1.1.
Review of Related Literature
Gender identity is described as an individual’s self-conception as either a man, woman, a
combination of man and woman, someone fluctuating between man and woman or as someone
who does not fit into those categories altogether. It is different from actual biological sex—i.e,
male or female. For most people, gender identity and biological sex intertwine in the
conventional way. For a few individuals, however, experience little or no connection between
sex and gender at all. For example, biological sexual characteristics are dissimilar and clear, but
the affected person identifies with the gender commonly cognate with the opposite sex.
Traditional masculinity and femininity are often defined as relatively perpetual
characteristics involving the traits, demeanors, interests, and behaviors that have traditionally
been considered somewhat more distinct of women and men, respectively (Constantinople,
1973). It is significant to know the difference between gender identity from other gender-related
concepts such as gender roles which are described as the shared expectations of behavior given
one's gender. Forexample, gender roles might include women handling the domestic role while
men in the worker role (Eagly 1987). The concept of gender identity is also different from
gender stereotypes which are the shared perspectives of personality traits often connected to
one's gender such as instrumentality in men and expressiveness in women (Spence and
Helmreich 1978). Gender identity is disparate from gender attitudes that are the views of others
or situations typically associated with one's gender such as men thinking in terms of justice and
women thinking in terms of care (Gilligan 1982). Although gender roles, gender stereotypes and
gender attitudes all affect one's gender identity, they are not the same as gender identity (Katz
1986; Spence and Sawin 1985).
1.1.1. Gender Stereotypes
Gender stereotypes are defined as ideas about what men and women are typically like.
According to social role theory, gender stereotypes come from the issuance of men and women
into social roles both at work and in their homes (Eagly, 1987, 1997; Koenig and Eagly, 2014).
There has always been a division of labor based on gender, and it has existed both in simple
societies and in complex societies (Wood and Eagly, 2012). Gender stereotypes can also be used
to characterize oneself (Bem, 1974). The method of self-stereotyping can sway people’s
identities in directions that may correspond with certain stereotypes.
Stereotyped characteristics can also be incorporated into becoming a part of a person’s
gender identity – a critical aspect of the self-concept (Ruble and Martin, 1998; Wood and Eagly,
2015). Children learn about gender stereotypes from the media and environment they grew up
with. There they learn how to behave in gender-appropriate ways (Deaux and LaFrance, 1998).
These early socialization experiences continue to show influence in the later parts of their lives.
Research has supported the idea that the way in which men and women self-characterize
themselves vary in ways that are stereotype-consistent (Bem, 1974; Spence and Buckner, 2000).
1.1.2. Heteronormativity
Heteronormativity has been defined as the constrained conformance with culturally determined
heterosexual roles and assumptions about heterosexuality as normal or natural and defines the
boundaries of acceptable or normal heterosexuality. This phenomenon has been used as a driving
force fundamental social pressures to accord to socially passable gender roles and sexual
behavior (e.g., Rich, 1980; Tolman, 2006; Warner, 1991). We might cogitate heteronormative
attitudes and beliefs as an imperative foundation for prejudice and discrimination against sexual
minorities. However, this construct has not yet been fully elaborated or definitively measured in
quantitative psychological literature.
A similar concept of heteronormativity is heterosexism. This term has been used to
describe both a larger cultural context that stigmatizes and disconfirms full sexual minorities and
also individual beliefs and behaves that mirror cultural heterosexism. Herek (1990) defines the
two levels of heterosexism, and Peel (2001) explains how heterosexism is often understood to
accomplish the cultural or institutionalized prejudice experienced by sexual minorities. Peel’s
work as well as other recent publications (Balsam et al. 2011) offers insights regarding the
everyday challenges and microaggressions faced by non heterosexual people, most of which may
be due to cultural ideologies that normalize heterosexuality (heteronormativity) and disrepute
non heterosexuality (heterosexism).
