

Wood 0.420 1.759 0.000400 0.0002

Sand 0.200 0.837

Physics is FUNdamental 57
 HEAT
Self-Evaluation
Test 071

Directions: Select the best answer.

1. 07,1 A law that describes the relationship between heat gained and the heat lost in a thermal reaction:
A. the law of definite thermal proportions
B. the thermal heat law
C. The law of conservation of energy •
D. the law of specific heat
E. the first heat law

2. 07,1 When heat moves through a material by passing the energy from atom to atom it is called?
A. conduction •
B. insulation
C. radiation
D. convection
E. temperature

3. 07.2 Determine the number of calories needed to raise 10 grams of water from a temperature of 10 oC to boiling:
Note: You may need to reference Table 1.
A. 1500 calories
B. 3500 calories
C. 1000 calories
D. 20 calories
E. 900 calories •

4. 07,2 Determine the heat energy needed to raise 100 grams of lead from a temperature of 30 oC to 100oC. Note: You
may need to reference Table 1.
A. 1200 calories
B. 6.9 calories
C. 230 calories
D. 210 calories •
E. 77 calories

5. 07,3 Calculate the specific heat capacity of a 625 gram unknown substance if it undergoes a 105oC change in
temperature when 13,125 calories of energy are added. Identify that substance, using the chart provided:
A. Iron
B. Brass
C. sand •
D. Wood
E. Glass

Physics is FUNdamental 58
6. 07,3 Calculate the specific heat capacity of an unknown substance, and identify that substance using the chart provided

where: Mass = 100 g,

Change in temperature = 60oC,
Heat = 6000 calories.

A. water •

B. Brass
C. Aluminum
D. Wood
E. Iron

7. 07,4 Calculate the thermal expansion of aluminum.

The temperature changes from 25 oC to 65 oC and L = 3000 m.

A. 19500 cm.
B. 3.3 cm.
C. .05 cm.
D. 312 cm.•
E. 12000 cm.

8. 07,5 Calculate the amount of heat loss for a copper wall.

The temperature changes from 0 oC to 45 oC.

A = 50 cm x 50 cm.
∆t = 60 s
d = 2.54 cm.

A. 93750.5 calories
B. 252.7 calories
C. 2,444,881.89 calories •
D. 4.59 calories
E. 9,090,000.65 calories

Self Evaluation Answers

Physics is FUNdamental 59
 WAVES and S O U N D
Topic 08

Objectives

1. Given the following list of terms, identify each term's correct definition. Conversely, given the definition, identify the
correct term.

amplitude, decibel, Doppler effect, frequency, intensity, interference, longitudinal waves, loudness, medium, period,
resonance, sound, speed of sound, vibration, wavelength

2. Develop a model showing the following: a) how sound travels, b) the movement of sound through various media, c)
demonstrated loudness, and d) demonstrated frequency.

3. Given various Celsius temperatures (T), calculate the speed of sound, using the relationship:
VT = 331 m/s + (0.6 m/s 0C x T).

4. Given any two of the three variables, and the formula v = f x λ, calculate the third variable, whether speed of sound,
frequency, or wavelength.

5. Measure the length of a resonating column, and calculate the wavelength of the sound wave, using the following formula:
wavelength = 4 x length of air column.

6. Determine the distance between yourself and an object reflecting an echo using:
D = (vT x t) / 2 where D = distance from observer to a reflecting surface, VT is velocity of sound at a given
temperature, and t is time interval needed to hear the echo.

INTRODUCTION

An age old question asks: If a tree falls in a forest where there is no one to hear it, does it make a sound? To answer
this question, the phenomena of sound must be defined. In the physiological sense, there are three requirements for sound:
1. a source of energy,
2. a transmitting medium for the energy,
3. a receiver to receive and decode the energy.

In the physical sense, sound is a series of energy disturbances in a material medium, not necessarily requiring a receiver
or observer. Therefore, the answer to the above question depends on the definition used. In this topic, "sound" will be interpreted
in its physical sense.

Sound may be specifically defined as a mechanical vibration in a material medium (solid, liquid, gas) within a frequency
range approximately between 20 waves/s and 20,000 waves/s. One wave/s is 1 Hertz (Hz). These frequencies are capable of
affecting the human ear (providing that its intensity is between 0 db and 120 db). Waves of frequencies lower than 20 Hz are
called infrasonic, and those of frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz are known as ultrasonic.

Physics is FUNdamental 60
Model of Sound
Suppose you take a very thin strip of wood or a piece of steel like a hacksaw blade and clamp one end in a vise. If you
strike this clamped material sharply, the free end would vibrate back and forth. If you cause the wood or steel to vibrate rapidly,
it would produce a humming sound that could be heard. You could do other experiments, such as the plucking of a guitar
string, or the striking of a fork, which show that sounds are produced by vibrating matter.

As the vibrating strip moves forward it moves the gas molecules compressing them thus transferring mechanical energy
to the molecules in the direction in which the compression occurs. At the same time, the gas molecules on the other side of the
strip expand into the space left behind the strip, and they become more separated or rarefied. The combined effect of the
simultaneous compression and rarefaction transfers energy to the molecules in the direction of the vibration of the strip. The
type of wave produced as this mechanical process continues is called a longitudinal wave.

Figure 1

Waves possess five basic characteristics.

Wavelength
Period = .5-s Amplitude

Time = 1 sec
Frequency = 2 Hz

Figure 2. Model of Sound

1. Wavelength (λ), is the distance from a point on a wave to the next point
2. Amplitude (A), is the maximum displacement (distance) of any wave. Amplitude indicates the loudness of a sound.
3. Period (t), is the time (usually expressed in seconds) that it takes for a wave to travel one full wavelength.
4. Frequency (f), is the number of vibrations (waves) occurring in one second of time. This indicates the pitch of a sound.

Physics is FUNdamental 61
5.Wave speed (v), is the rate the wave is traveling; the units of measurement are meters/s

Reference Wave

Frequency = 3 Frequency = 3 Frequency = 5 Frequency = 1

Loudness = 1 Loudness = 2 Loudness = 1 Loudness = 1

Figure 3 Examples of Frequency and Loudness

The model of sound contains two fundamental characteristics, loudness and frequency. Loudness is indicated by the
height or amplitude of the wave. The frequency or pitch is indicated by the number of waves drawn in a given distance.

Loudness
The loudness of a sound depends on the affect (as indicated in our model by amplitude) of the sound waves on the ears.
In general, sound waves of higher amplitude or intensity are louder. The ear is not equally sensitive to sound of all
frequencies. Consequently, a high frequency sound may not seem as loud as one of lower frequency having the same
intensity. An increase in the intensity of a sound of fixed frequency, while the observer remains at a fixed distance from its
source, causes the sound to seem louder. However, the relation between intensity and loudness is not a one-to-one
relationship. For example: sound must be ten times more intense before it becomes twice as loud; and 100 times as intense
before it becomes three times as loud. Intensity is measured with acoustical apparatus, and does not depend on the sense of
hearing of an observer. (see figure 6 for examples)

Frequency
Frequency is what we perceive as a note played by a instrument. We would consider the note to be of a high pitch or a
low pitch. Frequency is the number of waves per second measured in Hertz. As the frequency, or number of waves per
second, increases the wavelength decreases. As the frequency of a sound decreases the wavelength increases.

Characteristics of Sound
Interference
The concept of waves is not unique to sound. For instance, if you drop a rock into a pond, waves will be produced.
These waves can overlap, and in overlapping, some of the effects of the waves may be increased, decreased, or neutralized.
As the crest of one wave overtakes the crest of another, the affects combine. The result is a wave of increased amplitude.
This is called constructive interference, or reinforcement. By the same token, when the crest of one wave overlaps the trough
of another, their individual affects are reduced. The high part of one wave simply fills in the low part of another. This is
called destructive interference, or cancellation. These concepts transfer neatly from the rock in the water example described
above to the fundamental concepts of
sound.

Doppler Effect
When a sound is moving with respect
to the observer the sound's pitch appears
to change. Because of the motion of the
source, illustrated here as a racing car, the
sound waves appear to be bunched up in
front and spread out in back. This results
in shorter wavelengths, or an increased
frequency, in the front of the source and
longer wavelengths, or a lower frequency
behind the source.
Figure 4

Physics is FUNdamental 62
Speed of Sound
The speed of sound in the air is about 330 meter/second at 0 o C. As the temperature of the air rises, the speed of sound
increases, at a rate of about 0.6 meter/second for each Co. The formula or relationship can be stated as:

VT = 331 m/s + (.6 m/s 0C x T)

It must be noted this formula works only for sound traveling in air. The temperature must be in units of oC. The unit for
the speed of sound is m/s.

If the temperature was 19o C then the speed of sound would be:

331 m/s + (.6 m/s 0C x 19o) or 342 m/s

In a liquid such as water the speed of sound at 19o C is 1461 meters/second approximately four to five times faster than
air. In some solids, the speed of sound is even greater, for example: in iron, sound may travel 5,000 meter/second, about 15
times faster than air. The speed of sound in various substances can be seen in the following chart.

Velocity of Sound in Various Substances

Substance Temp Co m/s ft/s
Solids (bulk)
Aluminum ......................................................... - ..................... 6,420 ............... 21,063
Copper ............................................................... - ...................... 5,010 ............... 16,437
Platinum ............................................................. - ...................... 3,260 ............... 10,696
Iron (Armco) ...................................................... - ..................... 5,960 ............... 19,554
Nickel ................................................................ - ...................... 6,040 ............... 19,816
Liquids
Alcohol ............................................................. 20.5 ................... 1,213 ............... 3,980
Benzene ............................................................. 0 ................... 1,166 ............... 3,825
NaC1 10% solution .......................................... 15 ................... 1,470 ............... 4,823
NaC1 20% solution .......................................... 15 ................... 1,650 ............... 5,413
Water .................................................................. 13 ................... 1,435 ............... 4,708
Gases
Air ..................................................................... 0 .................... 330 ................ 1,083
Carbon Dioxide .................................................... 0 .................... 258 ............... 846
Hydrogen ............................................................ 0 .................... 1,268 ............... 4,160
Oxygen ................................................................ 0 .................... 317 ................ 1,041

Table 1

Sound waves are given off in all directions from a vibrating body. If they travel through a uniform medium, they spread
out in a spherical pattern. Thus, the area of the expanding wave front is increasing in proportion to the square of the distance
from the source. Since the total energy of the wave is constant, the intensity of the wave diminishes as it moves away from
the source. The sound waves produced by a whistle are only one-fourth as intense at a distance of two kilometers as they
are at a distance of one kilometer from the source. The loudness of a sound at any point can be measured using a relationship
referred to as the Inverse Square Law. The interesting thing about this law is that it describes the energy of various forms
of energy. We will investigate this law more closely in later topics.

Physics is FUNdamental 63
Resonance
You may have noticed that a person singing or
a sound from the radio or television can cause 1/2 Wavelength
some object in the room to vibrate. This is referred
to as resonance. (Is it live, or is it Memorex?)
Resonance occurs when the natural rates of
vibration of two objects are the same. If you hold
a vibrating tuning fork over a plastic cylinder as
shown in the Figure, you can observe resonance.
You will need to adjust the length of the tube by
moving it up and down, until the sound produced
seems the loudest. The following paragraph and 1 Wavelength
Figure will explain how the sound becomes louder.
When a vibrating tuning fork is in the ‘down'
position (b), the sound wave travels down the tube,
reflects off the water, and returns to the tuning
fork, just as it reaches the 'up' position (a). The
reflected sound reinforces the sound made by the
tuning fork, making it seem louder. The sound has
gone down the length of the tube (L) and back; or
2L, in half of a wavelength, (distance a to b). The
length of the tube is half a wavelength divided by
2, or 1/4 wavelength. The length of the tube is one-
quarter of the wavelength of the sound being
produced. To determine the wavelength of the
sound produced multiply the length of the tube by Figure 5 Resonance in a closed Tube
four.
This relationship can be expressed as: λ = 4 x L.

By investigating the relationship between frequency (vib/s) and wavelength (m/vib) one would observe that if they are
multiplied together and we cancel appropriate units the results would be units of (m/s).

Frequency x Wavelength = Velocity

( vibration
second
) x ( meters
vibration
) =
meters
second

Since the tuning forks are stamped with their frequency (f) and the wavelength ( ) can be obtained through resonance
we can calculate the velocity of sound in the classroom.

Decibel Levels
A decibel meter (db meter) is an instrument designed to measure the intensity of the waves from a source of sound, such
as a vibrating string, an explosion, etc. Although the units for measuring sound intensity are known as watt/m 2, a more
practical unit has been developed, the decibel. The relationship between these two units can be evaluated by looking at the
decibel levels of a number of familiar noises. The threshold of hearing is defined as the lowest level of sound that the ear can
perceive. The threshold of pain is defined as a sound so loud that it can be felt (pain) by the ear in terms of pressure applied
to the ear drum.

Physics is FUNdamental 64
 DECIBEL SCALE

Decibels Watts/m2

10 —— 10-11

Threshold of hearing-average

20 —— 10-10 Rustle of leaves

Whisper at five feet

30 —— 10-9 Broadcast studio

Average dwelling

40 —— 10-8 Quiet office

New York City at midnight; household refrigerator

50 —— 10-7 Average office

Quiet automobile

60 —— 10-6 Conversation; average restaurant

Quiet typewriter

70 —— 10-5 Automobile passing

Average factory

80 —— 10-4 Noisy restaurant; printing press

Truck passing

90 —— 10-3 Inside train; noisy factory

Heavy city traffic

100 —— 10-2 Train

Riveter
110 —— 10-1 Boiler factory

Punch press

120 —— 100 Threshold of Pain

Airplane motor at 20 feet

130 —— 101 Pneumatic rock drill

Figure 6 Loudness Scale

Physics is FUNdamental 65
 WAVES and S O U N D
Self-Evaluation
TEST 081
Directions: Select the best answer.

1. 08, 1 The power of sound (as judged by the ear. is represented by:
A. wavelength
B. frequency
C. amplitude •
D. tone

2. 08, 1 Matter that is vibrating produces:

A. electricity
B. sound •
C. magnetism
D. light

3. 08, 2 Which of the following diagrams represents the softest sound?

4. 08, 2 A and B, respectively, are:

A. wavelength and tone
B. frequency and tone
C. wavelength and frequency
D. amplitude and wavelength •
E. none of the above

5. 08, 3 Given the air temperature 21o C, calculate the speed of sound:
A. 343 m/s •
B. 0.15 m/s
C. 275 m/s
D. 1250 m/s

Physics is FUNdamental 66
6. 08, 3 What is the speed of sound at 45o C?
A. 1347 m/s
B. 3.57 m/s
C. 1180 ft/s
D. 357 m/s •
E. 1860 m/s

7. 08, 4 What is the velocity of a sound whose wavelength is 3.0 cm and whose frequency is 1235 Hz?
A. 37 m/s •
B. 411 m/s
C. 3650 cm/s
D. 458 m/s
E. 275 m/s

8. 08, 4 What is the velocity if the wavelength is 4 meters, and the frequency is 282.5 Hz?
A. 1090 m/s
B. 1120 m/s
C. 1130 m/s •
D. 1140 m/s

9. 08, 5 What is the wavelength of a sound resonating in a closed tube 10 cm long?

A. 30 cm
B. 45 cm
C. 40 cm •
D. 15 cm
E. 74 cm

10. 08, 5 What is the wavelength of a sound resonating in a closed tube 105 cm long?
A. 105 cm
B. 210 cm
C. 315 cm
D. 420 cm •
E. 530 cm

11. 08, 6 A person shoots a gun near a reflecting surface. The same person hears the echo 7 seconds after the shot. If the
temperature is 40oC, how far is the person from the reflecting surface?
A. 2478 m
B. 2841 m
C. 1239 m •
D. 3870 m

12. 08, 6 A person is standing near a reflecting surface. He shouts, and hears an echo 10 seconds later. If the temperature is
25o C how far is he from the surface?
A. 172.5 m
B. 8625 m
C. 1725 m •
D. 33m

Self Evaluation Answers

Physics is FUNdamental 67
 ELECTRICITY
Topic 09

Objectives

1. Given the following list of terms, you will identify each term's correct definition. Conversely, given the definition,
identify the correct term.
alternating current, ampere, conductors, current electricity, dielectric., direct current, fuse, insulators, nonconductors,
ohm, static electricity, volt, resistance, voltage

2. Compare and contrast static electricity and current electricity, and be able to state which static electrical charges are
repelled, and which are attracted when brought together.

3. Explain household wiring, and identify the difference between series and parallel circuits.

4. Describe how to measure volts, amperes, and ohms.

1. Given Ohm's Law: I (amperes) = є (volts) / R (ohms), solve for current, voltage, or resistance.

6. Identify and explain the effects of length, diameter, and composition of a conductor on the resistance in a circuit.

1. Given appropriate data and the formula: P(watts) = є (volts) x I (amperes), determine the amount of electric power a
given device uses. In addition, be able to calculate power, current, or voltage, and be able to determine how many
electrical appliances can be plugged into the same circuit without tripping the circuit break.

NOTE: Common abbreviations: Amperes (A), Volts (V), Watts (W), Ohm ()

INTRODUCTION

Overview of Electricity
Electricity is a form of energy that occurs everywhere in nature, in space, in the atmosphere, in living creatures, in
chemical bonds that hold atoms together, in molecules, and in the atoms themselves. Lightning bolts are an example of a large-
scale display of an electric affect. On a much smaller scale, weak electrical impulses are transmitted from one nerve cell to the
next in animals, providing signals for the brain and other parts of the organism.

In the past 100 years or so, many techniques for harnessing electricity and putting it to use have been developed. All
industrial societies have been dramatically transformed by the ability to generate electric power, and to transmit it over long
distances. Electric power runs electric motors in factories, provides building and street lighting in cities, and runs appliances
and lights in homes. In addition, electrical phenomena are the heart of telephone, radio, television, and radar systems.

Electricity also plays an important role in many industrial processes, such as the electroplating and electric arc welding
of metals, and the use of electrostatic precipitators to remove waste particles from furnace exhausts in many kinds of industrial
plants.

All the electrical phenomena we are familiar with depend on the forces existing between the electrical charges carried
by electrons and protons, two of the principal constituents of all atoms. Protons contain the positive charges of atomic nuclei,
and electrons are the source of all negative charges. The attractive force between positive and negative charges holds atomic
nuclei and electrons together to form atoms. Under many circumstances, one or more electrons can disassociate from atoms,
and flow through metals or other matter to produce electric currents. Certain actions of electrons and electric charges give us
electric current and electric power. To make current, a Force is needed to drive electrons away from some part of matter. The
force must keep pressing the electrons so that they cannot flow directly back. This leaves a positive charge at the place from
which the electrons were torn loose.
All matter consists of atoms, which are essentially electrical. Each atom has one or more electrons, and one or more
protons. An electron is a negative particle, and a proton is a positive particle of electricity. These tiny particles always have

Physics is FUNdamental 68
 equal-but-opposite charges of electricity. Protons are heavier than electrons, however, and are bound tightly to the centers of
atoms. Because of this strong attraction, only electrons can move freely.
Static Electricity
Ordinarily, an atom is neutral. This means that it has an equal number of electrons and protons. If an atom gains some
electrons, it becomes negatively charged. If an atom loses some electrons, it becomes positively charged. Atoms that either
gain or lose electrons become electrically charged, and are called ions. Charged atoms always attract uncharged atoms. Atoms
with like charges repel each other, while atoms with unlike charges attract each other.
There are two kinds of electricity: (1) static electricity, and (2) current electricity. Essentially, however, both are really
the same. Static electricity consists of electrons or ions that are not moving. Current electricity consists of ions in motion,
which produces important magnetic affects. To understand electricity, you must also know something about the relationship
of electricity to magnetism.
Static electricity makes your hair crackle when combed, or it may give you a shock if you touch a person or a metal
doorknob after walking across a carpet on a cold day. Static electricity has fewer uses than current electricity. You can produce
static electricity by rubbing a comb with a piece of wool. The atoms in the wool lose some of their electrons, and the atoms in
the comb gain them, so the comb becomes negatively-charged, and the wool becomes positively-charged.
Static electricity occurs when there is an excess of free electrons or atoms that are missing electrons. In a poor
conductor, the free electrons are unable to move away from its atom, nor to an atom without electrons, so the charges remain
in the material. That is, electrons can be grouped in one place and the atoms without electrons in another place. The charge
produced must be equal and opposite. Static electricity is produced in three ways:

a. friction • Objects can be charged by rubbing them together. As the two objects touch, one gives up loosely
held outermost electrons to the other. Thus, the material that receives electrons becomes
negatively charged and the material that loses electrons becomes positively charged. When you
walk across a room on a rug on a cool dry day, you may gain a static electric charge by friction.
The rubber soled shoes rub against the wool carpet and gain electrons from the carpet. When
you reach for the metal door knob, these excess electrons are discharged to the knob, causing a
shock.
b. contact • A material can be charged if electrons are transferred from one material to another by contact
This generally happens when one material is charged and it touches either a neutral or oppositely
charged material. If you have ever seen a person put his/her hand on a Van de Graff generator,
you have observed charging by contact.
c. induction • A material may be charged by induction when it is brought near a charged body. If the material
is a conductor, it has electrons that are relatively free to move.
A substance will not always have the same charge when it is rubbed. For
example, if you rub a piece of glass with silk, the silk becomes negatively charged,
and the glass positively- charged. But if you rub a piece of rubber with silk, the
silk becomes positively charged, and the rubber becomes negatively-charged. The
electrostatic series indicates whether a substance will become positively or
negatively charged when rubbed with another substance.

Current Electricity
There are two main kinds of electric currents: direct and alternating. Direct
current flows in only one direction. Alternating current rapidly reverses its
direction of flow many times a second.
Electrons travel through any conductor from a negative source to a positive
source of electricity. Benjamin Franklin wrongly surmised that electricity travels
from positive to negative. This belief was accepted for many years, and electricians
and electrical engineers still say that electricity flows from positive to negative.
Scientific tests now prove that electrons flow the other way, from negative to
positive in electric circuits.
In order to conduct electricity, the atoms of a substance must have electrons that are free to move from atom to atom.
In a conductor, the electrons in the outer shell of the atoms are able to move freely. The number of electrons in the outermost
energy level determines how easy these electrons are moved. The greater the number of electrons the harder it is to move them.
In fact, materials can be classified according to the number of electrons. These are classed as insulators, semiconductors, and
conductors. Insulators have from 5 to 8 electrons. Materials with 8 electrons are very good insulators or dielectrics. In some
materials such as rubber and glass, the electrons are bound so tightly to their atoms that few can move. These materials conduct

Physics is FUNdamental 69
 little electricity. Semiconductors have 4 electrons. Materials such as germanium and silicon have 4 electrons. Conductors have
1 to 3 electrons in their outermost energy level. Materials such as gold, copper, etc. are in this group.
Electricity and magnetism are closely related. The area around a magnet where its force can be felt is called a magnetic
field. Electricity flowing through a wire sets up a magnetic field about the wire. In addition, a magnetic field can produce
electricity in a wire. If you move a wire so that it cuts across a magnetic field, electricity will be generated in the wire. All
electric generators work on this principle.
An electric circuit requires a minimum of three components: 1. a pathway or conductor, such as copper wire which
electrons can flow. 2. A source of electrons, such as a battery of a generator. 3. An object for the electrons to act on, such as a
toaster or a television set. The circuit leads electrons in a continuous path, from a driving force to a positive charge. The flow
will continue as long as the driving force acts.
Electric current can flow in solutions containing ions. Ions provide the electrons in liquids and gases which conduct
electricity. Positive ions flow in one direction, and negative ions flow in the opposite direction. This explains how electrical
signals move through the human body.
Electrons are among the smallest known particles. For example, in a 60-watt light bulb about 3,000,000,000,000,000,000
or 3 x 1018 (three billion billion) electrons flow through the wires, to the bulb, each second. These electrons travel from atom
to atom in the wires at a speed of approximately .01 cm per second every second. But electrical energy, or the ability of
electricity to do work, travels through a wire almost as fast as the speed of light, which is 3 x 10 8 meters per second. When
you speak into a telephone, the person to whom you are talking hears your voice almost instantly. Electric current in a wire
works much like a 100-foot long hose filled with water. If you connect the hose to a water source and turn it on, you will have
sent a signal 100 feet, although any drop of water in the hose will have moved only a few inches. The flow of electric current
and water both depend on three factors: (1) volts,, the pressure which causes the current to flow (2) amperes, the rate of the
current flow, and (3) ohms, the resistance of the conductor (wire or hose) to the flow. The flow also produces power (work
done per unit of time measured as watts.)

The Use of Meters

Meters are expensive and easily damaged. It is wise to know something about their construction and the proper methods
of use before employing them in experimental work. All D. C. meters must be connected with the proper polarity. The negative
markings of the power source are connected with the negative marking of the meter, and the positive source to the positive
terminal of the meter. By convention, sources of D. C. current use the color red to designate the positive terminal and black to
designate the negative terminal. If the precautions indicated are observed, the laboratory equipment will provide you with
accurate data, and no damage will result to the instruments.
Most common meters are of the galvanometer type. In this type of meter, a small current is allowed to flow through
an armature composed of fine wire wrapped around an iron core. With the current flowing, the armature becomes an
electromagnet, which orients itself in an external magnetic field. This orientation results in the movement of the indicator.
The armature of such instruments is wound with very fine wire, and the heating effect of any excessive current will damage
them. If a galvanometer is called for, and a multipost galvanometer is available, first connect the instrument to the "high range"
posts, and successively introduce the most sensitive ranges, until the one of optimum value is found. The galvanometer is to
be connected in series in the circuit.
The meter that you will use is called a digital multimeter. This is because it contains several meters in one case and the
display is digital. To use the multimeter you must turn on the meter using the on or power switch. Select the voltage, current,
or resistance to be measured by the indicated switch. As you are taking a reading, using the multimeter, it is normal to observe
that the last one or two digits are changing. Do not expect the digits to stop changing. You should make a reading to represent
the average of each digits change.
An ammeter is always connected in series in a circuit. This must be done so that the instrument carries all the current.
Most of the current is shunted around the armature, but if the ammeter is overloaded, the armature will carry more than it is
designed to carry, resulting in damage to it. Before a two-post meter is connected in a current- bearing circuit, be sure the
magnitude of the current is not beyond the range of the instrument.
A voltmeter is always connected in parallel. Resistors in the instrument prevent the armature from being overloaded
when used properly. However, damage to the instrument may result if it is forced to carry too much current. If a single-range
meter is used, be sure the voltage to be measured is not beyond the range of the instrument.

Physics is FUNdamental 70
 ELECTRICITY
Self-Evaluation
Test 091

1. 09,1 A device that protects a circuit from being overloaded is called:

A. generator
B. electroscope
C. electrolyte
D. ohmmeter
E. fuse •

2. 09,1 The current which flows in one direction and then the other is called:
A. ampere
B. direct
C. alternating •
D. static

3. 09,2 Like static charges ______ each other, and unlike charges _______ each other.
A. attract, attract
B. repel, repel
C. attract, repel
D. repel, attract •

4. 09,2 Which of the following explains why a balloon rubbed with wool will stick to a wall?
A. like charges attract
B. rubber is always attracted to walls
C. unlike charges attract •
D. the air in the balloon is attracted to the wall
E. some strands of the wool adhere to the balloon and stick to the wall

5. 09,3 Which of the following explains what happens if a light in a series circuit is removed (and nothing else is changed)?
A. the rest of the lights become dimmer
B. the rest of the lights become brighter
C. the rest of the lights are not changed
D. the rest of the lights go out •
E. the fuse will blow out

6. 09,3 Which of the following explains what happens if a light in a parallel circuit is removed (and nothing else is
changed)?
A. the rest of the lights become dimmer
B. the rest of the lights become brighter
C. the rest of the lights are not changed •
D. the rest of the lights go out
E. the fuse will blow out

7. 09,4 How is a voltmeter connected in a circuit?

A. connected in series
B. connected in parallel •
C. magnetic induction
D. only to the high scale
E. none of the above

Physics is FUNdamental 71
8. 09,4 How is an ammeter connected in a circuit?
A. connected in series •
B. connected in parallel
C. magnetic induction
D. only to the high scale
E. none of the above

9. 09,5 Given a voltage of 120 V, and a resistance of 8.9 ohms, what is the current?
A. 120 amps
B. 1.52 amps
C. 22.4 amps
D. 4.6 amps
E. none of the above •

10. 09,5 Given a resistance of 0.5 ohms, and a current of 7.0 amperes, what is the voltage?
A. 7.5 volts
B. 3.5 volts •
C. 10.5 volts
D. 14 volts
E. 12.0 volts

11. 09,6 If the diameter of a resistor wire were increased, one would expect the resistance to:
A. increase
B. decrease •
C. stay the same
D. double
E. none of the above

12. 09,6 If the length of a resistor wire were increased, one would expect the resistance to:
A. increase •
B. stay the same
C. decrease
D. double
E. none of the above

13. 09,7 If you have a 15 ampere fuse, (which will burn out at exactly 15 amps), on a 120 volt line, what is the maximum number
of 100 watt light bulbs can you light before the fuse blows?
A. 1
B. 6
C. 12
D. 17 •
E. all you want

14. 09,7 How much power is being used if the voltage is 12.1V and the current is 7.3 A?
A. 19.4 watts
B. 88.3 watts •
C. 6.66 watts
D. 53.3 watts
E. 146.4 watts

Self Evaluation Answers

Physics is FUNdamental 72
 MAGNETISM
Topic 10

Objectives

1. Given the following list of terms, identify each term's correct definition. Conversely, given the definition, identify the
correct term.
armature, commutator, diamagnetic materials, domains, electromagnet, ferromagnetic materials, frequency, generator,
hertz, insulators, inverse square law, magnet, magnetic declination, magnetic field, magnetism, north pole, south pole,
paramagnetic materials,
2. Given a set of materials identify the magnetic and nonmagnetic materials.
3. State or identify the Law of Magnetism and apply it to the Earth’s magnetic field.
4. Identify the geometry, or shape, of the magnetic field surrounding a magnet or a combination of magnets.
5. Describe the structure of a magnet at the atomic and domain level.
6 Identify or explain the relationship between flowing electrons and the production of a magnetic field.
7. Identify or explain the relationship between a moving magnetic field and the production of electricity.
8. Identify or explain why the phrase intensity falls off with the square of the distance can be used to describe the strength
of the force surrounding a magnet, in the same way it can be used to describe light, gravitational, or electric fields. Apply
and use the Inverse Square Law, to determine strength, as presented in this topic.
Strength of Force at point B = Strength of Force at point A x (distance to A)2 / (distance to B)2
9. Identify or explain how a direct-current electric motor works applying the magnetic principles in this unit.

INTRODUCTION

Building a Model of Magnetism

The Magnetic Nature of Matter
More than 2000 years ago, an iron ore called magnetite was discovered to be able to attract small bits of iron. The term
magnetism came to be applied to the force of attraction or repulsion between certain substances. If you were to investigate
all the known materials, you would find that most materials fall in the following classifications

diamagnetic materials – these are materials that are not attracted to a magnet and are sometimes referred to as
nonmagnetic materials.

paramagnetic materials – these materials are weakly attracted to a magnet; however, the attraction may be so weak it
is not even noticeable. These are commonly referred to as nonmagnetic materials also.

ferromagnetic materials – these are materials such as magnetite, those do-dads and souvenirs we prominently display
on our refrigerator doors, and any other materials that can be used to produce a “permanent
magnet”. These are also the kinds of materials that are most strongly attracted to a permanent
magnet.

Physics is FUNdamental 73
 Permanent magnets have a surrounding magnetic field that cannot be seen but its effects can be observed. When one
permanent magnet is brought into the vicinity of another permanent magnet, the magnetic fields of the two interact with each
other. It is this interaction of the magnetic fields that causes the attraction and repulsion that we observe between the magnets.
When any magnetic material is brought into the vicinity of a magnet, the magnet induces a temporary magnetic field in the
material causing an attraction of the material to the magnet. This is possible because of the behavior of electrons at the atomic
level (which we will look at later). When a nonmagnetic material is brought into the vicinity of a magnet, the same effects do
NOT happen (at least not to the same degree) and there is no resulting attraction between the material and the magnet. Our first
goal is to determine which materials are magnetic and which are not.

The Law of Magnetism

When one investigates various materials to determine which are magnetic materials and which are not you may notice
that all of the magnetic materials are “attracted” to the magnets and none were repelled because the magnetism in the
magnetic material was induced. However, all permanent magnets have a North and a South pole. When two poles of two
magnets are in close contact with each other they will either attract each other or repel each other. This attraction and
repulsion is known as the Law of Magnetism; like poles of magnets repel and unlike poles attract.

Magnetic Fields
We can determine the magnetic field surrounding a magnet by using another magnet, such as
a directional compass, to physically plot the field. The simplest form of the compass is a magnetic
needle mounted on a pivot in such a way that the needle can move freely. The compass needle,
when placed in an external magnetic field, will align itself in the direction of the external magnetic
field.
As we move the compass around a magnet, the needle will stay in line with the direction of
the magnetic field. We can trace the path of the field lines pointing by observing the direction
shown by the compass. The field lines exit from the north pole of the magnet and curve to the south
pole of the magnet. (These field lines are actually closed loops, with part of the loop inside the
magnet and another part forming the magnetic field outside the magnet.) These field lines never
cross. Field lines are always densest near the poles of a magnet. Can you reason why?

Figure 1

The Structure of Magnets

To understand magnetic materials, one first has to consider the structure of the atom. The Bohr model of the atom (an
older model of the atom that works for our purposes and has been replaced with a newer one as explained in this video)
includes the nucleus (dense core) containing the positively charged protons and the
electrically neutral neutrons. Surrounding the nucleus and orbiting around it like the planets
orbiting the sun, are the negatively charged electrons. As these electrons orbit the nucleus
they rotate, in much the same way the Earth spins on its axis, thus, the electrons are said to
have spin (sometimes referred to as atomic spin, or magnetic spin). These motions of the
electrons produce a magnetic field (in fact, it is one of the great scientific discoveries of all Nucle us
time that a moving electric charge produces a magnetic field).
Thus, each moving electron generates its own magnetic field. In atoms with two or more
electrons, one electron spins up and the other spins down and are paired with each other
(except for the occasional lone electron that has no one to pair up with). These paired
electrons occupy the same energy level, or orbit (in fact, this is why they are said to be
paired). The electrons in each pair usually have opposite spins, and their magnetic fields
cancel each other out. However, in atoms of magnetic elements (such as iron, nickel, and Iron
cobalt), there are unpaired electrons and their fields do not cancel each other but instead Figure 2
reinforce each other (the spins are in the same direction) and cause the material to be magnetic
These materials are the ferromagnetic materials we spoke of earlier. (The Latin word for iron is fermium, from which we get
ferromagnetic). In these materials there is also a strong interaction, or coupling, between neighboring atoms. This strong
interaction results in large groups of atoms with their electron spins pointing in the same direction. These large groups of
atoms are called magnetic domains. In the presence of a magnetic field the domains will align and the material can be
permanently magnetized.

Physics is FUNdamental 74
0
The strength of a magnet is dependent upon the
number of magnetic domains that are aligned. When
the magnetic domains (represented by arrows in Figure
3) are randomly arranged the material does not act as a
magnet. However, when the magnetic domains in the
material are lined up in the same general direction, the
material does act like a magnet. The greater the
alignment of the domains, the stronger the magnet. Random
Figure 3
Aligned
Models used to represent varying degrees
of magnetic strength would look like those shown
in Figure 4. The orderly arrangement of the tiny
rectangles in the bottom picture of Figure 4
represents the arrangement of the domains
necessary to produce a substance with north and
south magnetic poles.
Placing a magnetic material in the presence of a
magnetic field (produced by another magnet)
causes the magnetic domains in the material to
align themselves like those at the bottom of Figure
4. The material, at least temporarily, becomes a
magnet. We can use iron filings to represent the
magnetic domains. At first, these iron filings, like
the magnetic domains they represent, are pointed
in random directions. When placed in the
presence of a magnetic field, however, the iron
filings line up in the same direction.
One can test our model by applying it to a Figure 4
piece of un-magnetized coat hanger wire (which
is made up of ferromagnetic materials). If you obtained a length of coat hanger wire about 18 cm (7-in.) long and moved a
compass along the wire you would note that the compass does not appear affected by the wire. You could then magnetize the
wire by stroking the wire in one direction with one pole of a bar magnet approximately twenty-five times. If you then moved
a compass along the wire you would observe that the direction the compass needle points as you move the compass along the
length of the coat hanger is in the direction of the magnetic field.
Ordinarily the magnetic domains in the wire point in different directions, canceling each other out, and the wire is not a
magnet. However, if a strong external magnetic field (from a strong magnet for instance) is placed near the wire, the magnetic
domains are influenced by this field and align themselves in the same general direction as the external field itself (i.e. the
magnetic field of the wire points in the same direction as the external field). Thus, we induced a weak magnetic field in the
wire that wasn’t there originally. This induced magnetic field is such that the wire is attracted to the magnet. However, once
the influence of the strong magnet is removed the domains in the wire revert to a random orientation.
Stroking the wire with the pole of the magnet caused the domains to align themselves also, but this time the domains
remained aligned (for a while at least) even after the magnet was removed. Thus, by stroking the magnet, we made the wire
itself into a temporary magnet. The stroking action strengthened the magnetic field in the wire by forcing more of the domains
to align. This, in turn, helped freeze them in place. The more domains that are aligned, the longer the material will retain its
magnetic field.
Materials with many domains (ferromagnetic materials) will quickly respond to an external magnetic field and be
attracted to a magnet. Ferromagnetic materials can be easily magnetized also, as we have just done. Paramagnetic materials
(like aluminum and tin) and diamagnetic materials (like copper) behave a little differently. An external magnetic field will
induce a magnetic field in both the paramagnetic material and the diamagnetic material; however, the induced magnetic fields
are much, much weaker than the induced fields associated with ferromagnetic materials. In the paramagnetic material, the
induced field is in the same direction as the external field, but in the diamagnetic material the induced field is in the opposite
direction (i.e. the diamagnetic material is actually repelled by the magnet a little but is not usually observable to the naked eye).
Also, neither paramagnetic materials nor diamagnetic materials will retain the induced magnetic fields once the external field
has been removed. Thus, these materials cannot be used to make permanent magnets.

Physics is FUNdamental 75
Measuring Magnet Force - The Inverse Square Law
The intensity,
force, or strength of 1 1
Object Strength =1 Strength = /4 Strength = /9
most types of energy
(such as light, sound,
gravity, electricity,
and magnetism)
diminishes as we
move away from the
source. We have all
seen the pattern
created when a One Distance Unit Two Distance Units Three Distance Units
flashlight's beam
spreads out as it is
moved further from a Figure 5
wall in a darkened
room. The changing intensity of this pattern is described by the Inverse Square Law. The Inverse Square Law also describes
the force of attraction or repulsion that a magnet exerts on any given material under very special conditions. This law would
describe a magnetic field by stating that the strength (or the intensity) of a magnetic field varies inversely with the square of
the distance from the magnet. This means that if the distance (d) increases, the force strength (S) decreases by the square of the
distance from the source (i.e. S is proportional to 1/d 2 ). The following diagram shows this relationship.
If we are interested in determining the strength of a field at a point given the strength at another point we can use the
following relationship based on the Inverse Square Law.

(dis tan ceA) 2 S B d A2 d A2

StrengthB
= or = or SB = S A x
S A d B2 2
StrengthA (dis tan ceB) 2 dB
Example 1
Determine the force strength of a field at 3 meters given a force strength of 1 Newton at 1 meter.
SB d A2 SB 12 met er 1
= or = or SB =
SA d B
2 1 2
3 met er 9

S
A
This relationship could be represented by the following diagram: dA2
SB dB 2

Example 2
Determine the force of a field at 3 meters given a force of 36 Newtons at 2 meter.
SB d A2 SB 2 2 met er 2 2 met er 4
= or = or SB = 36 x 2 or S B = 36 x or SB = 16
SA d B
2 36 2
3 met er 3 met er 9

Physics is FUNdamental 76
 Geographic
Applying Magnetic Principles North Pole Magnetic
South
Determining Direction and the Earth's Magnetic Field
The Earth spins on an imaginary axis that connects the North Geographic
Pole and the South Geographic Pole. Near each of these poles, the Earth also has a
magnetic pole. However, the situation is a little more confusing than one might
expect because the magnetic properties of these poles differ from their geographic
location. The north magnetic pole is actually located in the southern hemisphere of Earth
the planet while the south magnetic pole is located in the northern hemisphere.
These magnetic poles act just like the ends of a magnet. The south magnetic pole
is located near Bathurst Island in northern Canada, about 1,600 kilometers from the
North Geographic Pole. The north magnetic pole is located in Wilkes Land,
Antarctica, about 2,570 kilometers from the South Geographic Pole. The north
Magnetic Geographic
magnetic pole is moving 55 km per day in a North Northwest direction (away from North South Pole
Antarctica towards Siberia). Figure 6
Because the north magnetic pole on a compass actually points northwards toward the
south magnetic pole, it doesn’t point directly toward the geographic North Pole. The difference between the direction of the
magnetic pole and the geographic pole is called the magnetic declination. The declination is different at different places on the
Earth, and actually changes slightly from year to year. In order to use a magnetic compass to its fullest potential, a person must
also have a declination chart. This is a chart that shows exactly what correction must be made in order to read the compass
accurately. For our area, true north is approximately 6o declination west of the direction given by a compass.

Magnets, Electricity, Electromagnets and Oersted's Discovery

In the early 1700's, reports of lightning changing the direction of compass needles and making magnets out of objects
such as knives and forks led scientists to suspect a relationship between electricity and magnetism. Danish schoolteacher Hans
Christian Oersted discovered the first concrete evidence of this relationship in 1820. His discovery was quite accidental. Oersted
laid the current-carrying wire of an electric circuit beside a directional compass. As he did so, he happened to notice the compass
needle turning. He immediately recognized that a magnetic field must have been emanating from the wire causing the compass
needle to be deflected. He also realized that the magnetic field had to be produced by the current flowing in the wire because,
when the current was turned off, the needle ceased to be deflected. Oersted's discovery of the relationship between electricity
and magnetism led to a very important principle; when current flows in a wire (or any other conductor), it generates a magnetic
field which surrounds the wire. Wrapping the wire around a piece of soft iron can strengthen the magnetic field created by the
electric current. In fact, if we wrap the wire around the soft iron core several times, we can strengthen the magnetic field
tremendously. This arrangement is called an electromagnet. The iron core offers an easy path for the field inside the coil, and
thus provides a minimum of magnetic resistance. In essence, the core concentrates the field and, by doing so, strengthens it.
Electromagnets allow magnetism to be turned on or off at will, and are currently used in many areas of modern society.

Generator
The voltage that a generator produces can be increased in three
different ways. The first way is to increase the strength of the magnet. This, of
course, increases the strength of the magnetic field, and a stronger magnetic
field will generate a greater current in the wire. The second way is to increase Armature
the speed at which the coil rotates. If the coil rotates faster, the magnetic field Commutator
changes faster. A faster changing magnetic field will also produce more current. Axle
North Brushes South
The final way is to increase the number of loops in the coil of wire which, as
we saw earlier, also increases the amount of current in the wire. Current
One complete revolution of the coil is called a cycle. The number of
cycles (or revolutions) that occur each second is called the frequency. The
frequency is just a measure of how many times the voltage or current changes
Magnet
direction each second. Frequency is measured in units called Hertz. One hertz
equals one cycle (or revolution) per second. The electric current in most
Figure 7
American homes has a frequency of 60 hertz.

Motors
A generator converts mechanical motion into electric current. A motor converts electric current into mechanical
motion. However, the three parts of a motor are the same as those in a generator: (1) a stationary magnet; (2) a coil, called an
armature that is free to rotate between the poles of the magnet; and, (3) a device called a commutator, which changes the
direction of the current in the armature.

Physics is FUNdamental 77
 First, a current is passed through the armature, making it an electromagnet. The armature turns until its poles are next
to the opposite poles of the magnet. The armature would stop turning (due to the magnetic attraction between the opposing
poles) if the direction of the current in the armature were not reversed. The timing is such that the current reverses itself just as
the N pole of the armature is next to the S pole of the magnet. The N pole of the armature now becomes an S pole (due to the
change in direction of the current), and is repelled by the S pole of the magnet. Due to the repulsion, the armature makes another
half-turn until its two poles are again next to the opposite poles on the magnet. The process then repeats itself until the current
is turned off.

Physics is FUNdamental 78
 MAGNETISM
Self-Evaluation
Test 101

1. 10,1 Materials that can be magnetized are called:

A. ferromagnetic •
B. domains
C. conductors
D. insulators
E. hertz

2. 10,1 Which of the following indicates the measurement of frequency for voltage or current?
A. ferromagnetic
B. domain
C. conductor
D. insulator
E. hertz •

3. 10,2 Which one of the following sets of materials contain the most nonmagnetic materials?
A. silver, gold, copper, brass •
B. iron, nickel, zinc, aluminum
C. carbon, zinc, cobalt, lead
D. copper, zinc, aluminum, iron
E. brass, iron, nickel, cobalt

4. 10,2 Which of the following sets of materials contain the most magnetic materials?
A. silver, gold, copper, brass
B. steel, iron, nickel, cobalt •
C. carbon, zinc, cobalt, lead
D. copper, zinc, aluminum, iron
E. iron, nickel, zinc, aluminum

5. 10,3 Which of the following best indicates the Law of Magnetism?

A. Like charges attract and unlike charges repel
B. Like poles attract and unlike poles repel
C. Unlike charges attract and like charges repel
D. Unlike poles attract and like poles repel •
E. Unlike poles attract and like charges repel

6. 10,3 Which of the following statements is correct about the Earth’s magnetic field?
A. The north pole, of a magnet/compass, points to the north magnetic pole of the Earth.
B. The Earth’s north geographic and north magnetic poles are near one another.
C. The north pole, of a magnet/compass, points to the south magnetic pole of the Earth. •
D. The north of a compass needle points north because the compass needle’s end, pointing north, is actually the
south end of a magnet.
E. The Earth’s magnetic field is caused by mineral deposits in the crust of the Earth.

Physics is FUNdamental 79
7. 10,4 Identify the correct geometry, or shape, of the magnetic field surrounding a single magnet.
A. B. C. • D. E.

8. 10,4 Identify the geometry, or shape, of the magnetic field surrounding two unlike magnets.
A. B. C. D. E.•

9. 10,5 Which one of the following models represents a non-magnetic material?

A. B. C. D. E.
•

10. 08,5 Which one of the following models represents a magnetic material?

A. B. C. D. E.
•
11. 10,6 The magnetic lines of force near a current carrying wire are:
A. straight lines parallel to the wire
B. straight lines perpendicular to the wire
C. circular in a plane, perpendicular to the wire •
D. circular in a plane parallel to the wire

Physics is FUNdamental 80
12. 10,6 Magnetic fields are produced by:
A. motion of an electric charge •
B. static electric charge
C. free electrons moving in magnetic fields
D. photon motion

13. 10,7 A generator produces electrical current by:

A. heating water and burning it into steam which is used to make electricity
B. moving a coil of copper wire through a magnetic field •
C. using fuel oil or some other source of energy
D. using Ohm's law
E. none of the above

14. 10,7 Moving a copper wire through a magnetic field produces:

A. positive charge
B. ions
C. flow of electrons •
D. an electrolyte

15. 08,8 Which of the following explains why the force of a magnet decreases with distance?
A. ferromagnetism decreases with distance
B. dipoles decrease with distance
C. lower frequency at greater distance
D. inverse square law •
E. flow of electrons decreases with distance

16. 10,8 If a magnet has a strength of 32 Newtons at 1 meter what is the force at 4 meters?
A. 1 Newton
B. 2 Newtons •
C. 3 Newtons
D. 4 Newtons
E. 5 Newtons

17. 10,9 Which of the following is/are needed for an electric motor to work?
A. armature
B. commutator
C. magnet
D. conductor
E. all of the above •

18. 10,9 Which of the following occurs in an electric motor works?

A. reverse square law
B. switching the flow of electric current in a magnetic field •
C. flow of electrons in ferromagnetic conductors
D. dipole insulators in magnetic poles with free electron movement
E. all of the above

Self Evaluation Answers

Physics is FUNdamental 81
Physics is FUNdamental 82
 ELECTROMAGNETISM and L I G H T
Topic 11

Objectives

1. Given the following list of terms, identify each term's correct definition. Conversely, given the definition, identify the
correct term.
concave lens, convex lens, diffusion, electromagnetic radiation, electromagnetic waves, focal length, gamma rays, index
of refraction, light, normal, opaque, optical medium, principal focus, radiant energy, reflection, refraction, translucent,
transparent
2. Identify the electromagnetic spectrum in order, including: gamma rays, x-rays, ultra-violet, optical (violet, indigo, blue,
green, yellow, orange, red), infrared, radio waves, electric waves.
3. Given various features of the surface of the Earth, identify and rank their absorption of radiant energy.
4. Given a situation concerning reflection, (like diffusion or curved mirrors), describe the situation, applying the Law of
Reflection.
5. Sketch and describe in terms of the three Laws of Refraction any situation involving refraction, i.e., eyeglasses, convex
or concave lenses, microscopes, telescopes.

INTRODUCTION

Light and The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Light is a form of energy known as radiant energy. Light tells us many things about our environment. An object that
light can pass through unchanged is referred to as transparent. An object that light can pass through but the image is unclear is
referred to as translucent; and one that light cannot pass through is referred to as opaque.
Light travels outward in straight lines in all directions from a source. Since light waves radiate both electrical and
magnetic fields around themselves, they are called electromagnetic waves. From our study of atomic structure, we know that
electrons whirl around the positively-charged nucleus in various orbits or energy levels. The greater the energy of the electron,
the farther it can move from the attracting force of the positively-charged nucleus. When light energy is added to an atom, for
example, the atom becomes "excited", and some of its electrons absorb enough energy to jump to a higher level, moving them
farther away from the nucleus. If no further energy is added, these electrons return to their former energy levels, and their
potential energy is converted to radiant energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation.

There are four properties of electromagnetic radiation which we will deal with:
1. Speed of 3 x 108 meters per second or 186,000 miles per second through a vacuum.
2. Electromagnetic radiation generates both electric and magnetic fields.
3. Electromagnetic radiation can transfer energy through a vacuum.
4. Electromagnetic radiation energy can be converted to other forms of energy through absorption by matter.

Physics is FUNdamental 83
The electromagnetic spectrum would look like this:

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Frequency, Hz
10 0 10 2 10 4 10 6 10 8 10 10 10 12 10 14 10 16 10 18 10 20 10 22 10 24 10 26 10 28 10 30 10 32 10 34

ac power Microwaves Gamma Rays

AM FM, T.V. Cosmic rays
Infrared x-rays
Radio Ultraviolet

10 10 10 8
10 6 10 4 10 2 10 0 10 -2 10 -4 10 -6 10 -8 10-10 10-12 10 -14 10 -16 10-18 10 -20 10-22 10 -24 10 -26
Wavelength, m

Visible Spectrum
Infrared Red Orange Green Blue Violet Ultraviolet
Wavelength
700 nm 600 nm 500 nm 400 nm

Y
e
Absorption
l
Space is cold because there is very little matter to absorb the radiant energy of sunlight. Our Earth and the matter on it
are heated as the radiant energy of the sun strikes it and causes the speed of the matter's molecules to increase. Three-fourths
l to the sun's rays are highly uniform. The surfaces of the
of the Earth is covered by oceans, and the water surfaces they present
continents and islands, on the other hand, are far from uniform. The surface may be barren, as on a mountain top or in a sand
o the nature of the Earth's surface affect the absorption of
desert. Or it may be covered by grasses, jungles, or forests. How does
radiation and the conservation of this energy to heat energy?

You will conduct an investigation to compare different surfacewcolors to determine their absorption and radiation of heat
energy. An incandescent light bulb will be used as a "sun". This “sun” will shine on the surfaces of three cans - one a white,
one gray, and the other a dull black. The air temperature inside each can will be observed at regular intervals while the cans are
in the artificial "sun", and as the cans cool off, without the "sun".

Reflection
When a light beam hits a highly polished surface such as a mirror, it will
bounce off, or be reflected from the surface. Two angles are created by this No rma l
light beam, with each angle measured from the normal. The first angle is made
by the incoming beam and the normal, and is called the angle of incidence, < i. angle o f angle o f
The second angle is formed when the beam bounces off the smooth surface, and incidence r ef le ction
is made by the outgoing beam and the normal. This second angle is called the
angle of reflection, <r.

Law of Reflection
The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection (<i = <r). This has
been determined to hold true, regardless of the medium which the light Sm ooth Ref le cting Sur fa ce
travels, or the nature of the light used (red, green, etc.).

Application
To determine how a ray of light is reflected as it strikes a smooth reflecting surface follow these steps.
1. Draw a normal at the point the light ray touches the smooth surface.
2. Measure the angle of incidence- the angle between the normal and the light ray.
3. The angle of reflection will occur at an angle equal to the angle of incidence. Measure off an angle from the normal equal
to the angle of incidence. This will be the reflected ray.

Physics is FUNdamental 84
Refraction
The speed of light in a vacuum is approximately 3 x 10 8 meters per second. The speed of light varies, however, if we
vary the material (medium) through which it travels. If the speed of light is less in one substance than in another, the first
substance is said to be an optically denser medium. A light ray will bend when it enters a medium, with a different optical
density, at an angle. This bending of light is known as refraction, which results from the difference in the speed of the light.
The degree to which the light bends is dependent upon the index of refraction of the medium through which the light passes.

The index of refraction of a pure, transparent substance is a constant quantity, and is a definite physical property of that
substance. Consequently, the identity of a substance can be determined by measuring its index of refraction. A refractometer
is an instrument used to measure the index of refraction of substances quickly and accurately. For example, butterfat and
margarine have different indexes of refraction. One of the tests done to determine whether butter has been adulterated with
margarine is the measurement of its index of refraction. The extremely high index of refraction provides us with one of the most
positive tests for the identification of a diamond. The facts about refraction of light may be summarized in three "Laws of
Refraction"

Laws of Refraction
First Law:
The incoming ray, the refracted ray, and the normal will all be in the same plane. (A normal is an imaginary line which
runs perpendicular to the surface at the point at which the incoming and refracted rays come together.)

Second Law:
The index of refraction is constant for any medium.

Third Law:
• A ray of light passing from one optical medium to another on the normal will not be bent.
• A ray of light passes from a medium of lesser optical density (light travels fast) to one of greater optical density (light
travels slow, will be bent toward the normal. (FST)
• A ray of light passes from a medium of greater optical density (light travels slow) to a medium of lesser optical density
(light travels fast), will be bent away from the normal. (SFA)

Application: Normal
To determine how a ray of light is refracted as it passes from one optical medium Light Ray
to a different optical medium follow these three steps.
Air – Less Dense
Air
1. Determine the position of the normal. (See first law.)
2. Determine where the ray of light would have gone if the medium through
which the light passed had not changed. 2
3. Determine whether the ray is bent away from, or towards the normal. (See
third law.)
Air
3
NOTE: In the example air has less optical density than glass. The light ray is passing
from a medium of lesser optical density to one of greater optical density.
Glass – More Dense
Therefore, the light ray will bend towards the normal. Air

A lens is a piece of glass (or any other transparent material) with two curved surfaces, or with one curved and one flat
surface. A convex lens is a lens which is thicker in the middle than at its edges. Refraction through such a lens causes parallel
light rays to converge (meet) at a point called the principal focus. A concave lens is thinner in the middle than at its edges, and
causes light rays to diverge, or spread apart. A magnifying glass is a double convex lens. It can concentrate light rays to such a
degree that they can burn a hole in paper, or cause a fire.

The lens of your eye is a double convex lens which focuses an image on the retina of the eye. If a person is farsighted,
the eyeball is too short from front to back, and the point of focus will fall behind the retina. Such people can see only distant
objects clearly. Glasses with convex lenses are used to correct farsightedness. If a person's eyeball is too long from front to
back, the point of focus will be in front of the retina, and the person will be nearsighted, meaning that only close objects can be
seen clearly. Concave lenses are used to correct nearsightedness.

Physics is FUNdamental 85
 Optical instruments depend upon lenses of specific focal lengths and adequate light sources for their operation. The focal
length is the distance from the lens to the principal focus, the point where rays converge. The ordinary light microscope is used
to investigate tiny structures, such as cells and bacteria, which would be otherwise invisible to the unaided eye. This instrument
uses a combination of convex lenses. The telescope also uses convex lenses to bring distant objects into view. There are two
types of astronomical telescopes used to investigate the heavens: 1) the refracting telescope, which uses two convex lenses and
2) the reflecting telescope, which uses mirrors to collect and direct light rays to a single lens. In the following activity, you will
collect and direct light rays to a single lens, and you will make devices that will allow you to understand the affects various
optical materials have on light.

Physics is FUNdamental 86
 ELECTROMAGNETISM and L I G H T
Self-Evaluation
TEST 111

Directions: Select the best answer.

1. 11,1 Wave energy which affects changes in the structures of atoms and molecules is called:
A. radiation
B. kinetic energy
C. radiant energy •
D. electrolytic energy

2. 11,1 A lens that is thicker in the center than on the edges is called:
A. refraction
B. concave
C. convex •
D. plano

3. 11,2 Which of these groups of wavelengths is in proper order from shortest to longest?
A. red light, gamma ray, ultraviolet, radio waves
B. gamma ray, radio waves, red light, ultraviolet
C. gamma ray, ultraviolet, red light, radio waves •
D. none of the above

4. 11,2 Wave energy which moves at a rate of 186,000 miles per second, and which has wavelengths between .0000385 mm
and .0000765 mm. is called:
A. sound
B. light •
C. magnetism
D. electricity

5. 11,3 Which of the following surfaces will absorb light energy least easily?
A. water
B. grass lands
C. snow •
D. a plowed field

6. 11,3 Which of the following surfaces will absorb light energy most easily?
A. water
B. grass lands
C. snow
D. a plowed field •

7. 11,4 According to the Law of Reflection, which one of the reflected rays of light are drawn correctly?

A B C D E
•

Physics is FUNdamental 87
8. 11,4 According to the Law of Reflection, which one of the reflected rays of light are drawn correctly?

A B C D E

9. 11,5 Which one of the following drawings demonstrates the "Laws of Refraction" for the indicated situation?

Glass

Air Air Air Air

Glass
A B C D
•
10. 11,5 Which one of the following drawings demonstrates the "Laws of Refraction" for the indicated situation?

Ai r

Water Water Water Water

Ai r
A B C D

Self Evaluation Answers

Physics is FUNdamental 88
 COLOR
Topic 12

Objectives

1. Given the following list of terms, you will identify each term's correct definition. Conversely, given the definition, you
will identify the correct term.
blue, color addition, color subtraction, complementary colors, constructive interference, cyan, diffraction grating,
green, light, magenta, primary colors of light, prism, red, secondary colors of light, spectroscope, spectrum, yellow

2. Identify two ways to produce a spectrum, the colors of the spectrum in order of wavelength, and the primary colors.
3. Identify the colors produced by mixing colored lights using color addition.
4. Identify the colors produced by movement of color using color addition.
5. Identify the colors produced by color spacing using color addition.

6. Identify the colors produced by overlapping secondary and or primary filters using color subtraction.
7. Given the color of a colored light, identify the color of an object produced by absorption of light using color subtraction.
8. Given any two secondary and/or primary colored pigments identify the color resulting from their mixture using color
subtraction.
9. Identify or explain how we perceive color produced by a Benham Disk.

INTRODUCTION

From childhood onward we enjoy the richness of color in the world around us. We are fascinated by the questions: "How
do we see color? Why do colors sometimes mix to give quite different colors? What does it mean to say that a tomato is red?
Is color part of the tomato in the same way as shape?" Color can be explained by understanding that color is dependent upon
the physical properties of the light energy reaching our eyes and how our brain processes that information.

How We See Color

The function of our eyes is to bring information from the outside world into our brain. If you look around a room you
see things: furniture, pictures, tables, objects, and shadows. Sometimes it is hard to realize that the things you see are really
pictures inside your head; parts of images formed by the brain and eye.

To form these pictures, your eyes receive light that reflects from the objects around you. Your brain and eye work
together to process the information carried by this light to create an internal image of what is outside. This internal image of
the outside world is not complete and your brain fills in this incomplete internal picture. We are hardly ever aware of the
idiosyncrasies of our own vision.

Your eye lets in only a very small amount of light into its interior. The light
enters through the clear cornea, enters through the pupil, and then passes through the Cornea

lens to finally focus on the retina. There are light-sensitive cells in the retina which Retina
Pupil
Lens
send nerve impulses to the brain, which in turn interpret these impulses to create our
internal image of the world. Iris

The retina is a thin layer of light-sensitive cells at the back of the eyes. These
cells, called cones and rods are responsive to incoming light. Rods function in dim

Physics is FUNdamental 89
 light and are stimulated by motion and differences in lightness and darkness. You can see an object out of the corner of your
eye before you can distinguish its color. Cones function in bright light and are responsive to color. Some cones are sensitive to
green, others to red and some to blue.

The Spectrum
From earliest times the rainbow had delighted and puzzled observers. People invented myths to explain the beautiful arc
of multicolored light that appeared after the rain. But a scientific answer to the puzzle of the rainbow did not come until the
17th century. Isaac Newton directed a small beam of sunlight into a darkened room through a prism. The beam produced a band
of colors just like the rainbow, ranging from red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet. He then passed each of these colors
through other prisms and found that certain colors could not be further subdivided. But when he passed the whole band of
colored light through a prism in reverse position, the colored band became sunlight again. From this he reasoned that white
light is really a mixture of colored lights, and that each color is bent by a different amount when it passes through the prism.
This difference in bending enables each color to stand out separately and be visible. The band of colored lights thus formed is
called a spectrum. The rainbow is actually a spectrum, formed by sunlight passing through raindrops.
Separating light into its colors is accomplished by refraction (bending) of light in the prism. Each of the colors has a
specific wavelength. The wavelength determines how much each color will bend. Red bends the least and violet the most.
Scientists use the prism in a device called a spectroscope. The spectroscope reveals that the spectral pattern of light is different
for various types of light sources. Light from the sun, from certain lamp filaments, and from molten metals produce a spectrum
that has all colors in an unbroken array. Such a pattern is called a continuous spectrum. Incandescent gases give off only certain
colors, in fine lines. Their spectra are called bright-line spectra. Scientists have obtained spectra corresponding to the different
elements and have measured and charted every line. When they wish to learn the composition of a star, they photograph its
spectrum and then check the lines against these charts for the elements.
In the late 19th century the theory that light travels in the form of electromagnetic waves won acceptance. Waves are
described by speed, wavelength, and frequency. In a given medium, such as air or a vacuum, all light waves travel at the same
speed, but they differ in wavelength and frequency. Wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional to each other due to
the observation that the longer the wavelength the lower the frequency. For the visible light spectrum, scientists commonly
specify only the wavelength.
Each color is associated with a range of wavelengths. The name green or red does not apply to just one color. A wide
segment of the spectrum contains colors that are called green. These include blue-green, apple green, and chartreuse, as well
as many intermediate greens. Another wide segment contains colors that are called red. Colors of nearly the same wavelength
look exactly alike to the human eye.
The colors of the spectrum range, in order, from violet, through blue, green, yellow, and orange, to red. The wavelengths
of violet are the shortest, ranging from 380 to about 450 nanometers. (A nanometer is one billionth of a meter long.)
Wavelengths of red are the longest, ranging from about 630 to 760 nanometers. Wavelengths shorter than those of violet are
called ultraviolet radiation; wavelengths longer than those of red are infrared radiation. "Black" is the absence of color.
Colors can be observed in nature as specifics wavelengths of light or can be produced by three fundamental processes
that can allow us to see most of the colors of the spectrum. These three processes are Color Addition, Color Subtraction and
Color Perception.

Physics is FUNdamental 90
Color Addition
There are three ways to produce color through color addition: 1) Addition or mixing of different colors of light (2)
Movement of two or more different colors rapidly and 3) Color Spacing using small dots of different colors placed near one
another.

Mixing of Colored Lights

Newton discovered that by mixing two differently colored rays of light he could produce other colors. When he projected
light beams from different prisms onto a white background, he found that sometimes the new color looked like one of the
other colors of the spectrum. Red and yellow, for example, could be mixed to look like the orange of the spectrum. He found
that almost all colors can be made by three beams of differently colored light. The greatest number of different colors can be
produced when a combination of one of the reds, a green, and a blue are used. For this reason red, green, and deep blue are
called the primaries for additive color mixing. You will develop the Color Addition facts that will allow you to predict the
color produced when the primary colors are mixed.

Complementary Colors
When only two of the additive primaries are mixed in a certain amount, the resulting color is called the complementary
color, or complement, of the third additive primary. When red and green light beams are mixed, the resulting color is yellow,
the complementary color of blue. A mixture of red and blue makes a purplish color called magenta, the complement of green.
And green and blue mixed together form cyan, the complement of red. In other words whatever color is missing to produce
white is the complementary color.

Rapid Movement of Colors

An object can be produced with exhibits two or more colors. If this object is moved rapidly the colors will appear to
blend and appear to the viewer as though there is only one color on the object. This color that one observes can be predicted
using the rules of Color Addition.

Color Spacing
One can use small dots of color to construct a picture or to cover some surface. From a distance these dots seem to blend
together and appear as one color to our eyes. Postimpressionist painters used a method of painting called pointillism. They
painted tiny dots of pure spectrum colors next to one another so that light reflected by one dot would combine with light
reflected by a second dot in an additive mixture. One of the most famous paintings of this school is Georges Seurat's `Sunday
Afternoon on the Island of the Grande Jatte'. This technique is also used to produce a picture on our television. The color
that is observed can be predicted using the rules of Color Addition.

Color Subtraction
Absorption
When light strikes an object, it may be transmitted, absorbed, or reflected. A windowpane, for example, transmits almost
all the light that strikes it. Since it does not change the light, the pane looks colorless, or clear. A black colored object, on the
other hand, absorbs almost all the light that strikes it and therefore--since blackness is the absence of light-- looks dull and
black. A plaster wall both reflects and absorbs light. If the wall is white, it reflects almost all the light that falls on it. The
yellowish color of light from an electric lamp changes most colors, but our eyes tend to see the colors unchanged. By looking
at colored objects under pure colors of light or through colored filters we see a pronounced change. In very dim light colored
objects appear gray. Under red light, red appears red but green and blue appear black. Under blue light, blue objects appear
blue while red and green objects appear black. Under green light, green appears normal, but red and blue appear black. The
color that is observed can be predicted using the rules of Color Subtraction, which will be developed in the laboratory.

Filters
Sometimes a substance absorbs some but not all the colors that reach it. For example, a red tomato absorbs all
wavelengths but those of red, which, after bouncing from molecule to molecule within the top layers of the tomato, are
redirected outward. When blue light (which does not contain red wavelengths) shines on a tomato, the blue wavelengths are
absorbed and the tomato looks black because no red light is reflected.
Transparent red objects such as red cellophane, red plastic, or red glass absorb all wavelengths but red ones, which they
partly transmit and partly reflect. Such transparent objects are called color filters because when white light strikes them they
filter out all colors except their own, which can pass through them easily.
Color filters are the basis of subtractive color mixing, just as colored beams of light are the basis of additive mixing.
Subtractive color mixing is a complicated procedure because the different dye molecules in two different filters may produce

Physics is FUNdamental 91
 the same color sensation yet absorb different wavelengths of light. The description of subtractive color mixing that follows
assumes that ideal filters are used.
When a beam of white light strikes a yellow filter, the wavelengths that make up yellow can pass through the filter while
all other wavelengths are absorbed. Since yellow is a mixture of green and red light, the wavelengths of those colors pass
through, but the wavelengths of blue--the complement of yellow--are absorbed. A yellow filter is sometimes called minus-
blue, since it can filter out blue light. Similarly, a magenta filter allows wavelengths of red and blue to pass but absorbs
wavelengths of its complement, green. For this reason, magenta is sometimes called minus-green.
If a yellow filter (minus-blue) is placed on top of a magenta filter (minus-green) and a beam of white light is passed
through them, the yellow filter absorbs blue, the magenta filter absorbs green, and only red light emerges.
A cyan filter (minus-red) absorbs its complement, red. If a yellow, a cyan, and a magenta filter are aligned in front of a
beam of white light, all three of the additive primaries are absorbed and no light emerges. This is called subtractive color
mixing because the filters absorb, or subtract, color from a beam of light. The color that is observed using one or more filters
can be predicted using the rules of Color Subtraction.

Pigments
Pigments are chemicals that have the ability absorb certain colors and reflect others. Because of their widespread use to
color our homes, cars, clothes, and in general our world we will investigate them as a specific form of Color Subtraction.
Mixtures of Paint usually exhibit the complex behavior of subtractive mixing. A mixture of yellow and cyan watercolors
produces green.
Colors produced by the subtraction of wavelengths, or filtering, often occur in nature. The reds and oranges of a sunset
are caused by the filtering action of the sky. The sky scatters light of short wavelengths, such as blue. At midday, when the
sun is overhead, the scattered blue light does not have to travel through very much air to reach a viewer. The sky looks blue
because a great deal of blue light is reflected from it. But, at sunset the light must travel through much more air on its way
to Earth. The blue is soon scattered, and only the colors of longer wavelengths--combined to appear orange and red--can be
seen.

Perception of Colors
The perceived color of an object depends both on the color of the light that shines on it, the colors absorbed by the dyes
in the paper and certain other factors. When light reflected from an object enters a human eye, it passes through the cornea, the
pupil, and the lens and lands on the retina. The interpretation of this information allows us to perceive our environment. When
this information can be interpreted in more than one way it may be perceived incorrectly and visual illusions may arise. As we
collect and process information it is extremely important to understand how we perceive images as well as how color will
influence our perception of our environment.
Benham Disks
The Benham disk is a black and white pattern that when spun rapidly seems to produce color.
Benham's disk was invented by a nineteenth-century toy maker who noticed colors in a black and white
pattern he had mounted on a top. What is perceived is a result of the eye-brain system intercepting
intermittent patterns of black and white light entering the eye. The best explanation involves the
properties of the three types of cone cells found in the eye. Each cone type responds mainly to light
from a different region of the spectrum. When white light shines in the eye, all three cone types respond
equally. After white light stops entering the eye, all cones turn "off" but not immediately and not at
exactly the same time. One type turns off a little sooner, and another turns off a little later. Thus, when
you look at the spinning Benham disk, white light intermittently enters your eye. This makes the cones
"turn off" and "turn on" at different times causing your eye-brain system to receive different responses
from the three types of cones. This stimulation of the cones is perceived by the brain as color.

Afterimages
Perhaps the best-known visual affect that shows how our eyes perceive color is the afterimage. When people watch a
motion picture, they are actually observing a series of rapidly projected still pictures. During the very short interval between
pictures, a person retains an image of the preceding picture. This image blends into that of the following picture, giving an
impression of continuous motion. The retained image is called a positive afterimage.
Persistence of vision in the absence of a physical stimulus occurs if people look at a patch of one color for about 30
seconds and then look at a blank sheet of white or gray paper. They will probably see a patch of color that is the complement
of the original color. This is called a negative afterimage.

Physics is FUNdamental 92
 COLOR
Self-Evaluation
Test 121
Directions: Select the best answer.

1. 12,1 The process of combining two different colors of light to produce a third is called?
A. Primary colors of light
B. Secondary colors of light
C. Constructive interference
D. Color Addition •

2. 12,1 The color red, green and blue are called?

A. Colors of the spectrum
B. Primary colors of light •
C. Complementary colors
D. Secondary colors of light

3. 12,2 The colors produced by a diffraction grating in order of increasing wavelength, is:
A. Green, Yellow, Orange, Violet, Blue, Indigo, Red
B. Indigo, Blue, Green, Red, Yellow, Orange, Violet
C. Black
D. Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red •
E. White

4. 12,2 The wavelength of light determines?

A. How long it takes the eye to focus on a color
B. The color the eye perceives •
C. Color subtraction ability
D. The likelihood of color movement

5. 12,3 The colors yellow, magenta and cyan are called?

A. Primary colors of light
B. Secondary colors of light •
C. Complementary colors
D. Colors of the spectrum

6. 12,3 The process of mixing together two primary colors and creating a secondary color is called?
A. Color addition of light •
B. Color addition through movement
C. Color addition through spacing
D. Constructive Interference

7. 12,4 If the color blue is placed next to the color green on a wheel, what color will you see when it is moving fast.
A. Red
B. Blue
C. Green
D. Yellow
E. Cyan •
E+A Magenta
E+B White
E+C Black

Physics is FUNdamental 93
8. 12,4 If the color green is placed next to the color red on a wheel, what color will you see when it is moving fast?
A. Red
B. Blue
C. Green
D. Yellow •
E. Cyan
E+A Magenta
E+B White
E+C Black

9. 12,5 If a small dot of the color green is placed next to a small dot of the color blue, in the Sunday comics what color will
you see?
A. Red
B. Blue
C. Green
D. Cyan •
E. Yellow
E+A Magenta
E+B White
E+C Black

10. 12,5 If a small dot of the color blue is placed next to a small dot of the color red, in the Sunday comics what color will
you see?
A. Red
B. Blue
C. Green
D. Yellow
E. Cyan
E+A Magenta •
E+B White
E+C Black

11. 12,6 What are the color(s) that are subtracted when using a green colored filter on white light?
A. Red
B. Blue
C. Green
D. Red and Blue •
E. Red and Green
E+A. Green and Blue
E+B. Yellow
E+C. Cyan

12. 12,6 What color(s) will be observed when magenta and green colored filters are overlapped in white light?
A. Red
B. Blue
C. Green
D. Cyan
E. Magenta
E+A. Yellow
E+B. Black •
E+C. White

Physics is FUNdamental 94
13. 12,7 Using a cyan light shone on blue will be observed as which of the following colors?
A. Red
B. Blue •
C. Green
D. Cyan
E. Magenta
E+A. Yellow
E+B. Black
E+C. White

14. 12,7 Using a cyan light shone on red will be observed as which of the following colors?
A. Red
B. Blue
C. Green
D. Cyan
E. Magenta
E+A. Yellow
E+B. Black •
E+C. White

15. 12,8 Using two colors, yellow and red pigments what is the resulting color?
A. Red •
B. Blue
C. Green
D. Cyan
E. Magenta
E+A. Yellow
E+B. Black
E+C. White

16. 12,8 Using two colors, magenta and blue pigments what is the resulting color?
A. Red
B. Blue •
C. Green
D. Cyan
E. Magenta
E+A. Yellow
E+B. Black

17. 12,9 When no light (black) shines in the eye, how do cell cones respond?
A. Only one cell cone is stimulated
B. All cones are stimulated
C. Two of the three cone types are stimulated
D. None of the cones are stimulated •

18. 12,9 Benham disk produces?

A. A 3-D affect using red and blue filters
B. A laser light show
C. Tiny little lines
D. Colors from black and white •
E. Violet lines Self Evaluation Answers

Physics is FUNdamental 95
Physics is FUNdamental 96
 SELF EVALUATION ANSWERS

Topic 01 - Measurement Topic 07 Heat

1. B 2. B 3. B 1. C 2. A 3. E
4. D 5. E 6. C 4. D 5. C 6. A
7. E 8. A 9. E 7. D 8. C
10. C 11. E 12. D
13. A 14. C 15. B Topic 08 –Waves & Sound
16. C 17. A 18. B
1. C 2. B 3. C
4. D 5. A 6. D
Topic 02 - Experimental Models 7. A 8. C 9. C
1. A 2. A 3. A 10. D 11. C 12. C
4. A 5. B 6. B
7. A 8. B 9. E Topic 09 - Electricity
10. E
1. E 2. C 3. D
Topic 03 - Structure of Matter 4. C 5. D 6. C
1. B 2. C 3. C 7. B 8. A 9. E
4. C 5. A 6. A 10. B 11. B 12. A
7. C 8. C 9. C 13. D 14. B
10. B 11. B 12. C
13. B 14. D 15. A
16. B 17. A 18. D Topic 10 - Magnetism
19. C 20. D 1. A 2. E 3. A
4. B 5. D 6. C
7. C 8. A 9. A
Topic 04 - Motion 10. E 11. C 12. A
1. B 2. D 3.prelab prep 13. B 14. C 15. D
4. D 5. B 6.prelab prep 16. B 17. E 18. B
7.prelab pr 8. B 9.prelab prep
10.prelab prep
Topic 11 - Light
1. C 2. C 3. C
Topic 05 – Forces & Simple Machines 4. B 5. C 6. D
1. A 2. C 3. A 7. D 8. E 9. D
4.. C 5. B 6. C+E 10. B
7. B 8. D 9. B
10. A 11. B 12. C
13. A 14. B 15. A Topic 12 - Color
16. A 17. A 18. E 1. D 2. B 3. D
19. D 20. C 4. B 5. B 6. A
7. E 8. D 9. D
10. E+A 11. D 12. E+B
Topic 06 - Energy 13. B 14. E+B 15. A
1. B 2. E 3. E+A 16. B 17. D 18. D
4. A 5. A 6. C
7. C 8. D 9. D
10. E 11. B 12. C
13. A 14. B 15. A
16. E 17. A 18. D
19.E 20. D
Return to Table of Contents

Physics is FUNdamental 97
Physics is FUNdamental 98
 Return to Cover

GLOSSARY
Absorber - A body which takes another substance into itself by means of the process of absorption.

Absorption - The process of taking a substance into itself, as water is taken up by a sponge, or as food is taken up and used by
the body.

Acceleration - The change in the speed of an object, divided by the time it takes to affect such a change.

Acceleration of Gravity - The acceleration of a body as it falls freely at the surface of the Earth (about 9.8 m/s2 or 32 ft/s2).

Acids - A compound which contains hydrogen. In a water solution, forms no positive ions except H +ions. Have a sour taste.

Activation Energy - The energy barrier that must be overcome in order to allow a chemical reaction to proceed.

Activity Series - A listing of elements based on their chemical reactivity with other elements. The elements are listed in sequence
from high reactivity to low reactivity.

Actual Effort - The force which is actually applied to a simple machine to produce work.

Actual Mechanical Advantage - The ratio of the force that performs useful work (output of the simple machine) to the force
applied to the machine (input by you).

Alpha Particle (Alpha Ray) - A helium nucleus. A heavy, positively-charged particle emitted during a type of radioactive decay
known as alpha decay.

Alternating Current (A.C.)- An electric current that reverses its direction regularly and continuously.

Ampere - A unit of electric current which corresponds to the passage of one coulomb of electric charge per second.

Amplitude - Applied to waves or an object undergoing oscillatory motion, the distance between the middle and outer positions.
In the case of a pendulum, it is the angular distance measured between the vertical, and the point of release of the pendulum.

Anode - The positive plate in an electrolyte system; the plate where oxidation takes place, and where electrons are lost.

Armature - The rotating coils of wire in a motor or a generator.

Atom - The smallest division of an element. An atom of an element has the properties special to that element, and is able to take
part in chemical reactions.

Atomic Number - A number assigned to each element indicating the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom of that element.
Elements are placed in the order of the increasing number of charges in their nuclei, starting with H as 1.

Atomic Weight - The mass of an atom of an element, measured in relation to that of an atom of Carbon, C, which is fixed at
12.

Average - A number which typifies a set of numbers. Average = ( x1 + x2 +. . . +xn) / n

Average Speed - The ratio which expresses the total distance traveled, and the total time taken to travel such distance.

Axis - 1. A real or imaginary line on which an object rotates. 2. A line used in constructing a graph. The units for the variables
are plotted along the axis.

Blue - One of the three primary colors of light.

Physics is FUNdamental 97
Background Count - The amount of natural radioactivity present at a given location. If an experiment is being done to measure
the radioactivity of some object ( i.e. the number of "decays" per minute), the background count must be subtracted from
the measurement in order to arrive at a true value.

Base - A compound containing the hydroxyl group, which, when dissolved in water, forms no negative ions except OH - ions.
Has a bitter taste, and leaves the hands with a slippery feeling.

Beam - A group of rays radiating out in the same direction.

Beta Particle (Beta Ray)- A particle emitted from a nucleus during the type of radioactive decay known as beta decay; now
known to be an electron or a positron.
Black - The absence of color.

Boiling Point - The temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the atmospheric pressure, causing the liquid
to boil.

Calorie - A unit of heat energy, originally defined as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1
degree centigrade; one calorie equals 4.18 Joules.

Calorimeter - An apparatus for measuring amounts of heat in physical or chemical experiments.

Catalyst - A substance that changes the speed of a reaction without being itself permanently changed.

Cathode - The negative plate in an electrolytic system; the plate at which electrons are taken up and where reduction takes place.

Celsius- A temperature scale on which the boiling point of water, under standard atmospheric pressure, is 100 oC and the freezing
point is 0oC.

Centi - A prefix denoting one hundredth of a unit in the metric system. ( 1 cm = 0.01 m)

Chain Reaction - A series of chemical reactions in which the products of each reaction activates additional molecules of the
reactants, thus causing new reactions.

Chemical - Any substance as used in chemistry or produced by a process of chemistry.

Chemical Change - The formation of new kinds of molecules from the atoms of other molecules.

Chemical Precipitate - A solid that separates from a solution in a chemical reaction.

Cloud Chamber - A vessel containing saturated water vapor whose sudden expansion reveals the passage of an ionizing particle
by a trail of visible droplets.

Color - Any hue or tint as distinguished from white.

Commutator - A part of a motor that changes the direction of the current in an armature.

Complementary Colors - Any color of light that when added to another produces white light

Compound - A pure, homogenous substance consisting of atoms of two or more different elements in definite proportions, and
usually having properties unlike those of its constituent elements.

Concave Lens - A lens with its two opposite faces concave, so that it is thinner in the middle than at the edges. It has a negative
focal length and causes incident parallel rays to diverge after passing through it.

Condensation - To make denser or compact; reduce the volume of. To join with other atoms in the same or different molecules
so as to form a new compound.

Conduction - The transfer of heat from one molecule to another as they collide.

Conductivity - Quality or power of conducting something (take from one place to another).

Physics is FUNdamental 98
Conductor - A substance through which an electric charge can easily travel. Metals usually make the best conductors.

Constant Acceleration - Acceleration which is unchanging and is therefore uniform. You should note, that under these conditions
speed would be increasing if the acceleration is positive and decreasing if it is negative.

Conservation of Energy - The principle that energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can be changed from one form of energy
to another.

Constant Speed - Speed which is unchanging.

Constructive Interference - The addition of two waves in such a way as to alter the original amplitude of the waves and produce
a wave with greater amplitude. In the case of light, to produce a brighter color, with sound, to produce louder sound.

Convex Lens - A lens with two opposite faces curved out so that it is thicker in the middle than at the sides. It has a positive
focal length and causes incident parallel rays to converge after passing through it.

Covalent Bond - A chemical bond formed by shared electrons.

Convection - The transfer of heat from one region to another by molecular currents.

Covalence - A type of bonding resulting from the sharing of pairs of electrons between atoms.

Current Electricity - The flow of electric charge through a conductor.

Cyan - A secondary color of light made up of the two primary colors of light, green and blue.

Data - All the measurements recorded during an experiment.

Deci - Prefix denoting one-tenth in the metric system.

Decibel - One-tenth of a bel. A unit which compares levels of power. Often used to express sound intensities.

Density - The mass per unit volume of a substance.

Dependent Variable - A variable whose values are determined by one or more other independent variables.

Destructive Interference - The addition of two sound or light waves in such a way to alter the original frequency and wavelength.
In the case of light, to produce a different color, with sound, to produce less sound.

Dielectric - A substance (such as mica and most plastics) that is a poor conductor of electric current. .

Diffraction Grating - A flat glass or plastic plate covered with a great number of parallel lines very close together. By sending
a narrow band of light through it, diffraction spectra are produced.

Diffusion - Occurs when light bounces off an irregular surface.

Dipoles - Magnetic poles, of equal magnitude, but of opposite polarity.

Direct Current (D.C.) - An electric current flowing in one direction.

Disintegration - A process in which the nucleus of an atom emits one or more particles or photons, either due to spontaneous
radioactivity or as the result of collision.

Dissociation - The separation of the ions of an electrovalent compound by the actions of a solvent.

Dissolves - Go, put or take into solution.

Distance - The length between two points located on the same plane.

Domains - Any of numerous contiguous regions in ferromagnetic material in which the direction of spontaneous magnetization
is uniform and different from that of neighboring regions.

Physics is FUNdamental 99
Doppler Effect - The variation in frequency or pitch of sound waves created by the relative motion of the listener and the source.
The principle also applies to electromagnetic waves emitted from a source moving relative to an observer.

Ductility - Ability of metals and alloys to retain strength and freedom from cracks when shape is altered.

Effort - An applied force.

Electricity - Pertaining to the movement or buildup of electrons.

Electrical Conductivity - Ratio of current density to applied electrical current.

Electric Field - The space occupied by electric lines of force. The space around a charged particle in which an electric force is
exerted.

Electrolyte - A compound whose water solution conducts electric current.

Electromagnetic - Science of the properties of and relations between magnetism and electricity.

Electromagnetic Radiation - Any radiation made up of electromagnetic waves. A general name for Hertzian Waves, Gamma
Rays, X-Rays, light, Ultra Violet, Infra-Red and radio waves.

Electromagnetic Waves - A wave made up of an electric field, at right angles to a magnetic field. The two fields move at the
same rate in a direction at right angles to their plane.

Electromotive Series of Metals - The metals ranked in the order of the amount of electrical energy between the metal and a
normal solution of any of its salts in which it is placed.

Electrons - The negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus of an atom.

Electrovalent - The state in which the outer rings of an atom are complete (have the necessary electrons).

Elements - Any of those substances which are not able to be broken up chemically into simpler substances and of which all other
substances are made.

Endothermic - A chemical reaction which absorbs heat leaving the surround material with less energy.

Energy - Is the property something has that enables it to do work. Energy has the same units of work. Some forms of energy
are kinetic energy, potential energy, heat energy, chemical energy, electrical energy, radiation energy, light energy and
magnetic energy.

Energy Conversion - Converting or transforming from one energy form to another energy form, i.e. sunlight to heat or electricity.

Error - The difference between the theoretical and the experimental value.

Equilibrium - A condition of balance. The condition in a reversible reaction or process when the two opposite processes are
going on at the same rate so that there is no further change in the amounts of the two substances or phases.

Evaporation - Process by which a liquid or solid changes to a vapor, with or without boiling.

Exothermic - A chemical reaction which produces heat and increases the energy content of the surrounding material.

Fahrenheit - A temperature scale on which the boiling point of water, under standard atmospheric pressure, is 212oF and the
freezing point is 32oF.

Farsightedness - Not being able to see objects within a close distance of the eyes. Objects far away are distinguishable.

Ferromagnetic - Any material which exhibits the ability to become magnetized. Magnetic materials are Nickel, Cobalt, Iron
and various alloys.

Focal Length - The distance from the focus to the surface of a mirror or from the focus to the middle of a lens.

Physics is FUNdamental 100

Focus - The point where light rays come together to form an image.

Force - A push or pull. Equal in magnitude to the product of the mass of the moving object and the acceleration resulting from
the push or pull.

Frequency - The number of revolutions, rotations or vibrations per second.

Friction - The resistance to motion.

Fuel - Any material which may be used to obtain energy, usually by the evolution of heat.

Fulcrum - The point or support on which a lever turns.

Fuse - A device used for protecting electrical apparatus against excess current. It consists of a piece of metal (which is connected
in the circuit to be protected) which melts and interrupts the circuit when an excess of current flows through it.

Gamma Ray - A high-frequency, very penetrating electromagnetic wave emitted during radioactive discharge.

Gas - A substance whose physical state is such that it always occupies the whole space in which it is contained.

Generator - A device, which produces electrical power, by passing a coil of wire through a magnetic field.

Gram - A unit used to measure the mass of an object.

Gravity - One of the four fundamental forces in nature. The force of attraction between an object and the Earth which causes the
object to fall toward the center of the Earth.

Green - One of the three primary colors of light.

Group - Each large vertical column in the Periodic Table.

Half-Life - The time it takes for half the number of atoms in a radioactive sample to disintegrate.

Heat - A form of energy. The heat that a body possesses depends upon its temperature, its mass and the kind of material from
which it is composed.

Heat of Formation - The quantity of heat absorbed when one molecule of a compound is formed from its elements in their
normal state.

Hertz - A unit of frequency equivalent to cycles per second and abbreviated as Hz.

Heterogeneous - A substance whose constituent particles exhibit different properties.

Homogeneous - A substance whose constituent particles are alike.

Horsepower - The rate at which work is being done or energy is being expended (1hp = 746 watts).

Hypothesis - An educated guess that answers a scientific question..

Ideal Effort - The breakeven point at which the same amount of work is being input as is being output.

Ideal Mechanical Advantage - The ratio of force that performs useful work to the force applied to the machine.

Illumination - Intensity of light per unit of area.

Impact - The sudden sensation of movement by an object against another object.

Impulse - Occurs when there is a change in momentum. Momentum = mass x velocity.

Physics is FUNdamental 101

Inclined Plane - A flat surface raised between 1 degree and 89 degrees that is classified as one of the simple machines.

Independent Variable - A variable whose values can be determined without using other dependent variables. The value(s) in
an experimental situation that are not allowed to vary.

Indicators - A substance used to show by means of a color change whether an acid or base is present.

Inert - Possessing little tendency to undergo chemical change.

Inertia - The tendency of matter to resist a change in motion. If at rest, to remain at rest, or if moving, to keep moving in the
same direction.

Inorganic - Refers to the chemistry of all elements of mineral origin which do not contain carbon compounds.

Insoluble - Not capable of forming a solution. It is a relative term since most substances have been shown to dissolve in water
to some extent.

Insulator - A substance in which it is difficult (but not impossible) to establish an electric current.

Intensity - In electricity the force on a unit charge at a given point in an electric field; in light the brightness of a light and in
sound the amount of energy in each wave.

Interference - The use of two or more waves of different frequencies added to or subtracted from each other to cancel or amplify
the wave. Can be used with sound or color, to explain sound harmonics or secondary colors.

Inverse Square Law - The law governing the relationship between light intensity and source distance.

Ion - An atom or group of atoms which carries an electric charge.

Ionic Bond - The electrostatic force of attraction that holds two or more ions together.

Isotope - One of two or more elements having the same atomic number and the same chemical behavior but is/are different in
atomic weight and in properties, such as radioactivity, dependent on the weight of, or the number of, neutrons in the nucleus.

Joule - The unit used to measure work or energy in the metric system. The force of 1 Newton acting through a distance of 1
meter.

Kelvin - Temperature equal to 1/273.16 of the absolute temperature of the triple point of water.

Kilo - Prefix denoting 1000 in the metric system.

Kepler - German Astronomer and mathematician.

Kilocalorie - The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water one degree centigrade.

Kinetic Energy - The energy which a moving body has because of its motion. The kinetic energy depends on the mass of the
body and the rate at which it is moving.

Law - A scientific generalization whose correctness has been clearly demonstrated.

Lever - A rigid object that transmits or modifies force or motion; one of the simple machines.

Light - The form of radiant energy whose affect on the eye is the cause of seeing. Light moves at a rate of 186,326 miles per
second or 3 x 108 meters per second, and has wavelengths that are between .0000385 mm and .0000765 mm.

Linear Motion - Motion occurring in a straight line.

Liquid - A substance which, unlike a solid, flows readily, but which, unlike gas, doesn't tend to expand indefinitely.

Liter - A unit of capacity in the metric system equal to the volume of a kilogram of distilled water at 4 degrees centigrade; it is
equal to approximately 1.06 quarts.

Physics is FUNdamental 102

Litmus - An indicator which turns from blue to red in an acid, or from red to blue in a base.

Longitudinal Wave - A wave in which the motions of the relevant particles are in the same direction as the direction of
translation of energy.

Loudness - Power of a sound as judged by the ear, measured in decibels.

Luminous - Emitted radiant energy. Glowing or capable of being seen.

Magenta - One of the secondary colors of light made up of the two primary colors of light, red and blue.

Magnet - An object that demonstrates magnetic properties.

Magnetic Declination - The difference between the north magnetic pole and the geographic North Pole of the Earth.

Magnetic Field - The space occupied by magnetic lines of force. The space around a magnet in which a magnetic force is
exerted.

Magnetism - The property of having the power of attraction for iron, cobalt and nickel and attraction of its opposite for substances
like itself.

Mass - A fundamental characteristic of matter which causes an object to occupy space and attract other bodies that have mass.
A measure of the total amount of material in a body.

Matter - The substance of which a physical object is composed.

Measurement - A figure, extent or amount obtained by measuring.

Mechanical - Of or pertaining to machines or tools. Pertaining to, produced by, or dominated by physical forces.

Medium - A substance with which another is mixed to give it the physical properties desired for some purpose.

Melting Point - The temperature at which a solid is transformed into a liquid.

Meniscus - The curved upper surface of a liquid column that is concave when the containing walls are wetted by the liquid and
convex when not.

Meter - The basic unit of length in the metric system; it is approximately equal to 39.38 inches.

Metric System - A system of measurement based on powers of ten, using the meter, kilogram and second as basic units.

Milli - One thousandth of a unit in the metric system.

Mixture - Two or more substances having their parts completely mixed but not chemically united into a new substance.

Molecule - The smallest subdivision of a chemical element or compound which has the same physical and chemical properties
as the element or compound; a structure of two or more atoms.

Momentum - A property an object possess due to its motion. The momentum of an object produces an impact when a moving
object strikes an object at rest. The momentum is equal to the object's mass multiplied by its velocity.

Nearsightedness - The inability to clearly distinguish objects that are far away.

Neutralization - The union of hydrogen ions of an acid with hydroxide ions of a base to form water and a salt.

Neutron - A nuclear particle having a slightly greater mass than a proton, but having no electric charge.

Newton - A unit used to measure force or weight in the metric system. (1 N = 1 kg - m/s2).

Newton, Sir Isaac - English mathematician and philosopher who formulated the Laws of Gravity and Motion.

Physics is FUNdamental 103

Nodes - Points of no vibration. Points where two interacting waves cancel one another.

Nonconductor - A substance that conducts heat, electricity or sound only in a very small degree.

Non-Pure Substance - A compound or mixture, which has not been broken down to its most elemental structure.

Normal - A hypothetical line drawn perpendicular to a surface. Used to determine the angle of reflection or refraction.

North Pole - A magnetic force produced by a magnet, so as to form an attraction to the opposite end of another magnet, said to
be the South Pole.

North Celestial Pole - The northern point about which the celestial sphere appears to rotate.

Nuclear - 1. Anything associated with the nucleus of an atom. 2. The type of energy released when atomic nuclei undergo fission
or fusion.

Nucleus - The central part of the atom. The fundamental particles of which are the protons and neutrons and constitutes almost
all of the mass of an atom.

Observation - 1. An act of recognizing and noting a fact or occurrence. An observation often involves measurement with
instruments. 2. A judgment of inference from what one has observed.

Ohm - A unit of electrical resistance.

Opaque - Any material which does not transmit light through it.

Optical - pertaining to or using light.

Optical Medium - The substance through which light travels.

Organic - 1. To do with living substance or living things. 2. Those materials containing carbon.

Oscillation - A single back and forth swing of a pendulum.

Parallel - Being an equal distance apart at every point.

Pendulum - A device consisting of weight or a "bob" swinging on the end of a string or wire.

Percent Efficiency - The ratio of work against the amount effort.

Percent of Error - Allows one experimenter to compare their results to another experimenters results on a common basis.
%error = (error x 100) / theoretical value.

Period - 1. Chemistry: On the periodic table, a period is a horizontal series of elements (Group I through Group VIII) related by
physical structure. 2. The amount of time for one oscillation of a pendulum.

Phenolphthalein - An indicator which is colorless in acid solution, but is red in basic solutions.

Phydrion - Measures the amount of acid or base. On the phydrion scale, one indicates an acid, fourteen indicates a base, with
seven being neutral.

Physical Change - Any change in a body or structure which does not involve an alteration in its chemical composition.

Pitch - That property of a tone which is dependent on the second pressure but chiefly on the number of vibrations per second of
the sound waves, the greater this number, the higher the pitch.

Polarization - The act of canceling out one or more planes of vibration of a transverse wave.

Poles - The part of the magnet, towards which the lines of magnetic flux apparently converge or from which they diverge, the
former being called a South Pole, the latter a North Pole.

Physics is FUNdamental 104

Potential Energy - The stored energy that an object possesses because of its position relative to other bodies or due to the
arrangements of its parts.

Power - The rate of doing work. Power is commonly measured in watts and horsepower.

Prediction - Through the use of observation, being able to work out the eventual outcome.

Primary Colors of Light - The fundamental colors in the electromagnetic spectrum, of RED, BLUE and GREEN.

Principal Focus - For a lens or spherical mirror, the point at which rays of light parallel to the principal axis are made to come
together.

Prism - A body having parallel and equal three-sided ends and 3 plane sides, 2 of them making equal angles with the third; used
for the refraction or reflection of light rays.

Protons - The positively charged particles found in the nucleus of an atom.

Pulley - A wheel or set of wheels which are used, in combination with ropes, to decrease the amount of work or to move a mass
a given distance.

Pure Substance - A material which has been broken down to its most elemental form.

Quantitative - Able to be measured or numbered.

Radiation - The transfer of energy through space by means of waves.

Radioactive Materials - Any material which has been affected by intense radiation and emits rays or particles capable of
penetrating matter.

Radiant Energy - Energy transported or given out in the form of electromagnetic waves.

Radical - Two or more atoms joined together, but acting as a single atom.

Radioactivity - The emission of energetic particles and radiant energy by an unstable atomic nuclei.

Ray - A single line representing the direction in which light or radiant energy is traveling.

Real Images - An image that can be projected and viewed on a screen.

Red - One of the three primary colors of light.

Reflection - Occurs when a wave bounces off a surface; light is reflected by a mirror, sound by a wall.

Refraction - The bending of light caused by a change in the speed of light as it leaves one medium and enters another.

Resistance - The opposition to movement offered by a substance or object. Such as electricity through a conductor or an object
to be moved by a simple machine.

Resonance - The effect caused when sound waves from one object (such as a bell) cause a second object to be set into vibration
also. The second body must have the same natural frequency of vibration as the first body for this to occur.

Retina - The back wall of the eyeball in back-boned animals, which is acted on by light and on which pictures of things seen are
formed.

Salt - A compound whose water solution contains a positive ion other than hydrogen ions, and a negative ion other than hydroxide
ion.

Scientific Method - A step by step process used for solving problems.

Physics is FUNdamental 105

Screw - An inclined plane wrapped around a cone. One of the six simple machines.

Secondary Colors of Light - Comprised of the three secondary colors cyan, magenta, and yellow.

Shells or Orbits - Any of the paths traveled by an electron as it circles the nucleus of an atom. The shells are pictured as spheres,
one inside the other and named, starting with the one nearest the nucleus, K-shell, L-shell, M-shell, etc. Every shell has a
maximum number of electrons and a fixed amount of energy.

Solid - Material that has a definite volume and shape no matter where it is placed; that is, it resists deformation.

Solute - That substance in a solution whose physical condition is changed into that of another or which is present in smaller
amounts, so that it is looked on as being taken in by the other, e.g. in a solution of salt and H 2O, water is the solvent and
salt the solute.

Solution - A mixed substance in which the molecules or ions of one substance have undergone regular distribution among those
of the other so that there is no longer any physical sign that two separate substances are present.

Solvent - The substance in a solution which is present in greater amounts than the other.

Sound - The sense experience of which the ear or some like structure is the instrument.

South Pole - A magnetic force produced by a magnet, so as to form an attraction to the opposite end of another magnet, said to
be the North Pole.

Specific Gravity - The relation of the weight of a given measure of a substance to the weight of the same measure of water at 4°
C.

Specific Heat - The quantity of heat, per gram, required to raise the temperature of a substance by one degree celcius.

Spectroscope - An instrument for viewing sources of light and forming separate individual colors or spectra.

Spectrum - The full range of colors in a rainbow. Each "color" is comprised of many lines or bands of light, each with a particular
wavelength.

Speed - The rate of movement or motion.

Stable Element - An element not readily decomposed.

Static Electricity - Electricity at rest.

Structural Formula - A chemical formula which in addition to showing the atoms present in a molecule, also gives an indication
of its structure.
Temperature - 1. The degree of hotness or coldness of anything, usually measured on a thermometer. 2. A measure of the internal
energy of a substance.

Theory - A theory is a logical structure built on several fundamental generalizations that explain a wide variety of phenomena.

Thermal Expansion - Expansion in solids, liquids, and gases due to the addition of heat.

Thermal Transfer - The transfer of heat energy from one material to another through the processes of conduction, convection,
and radiation.

Time - The period between two events, or during which something exists, happens or acts. The shortest period of time being a
moment

Tone - A sound produced by one regular vibration of the air at a fixed rate.

Translucent - Any material which allows passage of light, but not a clear image.

Transmit Light - To give out or give forth light.

Physics is FUNdamental 106

Transmutation - A change of one thing into another.

Transparent - Clear, see-through, able to see an identifiable image.

Vacuum - A region of space containing no matter whatsoever.

Valence - The tendency of elements to form compounds; a number indicating a charge on an ion or the number of pairs of
electrons shared by one element with another; the bonding in a compound.

Velocity - The distance traveled divided by the time of travel.

Virtual Image - An image that cannot be projected onto a screen to be viewed.

Vibration - A shaking motion, one complete back and forth movement.

Volatile - Changing readily to a vapor.

Volt - A unit used to measure the difference in potential between two points on a conducting wire or in an electric field. It is
associated with the change in potential energy of a charged particle as it moves from one point to another.

Voltage - An electromotive force or difference in electrical potential expressed in volts.

Volume - The amount of space occupied by a body.

Watt - The unit of power used in the metric system. (energy / time)

Wave Form - A graphable line which forms a peak and valley.

Wavelength - The distance between two successive crests or valleys of a wave.

Wedge- One of the six simple machines based upon the inclined plane. Examples include a device used for splitting logs, a
needle or a knife blade.

Weight - The force exerted on an object by the gravitational pull of the Earth.

Wheel and Axle - One of the six simple machines consisting of a wheel fused to an axle so they move as a single unit.

Work - Is accomplished when an object is moved as a result of the application of a force.

work = force x distance.

X-ray - High frequency electromagnetic waves produced whenever fast electrons are brought to rest quickly.

Yellow - One of the three secondary colors of light produced by red and green.

Physics is FUNdamental 107

 Return to Table of Contents

Formula
Have a print out of this to use for exams and quizzes.

Measurement
x1 + x2 + x3 + -----------xn
average = –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Density = mass/volume
n
Error = |Experimental value – Theoretical value | T°F = (9/5x T°C) + 32

100 x Error T°C = (T°F - 32) x 5/9

% Error = –––––––––––––
Theoretical value
Motion
speed: v = d / t
acceleration: a = (vfinal - vinitial) / time
momentum: p = m x v
Kinetic Energy: KE = ½ m x v2
Forces/Simple Machines
Force: F = m x a
Weight: w = m x 9.8
Ideal Mechanical Advantage: IMA = DE / DR
Ideal Effort: IE = R / IMA
Actual Mechanical Advantage: AMA = R / E
Energy
Potential energy: PE = m x 9.8 x h
Kinetic Energy: KE = 1/2 m x v2
Work: W = F x d
Power: P = W / t
Simple Machines: Work Output : WO = R x DR
Simple Machines: Work Input: WI = E x DE
Simple Machines: Percent efficiency: %E = (Work output / work input) x 100

Heat
T°F = (9/5x T°C) + 32
T°C = (T°F - 32) x 5/9
Heat Energy: H = m x ∆T x c
Specific Heat Capacity: c = H / (m x ∆T)
Thermal Expansion: ∆L = ∂ x L x ∆T
Thermal Energy Transfer: H = (k x ∆T x A x ∆t) / d
Sound
Speed of Sound: vT = 330 + (0.6 x T)
Speed of Sound: v = f x λ
Wavelength: = 4 x length
Distance from reflecting surface (echo): X = (vT x t) / 2

Electricity
Ohm's Law: = I x R
Power: P =  x I
Magnetism
Magnetic Force Strength: Force Strength (at point B) = force strength A x (distance to A)2 / (distance to B)2

Physics is FUNdamental 108

 Common Units
Have a print out of this to use for exams and quizzes.

BASE UNITS Length - METER Mass - GRAM Volume - LITER Temperature – CELSIUS Time = SECONDS
(m) (g) (L) (°C) (s)

PREFIXES kilo - one thousand hecto - one hundred deca - ten

deci - one tenth centi - one-hundredth milli - one-thousandth

RELATIONSHIPS
Value 1000 100 10 1 .1 .01 .001
Prefix Kilo Hecto Deca Base Unit Deci Centi Milli

LENGTH
1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters (m)
1 meter (m) = 100 centimeters (cm)
10 decimeters (dm) = 1 meter (m)
1 centimeter (cm) = 10 millimeters (mm)
1 micron = 10-4 centimeters (cm)
1 centimeter (cm) = 100,000,000 (1 x 108) Angstroms
1 inch (in) = 2.54 centimeters (cm) = 25.4 millimeters (mm)
1 mile (mi) = 1.61 kilometer (km)
1 meter (m) = 39.37 inches (in) = 3.281 feet (ft)

VOLUME
1 liter (l) = 1000 milliliters (mL)
1 cL = 10 milliliters (mL)
1 milliliter (mL) = 1 cubic centimeter (cc or cm 3) = .001 Liter (L)
1 quart (qt) = 2 pints (pt) = 0.25 gallons (gal) = 32 ounces (oz) = 0.946 liters (L) 1 cL = .01 L

MASS
1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams (g) or 100,000 (cg)
1 gram (g) = 1000 milligrams (mg)
1.0 g water = 1 milliliter of water, at Standard Temperature and Pressure
1 slug = 14.59 kg

FORCE
1 pound (lb) = 4.5 Newtons (N)
1 ton = 2000 pounds (lbs)

POWER
1 watt (W) = 1 joule / second (J/s)
1 horsepower (hp = 550 foot-pounds/second (ft lbs/s) = 746 watts (W)
1 Btu/h = 0.293 Watts (W)

TIME
1 minute (min) = 60 seconds (s)
1 hour (h) = 60 minutes (min) = 3600 seconds (s)

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Physics is FUNdamental 109