CHAPTER III

HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS IN WHICH SOCIAL

CONSIDERATIONS CHANGED THE COURSE OFSCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

LEARNING OUTCOMES
a. To know the transitions of technology
b. To determine the different transition and its importance.
c. To appreciate the transition of technology that helps in da to day living.

1.2 How Science and Technology Are for giving life to trees and other vegetation and creating
Society a verdant landscape. This can be compared to the
accumulation of scientific knowledge and the
Section 1.1 explained that the key to future continuing search for truth, obtained through basic
progress for mankind lies in the realization of research, and perhaps demonstrates that science has
“science and technology for society, and in intrinsic value in itself. Meanwhile, the rainwater
society.” In Section 1.2, the current state of science stored in the forest bubbles out from springs and
and technology, and the issues confronting it, are flows downhill in a steadily widening stream. A
examined from the viewpoint of “science and single stream flow can separate into a large number
technology for society.” of sub-flows, and sometimes the flow can go
underground into a subterranean network. This
1.2.1 Contributing to Society through situation can be compared to the diversity of
research and development that can arise based on
Knowledge Creation and Utilization scientific knowledge, leading to the planting of
various new technological seeds. Eventually, the
Scientific and technological activities refers to river reaches farming communities and urban cities,
the elucidation of unknown phenomena, and to the where it is utilized for drinking water and other
creation of new knowledge through the discovery of household purposes, for agricultural or industrial
new natural laws and principles, and the new uses, and for various other needs, universally
knowledge obtained is then utilized in the real benefiting all aspects of society. This is equivalent
society. The essence of how science and technology to research and development resulting in practical
contributes to society is the creation of new technologies that boost the prosperity of the
knowledge, and then utilization of that knowledge people’s society and lives, and to the utilization of
to boost the prosperity of human lives, and to solve science and technology in response to various
the various issues facing society. issues facing society. If the forest fails to capture a
With the shift to a knowledge-based society well sufficient amount of the falling rain, society will
underway in the opening years of the 21 st century, quickly be faced with drought and people will not
the creation of new knowledge is an increasingly be able to live. In the same way, realization of
important aspect of scientific and technological societal progress through science and technology
activities, and the role of science in this knowledge requires a sufficient accumulation of scientific
creation is important for the realization of “science knowledge. In other words, science can be
and technology for society.” considered to be the foundation strength of society.
The relationship between science and technology However, this foundation strength is not something
and society, can be described by the example of that can be acquired in a single day or night, but
rain falling on a mountain. Rain that has fallen on a instead requires a steady, continuous build-up
mountain does not immediately wash away (Figure 1-2-1).
downhill. First, it is captured and stored by forests,
 Figure 1-2-1 Relationship between science and technology and society

This section looks at science as the foundation with a focus on the natural sciences.
for realizing “science and technology for society,”

1.2.1.1 Science’s Contribution to utilization in society became prevalent after around

Human Civilization 1850, which is when a chemical industry began to
develop based on utilization of knowledge about
(Societal Significance of Science) chemistry, and electrical technologies arose based
Where technology has developed in close on knowledge about electromagnetism.
relationship to the convenience and prosperity of Nevertheless, science has moved away from
human life since before the advent of recorded being the business of the intellectual world, with
history, science originated from natural philosophy scientific results now pioneering the frontiers of
and was supported by people’s intellectual human activities in terms of both space and time,
curiosity. The main objective of science has been and expanding the potential of human activities.
elucidation of how nature is put together and Science also has become a major influence on
operates, and it has developed as a separate entity people’s sense of values, changing the nature of
from technology. Of course, while technological society and becoming the engine driving society’s
progress was backed up by various scientific progress from the viewpoint of civilization.
advances, this does not mean that scientific research
was conducted for the purpose of developing new (Scientific Progress Has Changed the
technologies, rather, scientific knowledge was Nature of Society, and Its Sense of
utilized only because it was available. In fact, it was Values)
more common for new technologies to be While there are probably no end of examples of
developed in order to pursue scientific research. scientific progress having a major effect on
After the Industrial Revolution, the separate people’s sense of values, and changing the nature
paths taken by science and technology began to of society itself, the following is an introduction to
move closer together. Significantly, the concept of just a few of the more famous examples.
linking scientific results to technology for The centennial anniversary to one of the most
amazing years in history (the “Miracle Year” of quantitative evidence of continental drift due to a
1905) is fast approaching, when Albert Einstein, spreading sea floor. This discovery completely
one of the premier scientists of the 20 th century, altered people’s “sense of the Earth.”
issued in rapid succession a theory of the photon, a In the life sciences, meanwhile, as seen by such
theory of Brownian motion, and the Special Theory advances as the Theory of Evolution proposed by
of Relativity, all of which served to overthrow the Charles Robert Darwin in the 19th century, which
then-prevailing views of physics. Einstein’s Theory
greatly changed people’s “sense of nature,” “sense
of Relativity became the foundations for all later of humanity,” and “sense of society,” there are
physics, contributing greatly to progress in various
many examples of discoveries going far beyond the
fields of science. At the same time, it altered world of science to affect the way people think in
people’s concepts of space and time, and had a
many sectors of society. The discovery in 1953 of
huge effect on philosophy and thought. the double helix structure of the DNA molecule by
In the field of astronomy, Nicolaus Copernicus James Watson and Francis Crick gave birth to an
developed a theory, later bolstered and refined by entirely new field of molecular biology. The result
Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei, that had a has been progressive elucidation of the structure of
great effect on the development and reform of living things at the molecular level and rapid
society, overthrowing Europe’s medieval sense of advances in the life sciences, including the
values and driving it into the modern age. In recent establishment of gene recombinant technology by
years, however, examples of such society-changing Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer in 1973, the birth
advances have become increasingly common. For of a cloned sheep, Dolly, in 1996, and completion
example, Edwin Hubble’s discovery in 1929 that in 2003 of the project to sequence the entire human
the universe was expanding led directly to the Big genome, conducted by the International Human
Bang theory of the origin of the universe (1946) by Genome Sequencing Consortium, a collaboration
George Gamow and others. In 1965, Arno Penzias of six countries including Japan, and five other
and Robert Wilson detected cosmic background North American and European countries. These
radiation pervading the universe, providing recent advances in the life sciences have greatly
powerful evidence for the Big Bang theory. These increased understanding of humans and other living
discoveries gave people a new “sense of the things, extending the frontiers of human activity,
universe.” Moreover, advances in space particularly in the medical field, and greatly
development have greatly expanded the space affecting people’s “sense of life” and “sense of
available for possible human activities, and opened ethics.” Furthermore, advances in brain research
up new frontiers for humanity where people can hint at the possibility of closing in on the human
dream. At the same time, images of Earth taken soul, and progress in that area will surely have a
from space have given people all over the world a large effect on people’s sense of values.
new “view of the Earth,” vividly revealing its
The IT revolution of recent years is the
beauty and irreplaceability. Furthermore, the
culmination of many developments in computer
revelation in 1974 by Sherwood Rowland and
technology, including the concept of the computing
Mario Molina that chlorofluorocarbon gases were
machine proposed by Alan Turing, and the
causing depletion of the ozone layer, followed in
invention of the transistor by William Shockley,
1985 by the discovery of an ozone hole, had a huge
John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain, as well as the
effect on efforts to protect the global environment.
advent of the Internet and other advances in
Alfred Wegener’s theory of continental drift, information and communications technology. The
announced in 1915, is widely accepted around the IT revolution, however, does not consist merely of
world today as the plate tectonics theory. At the the development of new products or improvement
time of its announcement, however, the mechanism of people’s convenience, but is also greatly
for continental drift was unknown, and the theory changing people’s modes of behavior and lifestyles,
attracted few supporters. In the 1950s and later, through the possibilities it has opened up for the
however, advances in sea floor monitoring people of the world to use cyberspace for
advanced the field of geophysics, and in the 1960s instantaneous exchange of information and
Frederick Vine and Drummond Mathews found opinions. The effects of the IT revolution have
changed the
nature of society in many dimensions, from the scientific discoveries as the discovery of fullerenes
education, medical and welfare, transport, finance, in 1984 by Harold Kroto and others.
and manufacturing sectors to modes of work and Elsewhere, the television has become a major
play. factor shaping our modern society, as the
Furthermore, advances in nanotechnology have communications medium with the greatest
made possible the elucidation and manipulation of influence. This device, as well, is the culmination of
phenomena at the atomic or molecular level, feats various scientific results over the years, beginning
that were previously considered impossible, and are with the invention of wireless communication by
now expanding the range of possible human Guglielmo Marconi in 1895, the invention of the
activities. Nanotechnology was launched by a Braun tube in 1897, the invention of the Yagi-Uda
lecture given in 1959 by Richard Feynman, titled antenna in 1925, and Kenjiro Takayanagi’s
“There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom,” and its successful transmission of an electronic image using
progress has been marked by advances in a Braun tube in 1926.
measurement technology, and supported by such
 Table 1-2-2 Footprints of science and technology in the 20th century

Year Inventions and discoveries related to science and technology Events in society surrounding science and technology
1901 ・First Nobel prize
Shibasaburo Kitasato (Japan) was one of the candidates for the prize for his research
into the tetanus bacillus
・ Invention of method for manufacture of adrenaline and procurement of patent
(Japan: Jokichi Takamine)
・ Successful wireless transmission across Atlantic Ocean (Italy: Guglielmo Marconi)
1902 ・Discovery of Z-term for latitude variation (Japan: Hisashi Kimura)
1903 ・Proposal of Saturnian model for the atom (Japan: Hantaro Nagaoka)
・First manned flight of powered aircraft (U.S.: Wright brothers)
1904 ・Invention of diode vacuum tube (UK: John Fleming) ・Russo-Japanese War
1905 ・Special Theory of Relativity (Switzerland: Albert Einstein)
1907 ・Invention of triode vacuum tube (U.S.: Lee de Forest)
1908 ・Establishment of ammonia synthesis (Germany) ・First sale of Model T Ford (U.S.)
1910 ・Discovery of Vitamin B1 (Oryzanin) (Japan: Umetaro Suzuki)
1911 ・Successful cultivation of syphilis pathogen (Japan (Hideyo Noguchi)
・Discovery of atomic nucleus (UK: Ernest Rutherford)
・Discover of superconductivity phenomenon (Netherlands: HK Onnes)
1913 ・Mass production of Ford automobiles (U.S.)
1914 ・World War I (until 1918)
・ Artificial inducement of cancer tumor (Japan: Katsusaburo Yamagiwa, Koichi Ichikawa)
1915

・General Theory of Relativity (Germany: Albert Einstein)

・Theory of continental drift (Germany: Alfred Wegener)
・ Establishment of Institute of Physical and Chemical Research (RIKEN)
1917 ・Invention of KS steel (Japan: Kotaro Honda) (Japan)
1920 ・World's first radio broadcast (U.S.)
1921 ・Discovery of insulin (Canada: Frederick Banting, Charles Best)
1922 ・Proposal of expanding universe model (Russia: Aleksandr Friedmann)
1925 ・Invention of Yagi-Uda antenna (Japan: Hidetsugu Yagi, Shintaro Uda)
1926 ・Proposal of wave equation (Austria: Erwin Schrodinger)
・Launch of first liquid-fueled rocket (U.S.: Robert Goddard)
・ Successful Braun tube reception of electronic signals (Japan: Kenjiro Takayanagi)
1927 ・Proposal of Uncertainty Principle (Germany: Werner Heisenberg) ・Japan's first subway opens for operation
1929 ・Discovery of penicillin (UK: Alexander Fleming)
・Observation of expanding universe (U.S.: Edwin Hubble)
1935 ・Proposal of mehon theory (Japan: Hideki Yukawa)
・ Isolation of crystal structure in tobacco mosaic virus (U.S.: Wendell M. Stanley)
・Invention of nylon synthetic textile (U.S.: Wallace Carothers)

1936 ・Theoretical computer model (UK: Alan Turing)

1937 ・Development of jet engine

(UK: Frank Whittle, Germany: Hans von Ohain)

1938 ・Discovery of uranium fission (Germany: Otto Hahn, Fritz Strassman)

・Discovery of DDT insecticide (Switzerland: Paul Mueller)

1939 ・World War II (until 1945)
・First flight of jet aircraft (Germany)
1941 ・First commercial television broadcasts (U.S.)
1942
・Successful nuclear fission chain reaction (U.S.: Enrico Fermi, et al) ・Manufacture of V-2 rocket (Germany: Werner von Braun)
1944
・Proof of DNA gene structure (U.S.: Oswald Avery)

・Discovery of streptomycin (U.S.: Selman Waxman)

1945 ・Manufacture of atomic bomb (U.S.)
・Bush Report (U.S.: Vannevar Bush)
1946
・ Development of ENIAC electronic computer (U.S.: John Mauchly, Presper Eckert)

・Big Bang Theory (U.S.: George Gamow)

・ Development of transistor (U.S.: William Shockley, John Bardeen, Walter Brattain)
1949 ・Hideki Yukawa winner of Nobel Prize for Physics
 Year Inventions and discoveries related to science and technology Events in society surrounding science and technology
1951 ・ First nuclear power generation (U.S.)

1953 ・Elucidation of DNA double helix

(U.S.: James W atson, UK: Francis Crick)
1954
・Discovery of interferon (virus inhibition factor) (Japan: Yasuichi Nagano, Yasuhiko
Kojima)

・World's first kidney transplant (U.S.)

Circa 1955 ・Pollution becomes a societal problem (Japan)
1957 ・First criticality in Japanese nuclear reactor
・Launch of Sputnik artificial satellite (USSR)
1959
・Invention of integrated circuit (IC) (U.S.: Jack Kilby)
1960
・First successful laser firing (U.S.: Ted Maiman)
1961 ・First manned space flight (USSR: Yuri Gagarin)
1963
・Proposal of theory of sea-floor spreading explains magnetic anomalies (UK: Fred
Vine, Drummond Mathews)

1964 ・Proposal of Quark Model (U.S.: Murray Gell-Mann, George Zweig) ・Tokai Shinkansen commences operations (Japan)
1965 ・Observation of universe background radiation (U.S.: Arno Penzias, Robert Wilson)
・Shinichiro Tomonaga wins Nobel prize for physics
1966 ・Commercially based nuclear power generation (Japan)
1967 ・Promulgation of Basic Law for Environmental Pollution Control
・Plate Tectonics Theory (UK: Dan McKenzie, U.S.: Jason Morgan) (Japan)

・First heart transplant operation (South Africa: Christiaan Barnard)

1969 ・Superlattice proposal (Japan: Reona Esaki) ・Apollo 11 lands on the Moon (U.S.)
1970 ・Launch of Ohsumi, Japan's first artificial satellite
Circa 1973 ・Oil shock (Japan)
1973 ・Establishment of gene recombinant technology (U.S.: Stanley Cohen, Herbert Boyer)
・Reona Esaki wins Nobel prize for physics
1974
・Indication that chlorofluorocarbon may be depleting ozone layer (U.S.: Sherwood
Rowland, Mario Molina)

1978 ・First in vitro insemination infant born (UK)

1979 ・Three Mile Island nuclear power plant accident (U.S.)
1981 ・Kenichi Fukui wins Nobel prize for chemistry ・First flight of the Space Shuttle (U.S.)
1983 ・Discovery of AIDS virus (France: Luc Montagnier, U.S.: Robert Gallo)
1984 ・Discovery of fullerenes (UK: Harold Kroto, et al)
circa 1985 ・Discovery of the ozone hole (Japan, UK, U.S.)
1986 ・Discovery of high-temperature superconductivity (Switzerland) ・Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident (USSR)

・Space Station Mir commences operations (USSR)

1987 ・Susumu Tonegawa wins Nobel prize for physiology and chemistry
1989 ・End of Cold War
1991 ・Discovery of carbon nanotubes (Japan: Sumio Iijima) ・Cellular phone service starts (Japan)
1992 ・Earth Summit
circa 1993 ・Announcement of Information Superhighway concept (U.S.)
・Explosive growth of Internet
1994
・Confirmation of top quark (U.S.: Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory) ・Launch of H-II rocket (Japan)

1995 ・Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake (Japan)

・Passage of the Science and Technology Basic Law (Japan)
1996 ・Birth of Dolly the cloned sheep (UK)
1997 ・Promulgation of Organ Transplant Law (Japan)
1998 ・Confirmation of mass in neutrino (Japan: Super Kamiokande) ・Assembly of International Space Station commences (Japan,
U.S., EU, Canada, Russia)

1999 ・World Conference on Science (Budapest)

・Japan's first organ transplant from brain-dead donor
・Criticality accident at uranium processing plant (Japan)
・Passage of Law concerning Regulation relating to Human Cloning
2000 ・Hideki Shirakawa wins Nobel prize for chemistry Techniques and Other Similar Techniques (Japan)
2001 ・Ryoji Noyori wins Nobel prize for chemistry
2002 ・Masatoshi Koshiba wins Nobel prize for physics ・Johannesburg Summit
・Koichi Tanaka wins Nobel prize for chemistry
2003 ・Sequencing of human genome completed (Japan, U.S., Europe)

Source: Prepared by MEXT

 [Column 1]

Who are we?

nt for a whole series of paintings exploring the theme of "the meaning of mankind's existence."
d the history of the evolution of life. Based on such researches, the period since the first appearance of life on Earth to the present day can be treated as equivalent

Birth of the Universe (13.7 billion years ago) －

Birth of the Earth (4.6 billion years ago) －
Appearance of life on the Earth (3.8 billion years ago) January 1
Oxygen appears in the atmosphere (2.0 billion years ago) July 2
Appearance of eukaryotic life (1.8 billion years ago) July 22
Appearance of multi-celled life (600 million years ago) November 4
Appearance of dinosaurs (250 million years ago) December 8
Appearance of mammals (200 million years ago) December 12
Appearance of primitive humans (1 million years ago) December 31, 9:40 p.m.
Appearance of civilization (20,000 years ago) December 31, 11:58 p.m.
The Industrial Revolution (200 years ago) December 31, 11:59 p.m., 58.4 sec.
Space Age begins (40 years ago) 0.3 seconds before the end of the year

Source: Prepared by Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, based on “Kagaku o Hagukumu” (Nurture science) by Reiko Kuro

(Science Supports Modern Civilization)

One more aspect of the contribution that science natural sciences are being increasingly awarded to
has made in the establishment of researchers from countries outside the core areas of
modern civilization has been the steady Western nations, and many people in countries
spread around the world of outside of Western Europe have accepted the
scientific thought as science culture of scientific thought and are contributing to
has the progress of the world’s science (Figures 1-2-3,
progressed. 1-2-4). It has often been said that “science knows
Modern science derived originally from certain no borders,” a saying that has never been truer than
sciences in one limited region, Western Europe, it is today.
where a culture of science developed. Yet while With the spread of modern science, of course, it
debates may exist regarding specific scientific remains important to maintain the diverse cultures
results, the sciences and scientific thought are and traditions intrinsic to local areas, and achieving
today widely accepted in many countries around harmony between the two will no doubt be an
the world. The history of the worldwide spread of important issue in the future.
modern science has varied sharply by country and
region, and was often fraught with dissension or
friction. Today, however, Nobel prizes in the
 (People)
200 195
1.2 times9.8 times
160 138
119
120

80
14 times 6 times
40
20 14
1 1 6
0

Europe North America Asia, Africa Oceania, other

1901 to 1945 1946 to 2003

Fig.1-2-3 Trends in Nobel prizewinners (natural sciences) by region
Source: Prepared by MEXT

Table 1-2-4 Nobel prizewinners from Asia (natural sciences)

Sector Year Name of prizewinner Country of origin

Physics prize 1930 C.V. Raman India
1949 Hideki Yukawa Japan
1957 C.N. Yang, T.D. Lee China
1965 Shinichiro Tomonaga Japan
1973 Reona Esaki Japan
1976 Samuel C.C. Ting U.S.A. (Note)
1979 Abdus Salam Pakistan
1983 S. Chandrasekhar India
1997 Steven Chu China
1998 Daniel C. Tsui China
2002 Masatoshi Koshiba Japan
Chemistry prize 1981 Kenichi Fukui Japan
1986 Yuan T. Lee Taiwan
2000 Hideki Shirakawa Japan
2001 Ryoji Noyori Japan
2002 Koichi Tanaka Japan
Physiology or 1968 Har Gobind Khorana India
Medicine prize 1987 Susumu Tonegawa Japan

Note: While born in the United States, his parents were Chinese citizens. Source:
Prepared by MEXT
(Promotion of Basic Research from the In the “Public Opinion Poll on Science and
Viewpoints of Culture and Civilization) Technology and Society (February 2004),” about
As can be seen from the foregoing, science and 70% of respondents reacted positively to the
technology in modern society is not limited to the statement that “scientific research is essential in the
technological aspects of a tool for making life more sense that it brings new knowledge to humanity,” a
prosperous and convenient. Rather, in its scientific result that appeared to show that most people in
aspect, it forms the foundation for how world’s Japan recognize the importance of this scientific
people think and for the nature of society. aspect of science and technology (Figure 1-2-5).
Don't know 10.4
Don't agree
Somewhat don't 4.8 Agree
agree 36.6
9.1

Cannot say
either way
7.3

Somewhat
agree
31.8

Figure 1-2-5 Scientific research is essential in the sense that it brings new knowledge to
Humanity

Note: Response to the question "Do you agree with the opinion that 'scientific research is essential in the sense that it brings new
knowledge to humanity'?
Source: Cabinet Office. "Public Opinion Poll on Science and Technology and Society (February 2004)"

In Japan, it is important that basic research for

the creation of new scientific knowledge is actively
1.2.1.2 Realization of a Prosperous
promoted, and emphasis placed on the Society through the Utilization of
accumulation and continuation of Japan’s Scientific and Technological Results
knowledge resources, so that the nation can
contribute to the advance of international society (Practical Value of Science)
overall from the viewpoints of culture and Scientific results are linked to the development
civilization. of new products and new technologies, and
On the other hand, as was discussed in Section contribute greatly to economic and medical
1.1, it is a fact that various negative effects have progress, and to other real social and economic
appeared in modern society alongside the advances activities. When the question is raised about what
in science, and particularly the natural sciences. It science and technology for society really means,
is plain that the natural sciences are not all- one important viewpoint is whether or not scientific
powerful. Moreover, the natural sciences alone are results are linked to the development of
probably incapable of explaining the nature of technologies that can create real, utilizable products
mankind and society. In order to overcome this and services.
weak point of the natural sciences, analysis of In fact, as shown in Table 1-2-6, the basic
people’s thoughts and behavior, as well as of research results that were rewarded with the Nobel
various social phenomena, is important, as is prize in many cases led, after as many as 10 to 20
coordination with thinking in the humanities and years of research and development, to practical
social sciences. For the future progress of human application, commercialization, and contribution to
civilization, such activity will undoubtedly become economic growth.
increasingly important.
 Table 1-2-6 Examples of practical applications from Nobel prizewinning results
Practical application Nobel prize
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) machine Felix Bloch, et al (1952 Physics prize)
Paul Lauterbur, Peter Mansfield (2003 Physiology or Medicine
prize)
Semiconductors (transistors) William Shockley, John Bardeen, et al (1956 Physics prize)

Insulin Frederick Sanger (1958 Chemistry prize)

Semiconductors (tunneling effect) Reona Esaki, et al (1973 Physics prize)
CT (Computerized Tomography) scanner Alan Cormack, Godfrey Hounsfield, et al (1979 Physiology or
Medicine prize)
Monoclonal antibodies Niels Jerne, Georges Kohler, et al (1984 Physiology or
Medicine prize)
Conductive polymers (cell phone screens) Hideki Shirakawa, et al (2000 Chemistry prize)
Asymmetric synthesis (menthol manufacture) Ryoji Noyori, et al (2001 Chemistry prize)

Protein analyzer Koichi Tanaka, et al (2002 Chemistry prize)

Source: Prepared by MEXT

Moreover, science linkage (number of citations the stages of applied research and
of scientific papers per U.S. patent) in major commercialization research to reach the product
countries in regards to U.S. patents, which are used stage. The trend here, however, is an example that
as an index to show the strength of links between appears to show that scientific results are
scientific results (scientific papers) and new increasingly being converted into products without
technologies (patents), is showing a rising trend following the linear model. It would appear that the
(Figure 1-2-7). In the past, scientific results distance between scientific results and the product
obtained through basic research usually followed stage is becoming narrower.
the so-called linear model, in that it passed
through

(Cases
)
3.50

3.00

2.50

2.00

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
(Year)

United States Japan Germany France United Kingdom Total world

Figure 1–2-7 Trends in science linkage to U.S. patents

Source: Materials by National Institute of Science and Technology Policy

(Japan’s Economic Development front-runner nations, and to ensure that Japan can
through the Promotion of Basic be a survivor in the competition between nations.
Research and Other R&D) Moreover, the promotion of basic research for the
A look at Japan’s economy today reveals that, creation of new knowledge, and of other research
while moderate deflation is continuing, the general and development, is a necessity for Japan’s future
outlook is bright, with a continuing recovery in economic growth. In addition, emphasis is
corporate profits and rising investment in plant and beginning to be placed on the new research and
equipment. It is important that this bright outlook development process, which merges scientific
be linked to firm growth, and revitalization of the knowledge and technology and then links it to the
economy is one of the most important issues facing development of products and solutions to problems.
Japan. According to the “Public Opinion Poll on Science
Economic development in Japan after the and Technology and Society (February 2004),”
Second World War was mainly achieved through about 70% of respondents agreed with the
the introduction of scientific and technological statement that “development of science and
results from Western nations, the effective technology is needed to boost international
conversion of those results into products, and competitiveness” (Figure 1-2-8). While this
efficient anufacturing. question was not necessarily restricted to the
At present, however, when Japan no longer economic viewpoint in questioning the importance
follows in the footsteps of the Western nations, the of science and technology for boosting
nation needs to move beyond the traditional form international competitiveness, it does show
of follow-up research to obtain the ability to take people’s expectations for Japan’s scientific and
the lead in the creation of new knowledge ahead of technological strengths at a time when advancing
other countries, so as to become one of the world’s globalization is heightening the competition
between nations.

Don't know
Don't agree
7.3
Somewhat don't 5.2 Agree
agree 41.0
11.1

Cannot say either

way
5.7

Somewhat agree
29.7

Figure 1-2-8 Development of science and technology is needed to boost international

Competitiveness

Note: Response to question "Do you agree with the opinion that 'development of science and technology is needed to boost
international competitiveness'?"
Source: Cabinet Office. "Public Opinion Poll on Science and Technology and Society (February 2004)"
 (Nurturing Creative Human Resources) mainly achieved through the introduction of
While research expenses and the development of scientific and technological results from Western
research equipment, facilities, and other aspects of nations, the effective conversion of those results
the research environment are important for the into products, and efficient manufacturing. Japan’s
promotion of research and development, the most traditional strengths lay mainly in effective and
basic requirement is the nurturing of researchers efficient conversion to products, and in the
with creative skills. improvement of production processes.
However, creative skills cannot be learned from
others, but rather can only be obtained through hit- Even with the importance for Japan of gaining
and-miss experimentation. In research and an ability in the future of taking the lead to create
development, and particularly in basic research, new knowledge ahead of other countries, these
researchers must be of a character suited to traditional strengths should continue to have
challenging creative topics on their own initiative, significance from the standpoint of effectively and
and be able to nurture research human resources efficiently converting the new knowledge created
with creative skills. Promotion of basic research is in Japan into practical applications.
therefore important from the point of view of It is said that the elements peculiar to Japan
human resource development, as well. serving to support the effective and efficient
conversion of products, and the improvement of
(Importance of Cooperation between production processes – the well-springs of Japan’s
Industry, Academia, and Government) competitiveness – have included the corporate
human resource training programs built on the
Firmly linking new knowledge born from basic concept of lifetime employment, corporate
research and other R&D to practical applications is knowledge transmission through flexible
also important. reassignment of employees, and superior product,
A look at the science linkage of major countries making technologies that center mainly on small
to U.S. patents, shown in Figure 1-2-7, reveals a and medium-sized enterprises.
major gap between Japan on the one side, and the In particular, the superior product making
United States and United Kingdom on the other, technologies rely heavily on individual skills, such
and a lower rank than France or Germany, as well, as individual manual technologies and skills of
leaving the impression that the results of basic local technicians in the manufacture of lathes and
research in Japan are not being adequately linked to metal molds, and the accumulation of technical and
technology. In order for the results of basic skilled knowledge for the discovery of and
research and other R&D obtained at universities response to problems and response to change.
and other public research institutions to be firmly
linked to technology and practical applications, Once lost, the skills of these superior technologists
efforts to promote cooperation between industry, are extremely difficult to restore and, as the
academia, and government need to be continued. In foundation supporting Japan’s competitiveness, it
addition, new knowledge created through basic is important that these technologies and skills be
research and other R&D needs to be given suitable transmitted onward, and that the associated human
protection, while at the same time positioned so resources be firmly maintained and nurtured.
that society can make maximum utilization of it. A A variety of technologies and skills were being
firm response to protection of intellectual property created and developed in various locales around
is also important. Japan even before the age of modernization that
began in the Meiji era (1868 to 1912). As
evidenced by such examples as kumihimo braiding
(Transmission and Development of technology, which formed the basis for the
Japan’s Own Technologies and Skills) development of high-performance textile
strengthening compounds, a large number of
As mentioned above, Japan’s traditional technologies and skills are being linked
economic development after the Second to state-of-the-art technologies and stimulating new
World War was development. In addition, the
development of nano-level structural analysis well open the way toward realization of that mass
technologies has resulted in elucidation of the production.
material qualities of Japanese swords, which
approach in quality super-steel materials that It is imperative that the superior traditional
remain impossible to mass-produce using modern technologies and skills intrinsic to Japan be re-
manufacturing technologies. Elucidation of evaluated and re-utilized for the modern world.
traditional sword manufacturing methods could
 [Column 2]

Science and Technology in the Edo Period

Japan was developing its own distinctive science and technology even before the advent of modernization. In the Edo Period,
in particular, the various domains competed with each other in industry and academics, and science and technology rooted in
certain regions spread thereafter throughout the country. The rapidity with which Japan achieved modernization in the Meiji
Period and later can be traced to the existence of this scientific and technological foundation.
At present, the National Science Museum, with financial backing from the Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research Program
administered by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, is leading a research project, “Making
Things in the Edo Period” (Note 1) to examine what scientific and technological traditions of the Edo Period should be passed
on to future generations. This research project is performing surveys and research into creative cultural objects all over Japan
manufactured during the Edo Period, such as the “Bow-Shooting Boy” and “Never-Ending Lamp,” both found in the Toyota
Collection (Note 2), and the “Netsuke Jumping Frog,” and then intends to present to society in easy-to-understand language
the scientific and technological traditions and culture of Japan.
Moreover, in cooperation with the “Making Things in the Edo Period” project, the Toyota Foundation is implementing a
research assistance program based on the theme of “Rediscovery of Modernization and Living: Finding Our Local History.”
This assistance program targets museum art specialists, teachers, university students, housewives, and other residents in local
areas, to assist their cooperation with research specialists participating in the “Making Things in the Edo Period” project, and to
help ensure that research results are not limited to circulation among research specialists, but are shared widely among the local
people.
For example, the “Making Things in the Edo Period” project is engaged in surveys and research focusing on the works of
Ikkansai Kunitomo (Note 3), an Edo Period scientist. Alongside that effort, however, the “Rediscovery of Modernization and
Living” program is backing an amateur research group restoration of the Kunitomo’s reflecting telescope (the “Ikkansai
Experimental Laboratory”) and schoolchildren using that telescope to observe sunspots (the “Ikkansai Terakoya Children’s
School”). These research links resulted in an international symposium held in the local community of Nagahama-shi, Shiga
prefecture in November 2003, through cooperation with the “Making Things in the Edo Period” project, the local board of
education, and amateur research groups, to successfully bring research results and reports to a wider audience.
Elsewhere, Japan’s gold, silver, and copper mining operations of the Edo Period, which were some of the most productive
in the world, are also being surveyed and researched. For example, the Iwami-Ginzan Silver Mine Ruin is being re-examined
with an eye toward eventual registration as a world heritage site, with research results returned to the local area in the form of
symposiums with local groups for re-evaluation of the mine as an “industrial heritage” object.
Through such efforts, the traditional science and technology in local areas is being re-evaluated, and raising expectations that
the process will lay the foundation toward regeneration of the local economy.
These efforts are promoting surveys and research into the cultural objects of the Edo Period from various vantage points,
ranging from scientific and technological aspects to anthropological and sociological aspects, an interdisciplinary approach
that is of particular importance. In fact, the “Making Things in the Edo Period” project encompasses more than 400 research
participants nationwide, coming from both the scientific and cultural sectors.
Furthermore, these efforts represent a step forward from previous museum and science hall activities, in that the museums
and science halls are now actively utilizing the actual objects and materials in their possession in ways that anybody can
understand, to build an exchange of scientific and technological research between research specialists and ordinary people, and
the museums and science halls are assuming a new role that can serve as a model for promoting the culture of science and
technology at the level of the people.

Notes: 1. “Making Things in Edo”

The popular name for the project. The official name is “Surveys and Research Regarding Systematization of Materials
at the Dawn of Japan’s Scientific and Technological Age.” The project was launched in 2001 and is planned to
continue for five years.
2. Toyota Collection
A collection of documents and materials regarding the progress of Japan’s science and technology purchased by Toyota
Motor Corporation in 1999 to prevent their dispersal and contribute to their survey and research, and deposited with the
National Science Museum in 2001. The collection centers mainly on items from the mid- to late-Edo Period, sorted into
such categories as mechanical puppetry, astronomy and measurement, medical, and living, and numbers more than 1,300
items.
3. Ikkansai Kunitomo
Lived from 1778 to 1840. Expert in gunnery and iron forging in Omi-no-kuni (modern Shiga prefecture). Known for his
manufacture of “wind cannons” (air guns) and “divine mirrors” (haunted mirrors), he also made a “telescope mirror” (reflecting
telescope) and used it to observe the Moon and sunspots on the Sun.
1.2.2 New Policy Developments Again, on March 11, 2004, an explosion on a
Related to Science and Technology for commuter train in Madrid, Spain left more than 200
Society dead and more than 1,700 injured. This incident
acutely brought home to people in Japan and
This section examines the development of new elsewhere the extent of the threat that terrorism
policies related to science and technology for raises.
society, using the three themes of “scientific and Turning to Japan, this is a nation that was often
technological progress related to safety and beset by natural disasters. As a result of the
security,” “revival of local areas using science and implementation of disaster prevention policies,
technology,” and “intra-sector efforts,” to discuss losses due to natural disasters have been declining
current conditions and topics. in recent years. Nevertheless, the Great Hanshin-
Awaji Earthquake of January 17, 1995 left more
than 6,000 people dead, a larger number of disaster
1.2.2.1 Scientific and Technological victims than the total numbers recorded in any
Progress Related to Safety and Security single year since the end of World War II.
In the area of security, a total of 2,853,739
(Increased Factors Threatening Safety and criminal incidents were recorded in FY2002,
Security) marking the seventh straight year that a postwar
The multiple terror attacks of September 11, record was registered. Moreover, the arrest and
2001 killed several thousand victims in an instant, incarceration rate fell to an all-time low,
an attack unparalleled in international society. graphically demonstrating a rapid deterioration in
security, and the people’s insecurity is increasing
(Figure 1-2-9).
 (Incidents) (Persons)
3,000,000 700,000

600,000
2,500,000

500,000
2,000,000

400,000

1,500,000

300,000

1,000,000
200,000

500,000
100,000

0 0

(Year)

No. of incidents No. of arrests No. of persons arrested

Figure 1-2-9 Trends in crime recognition and arrests

Source: National Police Agency. "White Paper on Police (FY2003)"

For the state of health of the Japanese in terms of After leaving Japan, Japanese tourists were
infected ailments, infectious diseases were common before by SARS in foreign countries. It reminded
the World War II. But the discovery of antibiotics people of Japan yet again of the real possibility of
reduced the prevalence of such diseases after the an outbreak of infectious diseases in the country.
war, and in their place came such lifestyle-related In addition, the highly pathogenic
avian
diseases as cerebral apoplexy and heart attacks. In influenza (“Bird Flu”) broke out in various
recent years, however, infectious diseases have locations around Asia, and a case was confirmed in
broken out in various locations around the world. In Japan, as well, in Yamaguchi prefecture in January
2002, there was an outbreak of West Nile Fever in 2004, followed by cases in Oita and Kyoto
the United States, followed in 2003 by a worldwide prefectures, events that caused great insecurity and
outbreak of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome concern throughout Japanese society.
(SARS), but concentrated in Asia (Figure 1-2-
10).
 Disease trends in Japan in the 20th century
(%)
100
Ratio to total number of deaths No diagnosis

80
Other

Infectious disease
60

40
Cerebral apoplexy
Heart disease

20 Tuberculosis Cancer

0
1899 1910 1920 1930 1940 1947 1960 1970 1980 1990 1998 (year)

New infectious diseases in Asia (1996-2004)

O157
1996: 87 incidents
Hong Kong ： Illnesses: 10,322
(Deaths: 8)
Influenza Type A (H9N2) (1999) Illnesses: 5

Avian influenza SARS

(Influenza Type A (H5N1))
・ 1997
Hong Kong: Illnesses: 18 (Deaths: 6) (November 2002 to August 7, 2003 ： WHO statistics) China: Illnesses: 5,327 (Deaths: 349)
・ 2003 Hong Kong: Illnesses: 1,755 (Deaths: 300)
Taiwan: Illnesses: 665 (Deaths: 180)
Hong Kong: Illnesses: 2 (Deaths: 1)
Thailand: Illnesses: 2 Singapore: Illnesses: 238 (Deaths: 33)
Vietnam: Illnesses: 7 (Deaths: 6) Vietnam: Illnesses: 63 (Deaths: 5)
Reference: Japan: Possible cases: 16, Illnesses: 0

Malaysia: Nipa virus (1999) Illnesses: 265 (Deaths: 105) 93% of illnesses in pig industry

Figure 1-2-10 Disease trends in Japan, and outbreaks of new infectious diseases in Asia
Source: Council for Science and Technology Policy (January 2004) Materials
 Once infectious diseases have spread in a SARS epidemic in terms of GDP in Hong Kong
society, damage is inflicted both on people’s health was estimated at 4.0% (6.6 billion dollars), while in
and on the economy at large. The SARS epidemic China it was estimated at 0.5% (5.8 billion dollars),
had a huge effect on the economies of all the and in Taiwan, 1.9% (5.3 billion dollars) (Figure 1-
affected countries. According to estimates by the 2-11).
Asian Development Bank, the economic loss due to
the

Hong Kong
4.0%
China
0.5%

Taiwan 1.9%

Korea 0.8%

Indonesia 1.4%
(%: Comparison to GDP)
Singapore 2.3%

Thailand 1.6%

Malaysia 1.5%

Philippines 0.8%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(Unit: 1 billion dollars)

Figure 1-2-11 Tabulation of national or regional economic losses due to SARS

Source: Asian Development Bank (ADB). "SARS: Economic Impacts and Implications, ERD Policy Brief Series, No.15, 2003"
 The above changes in society have also brought items related to safety and security. These results
about changes in people’s awareness about safety show dramatically the rise in people’s interest in
and security. As shown in Section 1.1.1, the safety and security, especially in recent years.
“Public Opinion Survey on Social Awareness According to the Ministry of Education, Culture,
(January 2004)” found a large proportion of Sports, Science and Technology’s “Roundtable
respondents naming security as an area where the Group on Science and Technology Policy for
situation in society has been getting worse, and the Building a Safe and Secure Society” report (April
percentage was higher than in the previous survey 2004), a survey result for the question “do you feel
of December 2002. In addition, in the “Citizen’s that danger has particularly increased in recent
Life Preference Survey (FY2002),” in which years in the area around you?” found about 70% of
respondents were asked to rank 60 items related to respondents saying that it had either “increased” or
citizen’s lives in order of importance, all of the “somewhat increased” (Figure 1-2-12).
top 10 survey result

Decreased
0.1% Other
Somew hat 0.1% No response
decreased
1.7%
0.9%
Increased
Not changed 23.1%
27.1%

Somewhat
increased
47.0%

Figure 1-2-12 Have risks to your person increased in recent years?

Note: Results of questionnaire survey sent by mail to 3,600 Japanese residents (number of valid responses: 1,476) Source: MEXT.
"Report of Roundtable Group on Science and Technology Policy for Building a Safe and Secure Society"
(April 2004)
 The annual meeting of the World Economic on Safety and Economic Prosperity” was
Forum (Davos Conference), a gathering of world conducted. According to these results, when asked
business, government, and non-government leaders “do you think that your country is not as safe when
in the Swiss city of Davos, is noted for its compared to 10 years ago?” 86% of Japanese
discussions on world trends, with a different theme responded with “not as safe,” far above the world
each year. The topic for 2004 was “Security and average of 57%. Furthermore, to the question “do
Economic Prosperity,” and the very selection of you think that the next generation will have to live
security as a topic showed just how much attention in a world that is not as safe as now?” 68% of
the world is paying to security issues. Japanese responded “yes,” far higher than the world
In concert with the convening of the Davos average of 48% (Figure 1-2-13).
Conference, an “International Public Opinion Poll

48
The next generation will 47
live in a world that is not 64
as safe as now. 52
68

57
The country is not as safe 54
58
as 10 years ago.
68
86

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Japan Pacif ic Western Europe North America World

Figure 1-2-13 Public opinion poll by World Economic Forum

Source: World Economic Forum. "International Public Opinion Poll on Safety and Economic Prosperity
(January 2004)"
 As seen by the revealing comment that “Japanese science and technology contributing greatly to
believe that security and water can be obtained for resolution of safety or security-related problems.
In free,” made by Isaiah Ben-Dasan in his book “The the “Public Opinion Poll on
Science and Japanese and the Jews” (1970), the
Japanese have Technology and Society” conducted by the
Cabinet long felt that safety and security is Heaven-sent. Office, to the assertion that “high
scientific and But as the above survey results show, this technological standards
are needed to ensure awareness has changed abruptly. security in my life, and the general security of the
Science and technology has the capacity to nation,” about 70% of respondents said “agree” or
contribute greatly to realization of safety and “somewhat agree.” It appears that the people
have security. Realization of sensor systems for detection great expectations for science and
technology in of dangerous substances or threats, and information ensuring the safety and
security of society (Figure
security technology for safe utilization of the 1-2-
14). Internet, are just a few of the many examples of

Don't know
Cannot say either way 9.5％ Agree
6.1％
Do not agree 35.9％
4.1％
Somewhat do
not agree
12.4％

Somewhat agree
32.0％

Figure 1-2-14 High scientific and technological standards needed to ensure security

Note: Response to question of whether respondent agrees with the statement "high scientific and
technological standards are needed to ensure security in my life, and the general security of the
nation."
Source: Cabinet Office. "Public Opinion Poll on Science and Technology and Society (February 2004
Survey)"
(Strengthening Science and Technology for various inspection technologies to prevent the
Realization of a Safe and Secure Society) spread of a disease or its intrusion at the water’s
In order for science and technology to contribute edge, and implementation of related public
firmly to a safe and secure society, it is important sanitation measures.
to promote research and development into solutions Moreover, as can be seen by strict customs
to safety and security-related problems, and to operations to intercept illegal imports and
build a system that will allow swift and flexible suspicious items, and by the scientific investigative
responses based on science and technology to the activities of the police, it is important to promote
sudden appearance of unknown risks. Furthermore, the development of countermeasure technologies
it is also necessary to foster personnel trained in that can satisfy local conditions, and to promote the
science and technology related to safety and utilization of results through government
security. procurement or other methods, so that the
technologies that have been developed can be
In addition, efforts to obtain the understanding of effectively utilized to resolve on-site problems
society through the use of risk communication 1, where society’s safety and security must be
based on the smooth promotion of research preserved.
and Under the auspices of the Special Coordination
development, regarding expected risks, are linked to Funds for Promoting Science and Technology, the
the realization of a safe and secure society. It Ministry of Science, Culture, Sports, Science and
should not be forgotten that, without such a Technology instituted the “Important Issue
linkage, people’s participation and cooperation in Resolution Research” program in FY2004 to
research and development cannot be obtained. promote research and development into important
The use of science and technology to resolve policy objectives and issues for the Japanese state
problems related to safety and security also links to and society that cannot be handled by individual
increased competitiveness in various industries, agencies and ministries, and which require urgent
and to the creation of new markets and industries. resolution. In FY2004, eight topics are being
implemented in the program, under the policy goal
(1) Promotion of R&D Related to of “building a secure, safe, and relaxed society,”
Safety and Security including such topics as “R&D into new and
Regarding research and development topics that rejuvenated infectious diseases” and “R&D that
require urgent handling for resolution of safety and contributes to information security.”
security issues, project responses are required that In addition to these efforts, the creation of
laterally and organically link sectors together based policies based on innovative technologies and
on clear goals. In this situation, execution of groundbreaking knowledge that can completely
systematic policies such as the building or altering overturn existing policies requires that basic
of related social frameworks alongside research results at universities and research
implementation of research is also important, institutions be linked to the needs of the public
which means that participation by the jurisdictional institutions and corporations that are striving to
ministries and agencies is essential for societal and ensure safety and security. To achieve this, the
systematic responses related to the realization of needs of these public institutions and corporations,
policy. etc., in regards to safety and security should be
For example, the response to new infectious surveyed and analyzed, and suitable advanced
diseases should not be limited to research into technologies should be unearthed in order to create
pathogens or to the development of medical functions that link the two together in promoting
products, but should also include efforts to unified research and development on site.
integrate individual knowledge and technologies,
such as
1 Refers to the exchange of information and opinions about risk throughout society, and the sharing of that information.
 Also, in order to collect knowledge obtained in Moreover, with human activity now spreading into
individual sectors related to safety and security for untrammeled locations and hitherto unknown
utilization in other sectors, it is important that regions, chances are high that an unknown risk
safety and security science and technology such as a completely new infectious disease will be
knowledge systems be prepared and expanded encountered.
through the exchange of information and personnel Developing a countermeasure beforehand for an
between R&D centers in each sector, and that core unknown risk is impossible. Instead, what is
R&D centers be formed with the capability of desired is research and development of a quick and
feeding general knowledge back to research centers flexible technology for countering a risk at the
in each sector. moment it becomes apparent. To ensure this kind of
In the United States, the government responded responsiveness, a diversity of research sectors
to the simultaneous terrorist attacks by organizing needs to be maintained. Diversified research and
the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) out development activities would build up specialist
of existing departments and agencies in January knowledge and technological seeds in a wide range
2003,encompassing 180,000 personnel scattered of sectors, so that when a new risk is discovered,
across 24 government agencies and bureaus, the accumulated knowledge can be utilized to
including the U.S. Coast Guard, Federal promote research and development into flexible
Emergency Management Agency, Customs countermeasure technologies. Moreover, in order to
Service, and Immigration Bureau. Included in the quickly implement research in response to new
DHS is an undersecretary in charge of science and risks, a knowledge network needs to be created that
technology, under whose jurisdiction is the newly will facilitate understanding of a wide range of
established Homeland Security Advanced Research science and technology in regard to safety and
Projects Agency (HSARPA), which is patterned security, and access to researchers in those areas.
after the Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency (DARPA) in the Department of Defense.
As with DARPA, HSARPA is in charge of all (3) Fostering Scientific and Technological
science and technology related to the preservation Human Resources in Support of a Safe
of national security, from basic research up through and Secure Society
development. The objective is to maintain U.S. To lay the foundations for the creation of science
superiority in basic science sectors, and to and technology that can achieve a safe, secure
preserve society, human resources need to be fostered for
U.S. homeland security through the creation of new scientific and technological sectors related to safety
technologies derived from that basic technology. and security.
One example of a sector in strong need of more
fostering of human resources is security
(2) Assurance of Diversified Science and technologists for the Internet.
In Japan, an estimated 15 million households in
Technology Enabling Flexible Responses
FY2003 were utilizing broadband Internet
to Unknown Risks connections through the spread of Digital Service
With society becoming ever more advanced and Lines (DSL) or cable Internet, and security
complex, prediction of risk has become more problems in the form of computer viruses and theft
difficult in recent years. In particular, as threats of personal information are becoming rampant
posed by man-made organizations increase, the (Figure 1-2-15).
sudden appearance of an unknown risk such as the
use of new terrorist methods is becoming an issue.
 DSL Cable Internet FTTH
Subscribers Subscribers
Subscribers
11.20 million 2.58 million 1.14 million
(29.5%) (6.3%)
(11.2%)

Potential households
38.00 million Potential households Potential households
23.00 million 18.06 million

Figure 1-2-15 Ratio of broadband subscribers (actual users) to potential households

Note: Number of potential households as of January 2004 (DSL subscribers as of December 2003). Figure for DSL, cable Internet,
and FTTH subscribers as of end of March 2004.
Source: Survey by Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications

According to an interim report presented by the shortage of 420,000 technologists in the IT sector in
Information and Communications Software Japan, which includes an estimated shortage of
Roundtable’s Working Group on Fostering Human 120,000 information security technologists (Figure
Resources, operating under the Ministry of Internal 1-2-16).
Affairs and Communications, Japan currently has a

(10,000 people) Non-IT company not using

1
2 outsourcing
12
Non-IT company using
outsourcing
10 9
IT company
8
Total security personnel
6 5
3
4 4
4 3
1
1 3 IT company
2 2
1
0 Non-IT company not using outsourcing
Mid-class Top-class

Total

Figure 1-2-16 Shortage of security technologists in IT sector

Source: Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications. "Interim Report of Roundtable Group on Information Communications
Software, Working Group on Fostering Human Resources (FY2003)"

Fostering more information security security to the national qualifications test for
technologists is therefore an urgent issue. electrical telecommunication chief technologists,
Beginning in 2001, the Ministry of Internal Affairs while in the private sector, as well, a “Network
and Communications added a test in information Information Security Manager (NISM)”
qualification certification test has been personnel-short information security sector (Figure
implemented to foster specialists in information 1-2-17).
security management for placement in enterprises Unfortunately, new human resources for the
providing information and communications information security sector cannot be fostered
services. overnight, but will instead require a sustained
In the Special Coordination Funds for Promoting investment of resources. It is expected that
Science and Technology provided by the Ministry sustained investment of resources will be needed to
of Science, Culture, Sports, Science and foster the human resources required for any of the
Technology, an information security project was sectors related to safety and security, and the
instituted as a “foundation software” sector in the national government will need to step forward to
“new sector human resource fostering” program for invest in the necessary resources.
the purpose of fostering human resources for the

Table 1-2-17 Information security human resource training project

Name of institution Name of project Period
Chuo University Information Security, Information Guarantee FY2003-FY2007
Human Resource Training Center
Kogakuin University Secure System Design Technologist FY2003-FY2007
Training
Waseda University Security Technology Training Center FY2001-FY2005
Osaka University Human Resource Training for Construction of FY2001-FY2005
Secure Network
Source: Prepared by MEXT

With science and technology becoming ever avoided, the education process for all researchers
more advanced and specialized, the people who and technologists, and not just for the personnel
will be able to forecast the possibility of risks specializing in safety and security, will need to
arising from creative knowledge or state-of-the-art incorporate knowledge for the preservation of
technology are the researchers and technologists society’s safety and security, and to cultivate skills
who will themselves have created that knowledge in predicting risks arising from new knowledge or
or technology. If these kinds of risks are to be technologies.
In FY2003, the Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology of the University of Tokyo created a program that transcends the tradition
 (The Importance of Unifying Scientific, response to this changed situation has been the
Technological, and Societal Responses development of technology that displays the creator
Related to Safety and Security) of electronic contracts and other electronic data,
and uses “electronic signatures” to confirm that the
data is not corrupted, and the development of
(1) Societal Systems for Safety and certification businesses to certify that electronic
Security signatures correspond to the actual people. This
With the increase in exchange of electronic technology is used to confirm that the other party is
documents as the Internet has expanded, the need a specific person, and that the content of a contract
for assuring document reliability has increased. has not been altered (Figure 1-2-18).
One

Certification company
Request for electronic certificate

Registration of electronic certificate Invalid list (CRL) register

Registration company Issuing company (Issues electronic certificate) Repository
(Checked by individual) (Provision of invalid info, etc.)

Electronic certificate issued

Use application
Electronic certificate received Electronic certificate validation check
（ Application for issuance of electronic certification)
ElectronicElectronic

Sender A
電 cer 子 tif 証 ica 明 te 書 c 電 er 子 tifi 証証 cat 明 e 書
Receiver B
P Ａ u の for
bl 公 ic k 開 ey 鍵 Ａ Pu の bl 公 ic k 開 ey 鍵
(User of certification) (Certifier)
for Ａ
A

Electronic

c電 er 子 tifi 証証 ca 明 te 書 Electronic signature Valid

Electronic data Electronic data (Clear text)
(Clear text) Electronic signature ＡSend
Pu のwith
(Paired 公
bl for k 開 ey 鍵
A ickey)
public Receive
public key for A
Encoded Secret key for A
Decoded
Electronic data (Clear text)
Message digest
Hash function Hash function
Electronic signature Corruption check Match ⇒ No
Message digest Message digest No match ⇒Yes

Hash function: One-directional function that compresses and converts random data volumes into fixed data volumes. Message
digest: Value obtained when electronic data is compressed and converted by Hash function.

Figure 1-2-18 Electronic signature and certification system

Source: Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications. “2003 WHITE PAPER Information and Communications in Japan”

When a signature and stamp are found on a author are now assumed to be created based on the
contract or other document, it can be assumed that person’s intent. In other words, the legal foundation
the document was created based on the person’s was laid for application of electronic documents
real intent. Ensuring that electronic signatures have equivalent to signed and stamped documents.
the same force as signatures and stamps on paper This action opened the way for preservation of
documents, however, requires legal backing. customer certification and transaction information
According to the Law for Electronic Signature in Internet banking or Internet securities, etc., and
and Certification Business, which came into effect for electronic applications and licensing. The result
in April 2001, electronic documents with electronic will be improved convenience, in the form of 24-
signatures that satisfy certain conditions for the hour service regardless of whether anyone is
manning a service window or not. that unauthorized access could only be applied
This is one example where the societal system using other laws. In February 2000, however, the
responded to progress in science and technology to Law for Prohibition of Unauthorized Access
result in an improvement of convenience. There are Activities, etc., was implemented, and cases
also situations, on the other hand, where society involving violation of this law have been increasing
has been forced to respond to problems caused by (Figure 1-2-19). In this law, unauthorized access
technological advances. activity is defined as using theft of IDs or
For example, until the year 2000, unauthorized passwords or an attack on computer security holes
access to a computer’s resources was not in itself to gain access to a computer without access
illegal, with the result that legal sanctions against authorization.

2,000

Violations of laws
1,500 against illegal access
No. of arrests

Computer and
1,000 electromagnetic
recording media crimes
Network utilization
crimes
500

0
2000
2001 2002 2003 (Year)

Figure 1-2-19 Trend in the number of high-tech crime arrests

Source: National Police Agency. "Arrests for High-Tech Crimes in 2003, and Receipt of Criminal Complaints"

As can be seen, development of societal systems the use of new technologies, the prohibition of the
must also proceed in concert with scientific and misuse of technology, etc.
technological progress, through the promotion of
(2) Improvement of Individual Knowledge losses due to computer virus attacks on personal
and Awareness of Safety and Security computers have developed into a major problem.
The safety of various societal systems is closely The damage caused by computer viruses can be
related to the behavior of individual users. For this stopped when the individual owners of personal
reason, even if society’s safety is reasonably computers have correct knowledge and awareness
protected at the systems level, individual behavior of countermeasures to computer viruses, and then
that does not pay any consideration to safety could take the appropriate action.
still easily result in the collapse of societal safety. Through 1996, about 1,000 cases of computer
In addition to the preparation of societal systems, viruses discovered or computers infected were
therefore, only when individual users also have a being reported annually to Japan’s Information-
knowledge and awareness of safety, and when their Technology Promotion Agency (IPA). Since 1999,
behavior helps to preserve safety, can a safe, secure however, the number reported has risen sharply
society be realized. (Figure 1-2-20).
With the spread of the Internet, for example,

25,000

20,000
No. of viruses discovered

15,000

10,000

5,000

0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
(Year)

Figure 1-2-20 Trend in number of computer viruses discovered

Source: Information-Technology Promotion Agency, Japan. "Computer Viruses Discovered (Discoveries in 2004 (Detail))"
 In 2003, the Blaster worm and other similar each individual should take the absolute minimum
creations that attack specific computers on specific measures shown in Table 1-2-21.
dates and times made their appearance, taking In an age when the Internet is spreading ever
advantage of weaknesses in personal computer wider, and can be expected to become the
software to convert victims of computer viruses foundation for society, computer virus
into unknowing perpetrators of the viruses on other countermeasures will become basic knowledge for
computers. each member of society, and spreading the
To avoid being damaged by computer viruses, or necessary countermeasures is already very
to avoid causing damage to other computer users, important

Table 1-2-21 Countermeasures to prevent infection by computer viruses

1 Install vaccine software, and constantly update the definition file

2 Before opening a file obtained from outside, always run a virus check
3 Set up a suitable software security function
4 Use security patches to cover up security holes
5 Always back up data files, in preparation for the worst-case scenario

Source: Information-Technology Promotion Agency, Japan. “Information Security Manual (February 2002)”.

Today, the amount of knowledge required for a Furthermore, improvement of knowledge and
safe and secure life is increasing in volume, and it awareness of safety and security among the people
will probably be necessary for people to engage in should result in the development of a culture of
broad studies of knowledge related to safety and safety and security in Japan as a whole.
security from childhood onward as a basic
requirement for becoming a member of society.
In the area of disaster prevention, the Ministry of (3) Importance of international cooperation
Education, Culture, Sports, Science and and links in relation to safety and security
Technology has prepared disaster education The advance of globalization has made it more
manuals and distributed them to schools for use in likely that situations such as SARS will arise in
course study, so that students can prepare for which losses can spread internationally, beyond
earthquakes and other natural disasters and take the any single country or district. As a result, efforts to
appropriate actions to ensure safety. handle safety and security-related problems within
With this education, people will become better Japan alone can no longer be sufficient. Only
aware of risks, and will incorporate risk-avoidance through international cooperation and linkages to
behavior into their daily activities, so as to improve handle international safety and security issues can
individual awareness of safety and security. Japan’s own safety and security be achieved.
 [Column 4]

Japan-U.S. Workshop on Science and Technology for a Safe and Secure Society

In the wake of the multiple terror attacks of September 2001, and in response to people’s increased expectations for the
utilization of science and technology to ensure safety and respond to emergency situations, Japan and the United States
recognized the need for increased cooperation in the field of science and technology for a safe and secure society, and in
February 2004 convened the First Japan-U.S. Workshop on Science and Technology for a Safe and Secure Society.
The workshop was held in Japan, with participants from the U.S. government bureau director-general level of the State
Department, Homeland Security Department, and elsewhere, meeting with officials from the corresponding ministries and
agencies in the Japanese government. The meeting began with presentations of the two countries’ efforts in regards to the use
of science and technology for a safe and secure society, and then proceeded with discussions on the direction of future
research cooperation in sectors of interest to the two countries, including infectious diseases, food safety, cyber-security,
natural disasters, weaknesses in the social infrastructure, and crime and terrorism. The discussions with the United States are
planned to continue in the future on research cooperation in these sectors.
Interest in social safety and security is increasing worldwide, and similar meetings are likely to be convened in the future on
both bilateral and multilateral bases regarding scientific and technological cooperation

1.2.2.2 Revival of Local Areas Using to make effective utilization of their distinctive
Science and Technology locally developed industries and technologies, and
the knowledge and skills obtained from their
Japan is a country that is blessed with four human resources, natural environment, culture, and
seasons, and geographic conditions that change history, in order to move ahead with “revival of
greatly from north to south, for a richly diversified local areas” through the creation of new industries
natural environment. In this varied natural and employment.
environment, Japan’s regions have each developed In support of these independent local efforts, the
their own histories, cultures, industries, and government established a local revival headquarters
technologies. in the Cabinet in October 2003, based on the
At present, Japan’s economy and society are in concept of “local areas conceive and act on ideas of
the midst of great structural change, as society their own, and the national government supports
moves toward fewer children and more elderly them,” to promote comprehensive efforts toward
people, and as the economy moves toward the revival of local areas.
globalization. Many local areas are faced with Next follows an explanation of the role that
problems that threaten the survival of their science and technology should play in the revival
economy and society, such as areas where aging is of local areas.
so rapid that the local population is already in
decline, or other areas that are seeing their (Efforts Toward the Revival of Local
industries get transferred overseas in the face of Areas, Based on the Promotion of
severe competition and are slowly moving toward Science and Technology)
stagnation. For the promotion of science and technology in
On the other hand, however, leaders in some local areas, Article 4 of the Science and
local areas are coming together to rebuild Technology Basic Law implemented in 1995
distinctive local industries and technologies toward stipulates that local public organizations have the
the creation of new industries that can interact with responsibility to formulate and implement policies
the world on an equal basis. for the promotion of science and technology that
In the midst of these major trends in economic evoke the characteristics of their particular local
and social conditions, some local areas are required area. Under this mandate, the prefectural
governments have
formulated basic guidelines for the promotion of system. At present, with government support, the
science and technology, and are in the process of universities serving as centers of knowledge
promoting their own independent policies for creation are at the core of the ongoing effort (the
science and technology promotion. Intellectual Cluster Program) to create
The Second Science and Technology Basic Plan, concentrations of competitive technology
which is based on the Science and Technology innovation through affiliated research institutions,
Basic Law, utilizes local resources and potential etc.
skills in research and development to promote the In addition, efforts (Industrial Cluster Program)
advancement and diversification of Japan’s science are being made through the construction of wide-
and technology, and the revitalization of Japan’s area networks of industry, academia, and
economy through the creation of innovative government, involving universities, businesses, and
technologies and new industries in the local areas, other entities over a wider regional area, to form
and sees such active promotion as essential. “industrial clusters” that link to technology
Another goal is the formation of “intellectual innovation toward the creation of new businesses
clusters” in the local areas. An “intellectual cluster” and new industries.
operates under local guidance around a core of The Intellectual Cluster Program and Industrial
locally distinctive R&D themes and public research Cluster Program are closely linked to the provision
organizations with potential, and that invites the of new technological seeds and to feedback from
participation of businesses both inside and outside market needs to reactivate and revive local area
the local area to form a technology innovation economies (Figure 1-2-22).

Formation of local clusters － Building systems to realize linked innovation －

Industrial cluster

University, etc. Corporation

Corporation
Corporate application technology development Public research institution

Corporation
Corporation
University, etc.
Urban area industrial, academia, government Intellectual cluster
New technology seeds
linked promotion project
linked promotion Intellectual cluster headquarters (Technology seeds positioned at human resources, etc.) <Network link point>
linked promotion Link
project
project Local economic, industrial bureau coordinator, etc.
Link
Link
Market needs

University, public research institution,Corporation,

etc. University, etc.
related research institutions, etc.

Corporation
Corporation
Corporation
Joint industrial, academic, government applied technolog development (Local consortium technology de
Corporate application technology development

Figure 1-2-22 Formation of local clusters

Source: Prepared by MEXT, based on Cabinet Office materials

 Clusters such as these already exist in large its “Survey Research into Success Factors and
numbers in Europe and United States. The National Promotion Policies for Local Innovation (interim
Institute of Science and Technology Policy, report)” (March 2003), and listed 16 items as
operating under the Ministry of Education, Culture, elements for the successful promotion of the
Sports, Science and Technology, examined some formation of clusters (Table 1-2-23).
progressive examples of these overseas clusters in

Table 1-2-23 Progressive examples of factors promoting cluster formation in Europe and
UnitedStates
1. Special regions 1-1 Access to core regions within 30 minutes
1-2 Risk awareness for local region
Special Selection and concentration in industries that can revitalize local
2. industries 2-1
assets
2-2 Several companies exist as initial core enterprises
Research and Core R&D strength is world-class
3. development 3-1
Cooperation and tie-ups between industry, academia, and
3-2
government
Venture Vitality of venture businesses
4. businesses 4-1
Tie-ups between venture businesses, large corporations,
4-2
universities, etc.
Finance, management, technology, manufacturing, and other
5. Support/tie-ups 5-1
support infrastructure exists locally
Institution adjusts tie-ups between enterprises, universities,
5-2
supporters
People who can realize a future local vision that attracts
6. Visionary 6-1
researchers
Merge with Merges with other clusters in other local areas
7. other industries 7-1

Global Global efforts for market expansion and promotion of innovation

8. development 8-1
9. IPO 9-1 Use of IPOs (initial public offerings) boosts trust and growth
10 Nationwide Improved cluster name recognition
10-1
. recognition
11 Life culture Attracts human resources from around the world
11-1
. standards

Source: National Institute of Science and Technology Policy. "Survey Research into Success Factors and Promotion Policies for
Local Innovation (interim report) (March 2003)"
 [Column 5]

Intellectual Cluster Program

Examples of implementation in local areas

- Ueda, Nagano prefecture

- Summary of effort

Shinshu University, public experimental and research institutions, and Nagano prefecture development-style corporations are
participants in a project for R&D into smart devices made from nanocarbon composites, and for R&D into organic
nanomaterial devices made from functional nanopolymer materials. To date, the cluster has successfully developed a
manufacturing technology for a compound electrolytic powder mixed with equal parts CNF (Carbon Nanofiber) and copper,
and an organic LED element technology with strong market competitiveness.

Participating institutions

Shinshu University, Yamagata University, Nagano National College of Technology, Chitose Institute of Science and
Technology, Industrial Research Institute of Nagano Prefecture, etc.

-Toyama,Takaoka prefecture

-Summary of effort

With Toyama prefectural governor Yutaka Nakaoki serving as cluster chairman, and the participation of local universities,
public experimental and research institutions, and businesses based both in Toyama prefecture and elsewhere, the cluster is
engaged in the development of diagnostic and treatment systems for infectious diseases, etc., using human immune functions,
and in herbal medicine diagnostic and treatment systems designed for specific patient constitutions. To date, the cluster has
successfully developed a high-precision “cell chip” that can extract lymphocyte immune cells one at a time, a world-first, and
is expected to actively engage in the development of drugs for treatment of influenza, allergies, and Severe Acute Respiratory
Syndrome (SARS), etc.

- Participating institutions

Toyama Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Toyama University, Japan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology,
Toyama Prefectural University, Toyama Industrial Technology Center, etc.
 Since each local area differs in its economic and science and technology being utilized to create new
social background, these elements will not industries that form into a cluster (see Column 6).
necessarily apply to the formation of particular As can be seen, the “revival of local areas”
clusters. Nevertheless, there are still a number of utilizing distinctive science and technology created
clusters demonstrating growth by using risk in each local area will become increasingly
awareness as an opportunity for reviving the local important in the future as a role that science and
area. In other words, these are examples of a technology should play from the viewpoint of
worsening economic situation in a local area being “science and technology for society” in the local
used as an opportunity to plant the seeds of risk area. But as can be seen in the overseas clusters,
awareness across the entire local area, with various the involvement of local people in the goal of
local leaders congregating in a group centering on reviving local areas is an essential element.
the local administrative institution, and local

[Column 6]

Examples of Revived Local Economies Using Science and

Technology (Examples of advanced clusters overseas)
Germany: Dortmund, North Rhine Westfalia

- Background
Dortmund used to be the central city of Germany’s steel and coal industries, but its economic situation has steadily worsened as
these industries have withdrawn.

- Cluster formation process

Faced with a crisis as the economic and social situation deteriorated, Dortmund city in 1985 established a technology center
with an enterprise incubation function in concert with the local university as an unemployment countermeasure, and also
invited a public materials applied research institute to participate. Later on, a technology park featuring a concentration of
venture businesses was developed next to the university.

- Current situation
Presently about 200 area companies with 8,000 employees are engaged in information technology and software for electronic
equipment, and constitute the core of a cluster that encompasses as many as 40,000 employees when the surrounding area is
included.

United States: Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

- Background
Developed since the late 19th century as the representative example of a modern heavy-industry city (steel industry, glass
industry). Around 1980 these major industries went into a deep depression, resulting in large numbers of unemployed people
and a sudden drop in the area’s population. Furthermore, industrial pollution was degrading the living environment.

- Cluster formation process

In 1985, the city of Pittsburgh joined with local universities (University of Pittsburgh and Carnegie Mellon University, etc.) to
formulate a plan of urban renewal and industrial rejuvenation (Strategy 21). The city established a support institution to
commercialize technologies developed at the local universities, invited in information technology and biotechnology-related
companies, offered support programs for businesses, and developed venture capital.

- Current situation
To date, more than 300 venture businesses have been established, and the area is concentrated with medical product,
biotechnology, and information technology companies. Pittsburgh’s urban renewal program is also well-known all across the
United States as a model example.

Sources: National Institute of Science and Technology Policy, “Survey Research into Success Factors and Promotion Policies
for Local Innovation (interim report) (March 2003)”
The Japan Research Institute, “Survey into Success Factors for Local Industry, Academia, and Government Cooperation, as
Seen in Overseas Examples (March 2002)”
(New Utilization of Science and sectors.
Technology for Local Society) The government has already commenced a
In addition to the utilization of science and project, starting in FY2002, to support university
technology for the revival of local areas through efforts to contribute to the local areas (Special
the creation of new industries, etc., it is important Project for the Promotion of Contributions to Local
in regards to the development of local policies for Areas). This project establishes university-wide
“science and technology for society” to focus organizations for the promotion of university
attention on the local residents, who are the main contributions to local society, and also builds
actors in the local area, and to utilize science and permanent liaison and cooperation structures with
technology for them. the local government unit for the purpose of
In particular, since there is not a great distance bringing the university and local government unit
between the local universities, research institutions, together.
and corporations that are the main actors in At Gunma University, for example, a particular
scientific and technological activities, and the local characteristic of the local environment is the large
residents who receive their results, it should be number of foreign laborers living as local residents,
easier for these institutions to grasp the needs of and the local prefecture’s position as having the
local residents in regards to science and highest level of passenger vehicle ownership per
technology. In this case, the university, which is the person in Japan. As a result, efforts are in progress,
center for the creation of local “knowledge” and in cooperation with the Gunma prefectural
development of human resources, can actively government and affected municipal governments,
utilize human resources and knowledge for the for the development and testing of support systems
benefit of the local area, something the local area designed to assist with the coexistence of foreign
also demands from the university. In particular, the laborers and local residents, and for evaluations of
national universities were all incorporated in April the effects of the automobile society on the lives of
2004, with each national university moving in its prefectural residents (Figure 1-2-24).
own independent environment to engage in In FY2003, 26 universities were selected to
appealing education and research activities in participate in the project, with efforts oriented to
response to the expectations of people and society, resolve the particular issues unique to each local
and expectations are high that they will be able to area, and expectations are high for the project’s
respond flexibly to social trends and demands, and future.
at the same time, make contributions to society
over a broad range of
 Gunma University Local CCoonntrtirbibuutitoionnPPlalann
Gunma Prefecture-University Cooperation Promotion Council
Gunma University
Gunma Prefecture Gunma University Local Cooperation Promotion Headquarters
Headquarters chief: University president

Education committees
Municipalities Industrial sector

Local issues Medical, health, welfare

Development, utilization of multicultural mutual support system
Evaluation of effects of car society on prefecture residents Local CooperationLocal Joint Promotion OfficeResearch Center
Local medical priority project

Increased incidenceHollowed out urban Social Contribution Promotion Committee

Support program for children skipping school of life diseases due to districts, weaker public
lack of exercisetransport systems
Academic
Gunma Prefecture Rehabilitation Center sectors

Health exams for foreigners Gunma Prefecture Social Welfare Council

Medical check for high school ball players

Pediatric allergies and ailments survey
Local rehabilitation support project
International volunteer training project

People’s understanding and spread of organ transplant medicine

Life centered around the car
Foreign laborers and families
Local residents

“Protect Life” education project

Mutual assistance and advice windowDeteriorating airLower awareness
quality, noise, andof transport methods, road conditionsmorale Gunma Organ Transplant Promotion Foundation
Development of administrative advice support program
Gunma Prefecture Doctor’s Association

Development of emergency response system Problems arising in car society Establishment of local medical network

Sharing different cultures Sharing cars and people Sharing local medicine

Construction of cooperative system for mutual

assistance society

Development of local society and local economy

Figure 1-2-24 Example of a university’s effort to contribute to its local area (Gunma University)

Source: Prepared by MEXT

and society, as well as to building a new
(How Science and Technology Will relationship for Japan as a whole between “science
Assist in The Revival of Local Sreas in and technology and society.” In this regard, it will
the Future) be important for each local area to be actively
As seen in the results of the public opinion poll, pressing forward in their efforts.
the development of policies from the viewpoint of
“science and technology for society,” at a time 1.2.2.3 Intra-sector Efforts
when the people’s interest in science and
technology is declining, first requires that Efforts in regards to “scientific and technological
utilization of science and technology be oriented progress related to safety and security” and the
toward meeting resident needs in local areas and “revival of local areas using science and
resolving their societal issues. technology,” discussed above, require comprehensive
As mentioned in Section 1.2.1, no one knows efforts that go beyond the boundaries between
when SARS, avian influenza, or some other new sectors, such as between the natural sciences on one
infectious disease that constitutes the latest hand and the humanities and social sciences on the
problem threatening the safety and security of other.
society will break out in some local district. For This section discusses the importance of efforts
this reason, residents of local areas can be expected that transcend sector boundaries, the current state
to increasingly look toward local science and of such efforts, and the issues facing them.
technology to provide scientific knowledge that
they can trust and feel secure about. (Importance of Compre hensive
In the future, the science and technology created
and accumulated in each local area will be linked to Viewpoints that Transcend Sector
the revitalization of long-existent industries, and in Boundaries)
a broad sense to revitalization of the local economy As science and technology has become more
closely related to our daily lives, and the range of
human activities has expanded, people’s sense of specialized or detailed sectors, and integration of
values and demands have diversified for more knowledge obtained in such differing sectors as the
convenience, more ease of use, and more natural sciences, and humanities and social
functionality. In addition, as science and sciences, or in other words, integration of intra-
technology have progressed, the structure of sector efforts.
society has itself undergone great changes, and the
various phenomena arising in society have become
more complex. In response to these changes in
(Researcher Awareness of Trans-sector
society, a new comprehensive viewpoint is needed Efforts)
in order to build a generally optimum relationship How aware are researchers regarding efforts that
between science and technology and society. transcend sector boundaries?
With science and technology becoming more According to the “Survey of the State of Japan’s
advanced, the various sectors in the natural Research Activities (FY2003)” conducted by the
sciences have become more specialized and Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and
detailed. But problems related to the global Technology, about 60% of researchers responded
environment, to the safety and security of society, that they are interested in research that transcends
and many other issues facing society today are sector boundaries (Figure 1-2-25).
complex issues with a large number of causes, and In regards to the reasons for their interest, about
their resolution cannot be achieved using 80% of researchers responded with “because I
specialized or detailed knowledge alone, but only think it is essential for promoting research in
through the concerted use of all knowledge response to social issues” (Figure 1-2-26), amply
available. demonstrating their recognition of the importance
What is needed today to resolve these kinds of and necessity of trans-sector efforts in their
problems is integration of knowledge from various relationship with society.

Not interested No response

7.0% 1.8%

Cannot say either way 28.0%

Interested
63.1%

Figure 1-2-25 Interest in trans-sector research

Source: MEXT. "Survey of the State of Japan’s Research Activities (FY2003)"
 Was essential for promoting research in response to
79.1
societal issues
Could pioneer new research sectors and fields 65.0

Could satisfy own academic interests and curiosity 23.9

23.8
Never had engaged in such efforts or research in the past Was

persuaded by researcher from other sector 5.8

3.9
Could obtain research funding 0.7
Was ordered by research institution or superior to promote 2.1
research 0.8
Othe

r No

response

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 (%)

Figure 1-2-26 Reasons for having interest in trans-sector research

Source: MEXT. "Survey of the State of Japan’s Research Activities (FY2003)"

(State of Trans-sector Efforts) 1980s of a federal circuit appeals court for the
Efforts that transcend sector boundaries are adjudication of intellectual property disputes, and
slowly increasing in number in response to society by the pro-patent policy put forth in the Young
demands, and will surely become an important Report. In addition, the traditional viewpoint that
trend in the future. The efforts described below are living organisms cannot be the target of patents has
representative, and further such efforts can be also been overturned, with the establishment of
expected as society undergoes further change. patents for micro-organisms, etc., and the policy
has been to steadily expand the range of sectors
(1) For the Utilization of Knowledge targeted as intellectual property, while maintaining
In the 21st century, already being called the the highest regard for intellectual property.
“knowledge century,” the accumulation and In Japan, the Basic Law on Intellectual Property
effective utilization of discoveries and knowledge became law in March 2003. In accordance with the
obtained through science and technology have law, the Intellectual Property Strategy Headquarters
become important issues. was established, as was the “Plan for Promotion of
Intellectual property rights are granted by law to the Creation, Protection, and Utilization of
the creators of a broad range of human intellectual Intellectual Property.” This plan notes the
activities, and refer to protection for those rights, as importance of creation, protection, and utilization,
well as to the development of an environment in as well as fostering excellent human resources in
which intellectual property can be actively utilized support of those activities, and uses the viewpoint
and its value demonstrated to the maximum extent. of nationwide social participation to call for
In particular, the life sciences, information and maximum implementation of these various efforts,
communications, and electronics sectors have seen and for their implementation under unified, organic
the creation of many results in recent years due to cooperation. In addition, for particularly important
advances in science and technology, while new policy issues, the law established special research
sectors have appeared that also require protection committees (“Special Research Committee on the
of rights. The appropriate application of rights Method of Patent Protection for Medical-Related
protection to these sectors will require efforts that Behavior,” “Special Research Committee on
transcend the bounds of the study of law and the Content,” and “Special Research Committee on
natural sciences. Strengthening the Foundation for Rights
In the United States, protection of intellectual Protection”) for the performance of investigations
property is supported by the establishment in the and holding of discussions.
 In regards to the protection of intellectual and secure society, new systems in society need to
property, the role of the judiciary is expected to be constructed that integrate usable knowledge.
become increasingly important as the utilization of In April 2000, the Science and Technology
intellectual property progresses. In this regard, the Agency (now part of the Ministry of Education,
Bill for the Establishment of an Intellectual Culture, Sports, Science and Technology)
Property High Court, which is currently being established the “Research Committee into Methods
debated in the Diet (as of late-April 2004), for Promoting Research and Development of Social
stipulates the establishment of a high court for Technologies” (Chairman: Hiroyuki Yoshikawa,
intellectual property disputes, for the expert president of the Science Council of Japan). The
handling of incidents related to intellectual committee issued a report in December 2000 in
property in order to strengthen and speed up court which it treated as “social technologies” any
responses to intellectual property cases. In addition, “technologies for the integration of knowledge
in order to foster human resources in the area of from multiple domains in the natural sciences, and
intellectual property, education is being promoted in humanities and the social sciences, to build new
in the form of law school and other graduate and social systems,” and then made some proposals
technology management school courses that place regarding the importance of this philosophy and its
emphasis on intellectual property. promotion, as well as regarding research systems
and research domains, etc. The Japan Science and
(2) Toward the Construction of New Technology Agency, which was established based
Social Systems on this report, is now engaged in the promotion of
In order for modern society to resolve the research into social technologies (Table 1-2-27).
various problems it faces, and to shape a
prosperous, safe,
 Table 1-2-27 Examples of research topics in social technology research (FY2003)

Social Recognizes the essence of social problems and constantly discusses modes of research for
Technology achieving their resolution, and performs surveys and research into the systematization and
Research Forum modes of social technologies.

Mission Sets missions deemed to be important for resolution of social problems, organizes research
Program themes necessary for achieving those goals, and implements research.
I. Construction of knowledge system for solution to safety-related social issues
Construction of knowledge systems for safety, and development of design methods for
social technology
Development of dialogue-type communications technology for creation of mutual
understanding and social knowledge
Construction of methods for reutilization of failed knowledge, and of a society that
executes loss avoidance
Development of social psychological devices that prevent organized violations
Cross-section analysis and reconstruction of legal systems related to safety protection

Construction of public risk management concept for safety problems

Research that incorporates both the technological aspects and social aspects of atomic
power safety
Construction of information system concepts that ensure safety in complex, large
technology systems
Construction of chemical industry information disclosure systems – Is it safe?
Implementation of quake risk elucidation and loss reduction strategies – Is our
community safe?
Toward a transport system where everyone can truly feel safe
Systematization of diagnostic information and medical knowledge for medical safety,
and application of information system as foundation for diffusion through society

Consideration of food safety assurance systems/Friction between science and technology,

and society, in food terms
II. Elucidation and resolution of weaknesses in advanced information society
Public Bid-Type Sets research domains needing promotion, based on perspectives deemed important for
Program resolution of social problems, opens research proposals in each domain to public
bidding, and implements research.
Research domain I “Social System/Social Technology Theory”
Research domain II “Recycling Society”
Research domain III “Brain Science and Education”

Source: Materials from the Japan Science and Technology Agency.

Since research into social technologies aims for natural sciences and in the humanities and social
the resolution of societal problems, it is not limited sciences that incorporate knowledge in the
to technological knowledge centered on the natural humanities and social sciences that target individual
sciences, but instead involves the promotion of and group psychology and behavior.
research and development from a broad perspective While such research efforts can be expected to
transcending the bounds of particular sectors, take many forms, one particular example of a
through cooperation between researchers in the research topic now in progress, “construction of a
knowledge system for resolution of societal psychology, and education science, and on the
problems related to safety,” is being implemented accumulation of various on-site tests performed at
as follows. schools. In recent years, these methods have been
First of all, trans-sector cooperation between supplemented by rapid progress in technologies for
researchers in engineering, medicine, law, the measurement of brain functions, which have led
economics, and social psychology promotes to the integration of knowledge from such disparate
research into problems related to safety in each of sectors as brain science, education science,
the sectors, as well as research that cuts across all children’s education science, psychology,
of the sectors. At the same time, the various sociology, medical science, and health science, and
research groups engage in mutual studies and have opened the way for multifaceted research into
opinion exchanges, and then proceed with R&D the brain functions that give rise to the “soul” and
into technologies that contribute to the resolution of “sense,” areas which have not previously been
problems in each sector. Then, the results are successfully elucidated in scientific ways. These
systematically integrated from an overview actions have led to expectations for elucidation of
perspective. In this way, research and development the framework for learning throughout a person’s
aimed at the development of technologies that life, and for contribution to the resolution of these
support a general view and grasp of safety social problems.
problems related to complex and advanced science
In 1999, the Centre for Education Research and
and technology, and of technologies that support
Innovation at the Organization for Economic Co-
decisions on solutions that should be implemented, operation and Development (OECD) launched the
is conducted.
“learning science and brain research” project as a
In addition to the above, research is being place for free discussion by the experts, and
promoted at the present time into the “elucidation research activities based on a research network of
and resolution of weaknesses in the advanced experts spanning a wide range of sectors were
information society,” “social system/social commenced beginning in 2002. In the United
technology theory,” “the recycling society,” and States, the National Institute of Biomedical Imaging
“brain science and education.” and Bioengineering (NIBIB) was established in
2001, as the first engineering-related research center
(3)Healthy Fostering of Intelligence and to be associated with the National Institutes of
Sense Health (NIH), a collection of national research
Japan is currently faced with a barrage of institutions in the medical and biological sectors,
problems spawned by modern society, including and is focusing efforts on promoting research into
the phenomenon of fewer children and more non-invasive measurement of brain functions that
elderly people, pathological worrying by mothers will enable research into “brain science and
about child-rearing failures, abuse of children, education.”
adolescent crime, school truancy, and refusal to go In Japan, the Ministry of Education, Culture,
outdoors. In addition, the human brain is the Sports, Science and Technology established a study
product of many millions of years of biological committee in FY2001 for investigating research
evolution, and how to respond to the rapid changes into “brain science and education,” and studying
taking place in modern society is a new issue research plans, etc., and specific research has
facing humanity. already begun at the Japan Science and Technology
Regarding issues in the educational sphere, Agency.
efforts have long concentrated on the utilization of
knowledge in children’s education science, child
(4)Contribution to an Intellectually shifting in emphasis away from material prosperity
Prosperous Society and toward spiritual prosperity, and future science
Science and technology has to date contributed and technology will need to be able to contribute to
to prosperous lives and societal activities. On the spiritual prosperity as well (Figures 1-2-28, 1-2-
other hand, however, the prosperity that people 29).
demand is

(%)
70

60.0
60

Intellectual prosperity
50

40
28.7
30
Material prosperity
20
9.2
10
Cannot say either way
0

Figure 1-2-28 Trend in type of prosperity sought by the people

Note: Intellectual prosperity: "Since I have reached a reasonable level of material prosperity, I would now like to place more
emphasis on intellectual prosperity and relaxation in my life."
Material prosperity: "I still need to place emphasis on making life more materially prosperous." Source:
Cabinet Office. "Public Opinion Poll on the People's Lives"

Can't say either way Don't know

Don't agree 4.7%
3.1% 6.9%
Agree
58.9%
Somewhat don't agree 4.8%

Somewhat agree
21.6%

Figure 1-2-29 Progress in Science and Technology should also be able to realize
intellectual prosperity

Note: Response to a question asserting that "I think that future progress in science and technology should not be for realization of
material prosperity only, but should also be for intellectual prosperity as well."
Source: Cabinet Office. "Public Opinion Poll on Science and Technology and Society (February 2004)"
 In December 2001, the Basic Law for Promotion studies into the promotion of arts content as a top
of Culture and Arts was passed into law, to promote priority intellectual property that Japan should aim
culture and arts at the national government level. for in the future. At the same time, the Diet is
Based on this law, a basic policy for the promotion currently considering (as of late-April 2004) the
of culture and arts was adopted in December 2002. Bill for Promotion of the Creation, Protection, and
In this basic policy, culture and arts is not limited Utilization of Content. Furthermore, the Japan
to artists or cultural arts groups, or even to certain Federation of Economic Organizations (Keidanren)
lovers of the arts, rather it is defined as being recently issued a memorandum entitled “Toward
essential to the realization of a spiritually Promotion of an Entertainment Content Industry,”
prosperous society in which all citizens can indicating the importance placed on the topic.
experience true relaxation and leisure. In this sense, In the promotion of culture and arts for the
culture and arts is a social asset belonging to all of realization of spiritual prosperity, science and
the people. technology can play a major role. From this
At the same time, culture and the arts are perspective, the Science and Technology Council’s
resources for the realization of high-quality Resource Survey Division released a report in
economic activities. The market for digital content February 2004 on the role of science and
of culture and art is estimated to exceed 2 trillion technology in relation to the future of culture and
yen, marking the sector’s importance as a national art, calling for the “Promotion of Science and
industry for Japan. Internationally, however, Japan Technology in Support of Preservation, Utilization,
is a huge net importer of movies and similar media, and Creation of Cultural Resources.” Based on
and while Japan is internationally competitive in a these proposals, specific policy efforts will be
few sectors such as animations, the country has in needed for the promotion of science and
recent years lagged behind the United States and its technology for the creation of media arts and other
huge reservoir of advanced production technology. cultural resources supported by technology,
Moreover, with Asian countries such as China and investigation and scientific analysis for the
Korea having advanced technology combined with preservation and utilization of cultural assets, the
low personnel expenses, Japan is in danger of being promotion of technology for preservation and
left behind in the international arena. display using virtual reality, and the re-evaluation
In this situation, the Intellectual Property of the social value of contributions of science and
Strategy Headquarters is currently engaged in technology to culture.
 [Column 7]

Scientific Analysis of Arts and Crafts

Nanostructural analysis of Imari ware

The blue patterned pottery (“sometsuke” (underglaze cobalt blue)) representative of Imari ware was a popular export
product of the Edo Period. The patterns were created using a pigment called gosu (huiqing), whose main component was
cobalt oxide, topped by a glaze (smear), and then baked until the glaze became a glass freshly highlighting the underlying
blues.
The blue seeping into the glazed layer was altered by the effects of transitory metallic components in the gosu, by the
amount of glaze used, and by oven temperature and other conditions. Moreover, the gosu varied in composition and
manufacturing method by location and over time, making it possible for experts to discern the place and time of production
based on the coloring and composition of the tterns. Furthermore, it was difficult to analyze using traditional methods, but
the latest modern technology has made it possible to perform structural analyses of Imari ware at the nanolevel, which
should allow further refinements to the classification of these masterworks in place and time.
Examination of the nanostructure of the colored area of a piece of Imari ware clearly reveals the existence of cobalt (Co)
globules floating in the glass layer.

Geometric analysis of Edo komon patterns

The fabric pattern known as Edo komon was popular from the Muromachi Period (late 16th century) on through the Edo
Period (1600 to 1868), and several thousand types of patterns are known.
Research into the classification of these patterns utilizes knowledge based on systematized crystallography. The result has
been a successful sorting of komon patterns into a number of grid types.
In the famous Same (shark-pattern) komon, the quasi-regularity of the apparently random points can be understood as an
amorphous structure. Further rigorous analysis could reveal that the pattern’s beauty lies in its subtle shift from perfect
pattern regularity.
Such scientific pattern analysis could lead to new pattern proposals being designed on computers.

Source: Science and Technology Council’s Resource Survey Division Report (February 2004), “Promotion of Science and Technology in
Support of Preservation, Utilization, and Creation of Cultural Resources”
(5) Fostering Human Resources with generation; it focuses on creative and strategic
Specialist Knowledge in Both innovation for sustainable development. In order to
Technology and Management foster human resources that are capable of handling
For the revitalization of Japan’s economy and these MOT activities (MOT personnel), the
society, the creation of sustainable innovation is development of MOT programs that aim for
important. Therefore, human resources are required understanding of both technology and management
who possess advanced scientific and technological is now in progress. To ensure that a practical MOT
knowledge, and who have the experience and program suited to the conditions of Japan’s
knowledge to handle patents and other intellectual economy and society is developed, it is important
property, and to commercialize and manage the that the “industry” related to operations be actively
results. Meanwhile, in response to the recent brought together with the “academy” related to
economic situation, corporations are outsourcing education.
their education (training) departments, or are Meanwhile, with the recognition that MOT
looking for specialist personnel who have real personnel and other management personnel are
skills from the moment they enter the company, lacking both in terms of quality and numbers
and their expectations for education performed in (Figure 1-2-30), future assurance and fostering of
universities have risen extremely high. human resources, as well as improvement in the
Management of Technology (MOT) is quality of human resources, will require further
management in corporations and organizations that promotion of policies, and further development is
place technology at the core of their business and expected in all institutions.
that continuously create business for the
next
(
%
Shortage )
7
0

Shortage in both quality and quantity

Start-up support
60 personnel Knowledge asset
personnelJudges
Interpreters
Shortage in quantity
Degree of quantitative shortage

50
Technicians
Human resources mediating between science
40 Research assistants and technology and society

Research support personnel Evaluation

30 personnel

20
Research administrators MOT personnel
Engineers Shortage in quality
Management personnel
10 Relatively satisfactory in both quality and quantity

0
0 10 20
30 40 50 60 70 (%)

Balance between satisfaction and shortage Degree of qualitative shortage Shortage

Figure 1-2-30 Shortages of science and technology human resources seen by researchers

Note: Each index figure represents a valid response value subtracting shortage response from satisfactory responses.
Source: MEXT. "Survey of the State of Japan's Research Activities (FY2002)"
(Promotion of Trans-sector Efforts) natural science sectors.
As can be seen from the above, efforts
transcending sector boundaries for the resolution of 1.2.3 Application of New Technologies to
social issues are occurring in various circumstances
throughout society. In order for science and
Society
technology to contribute to society, these kinds of
efforts will become increasingly important in the 1.2.3.1 Two Sides of the Influence of
future. Science and Technology
Moreover, to boost Japan’s international
competitiveness still more, it is important that In most cases, science and technology
distinctive new sectors be created. Many of these inventions and discoveries have been profitable for
new sectors will undoubtedly be formed through a society. At present, science and technology
fusion of existing sectors, cooperation between the outcomes are utilized in a diverse variety of forms,
natural sciences and the humanities and social and bring much profit to society, while at the same
sciences through a fusion of science and time their application has also led to unforeseen
technology with culture and arts, or other aesthetic issues for society.
sectors, or some other efforts that transcend sector As explained in Section 1.2, science and
boundaries. technology can contribute to industrial
While the cooperation of experts in various development, to improvement in life’s conveniences
sectors is needed, of course, for the smooth for people, and to realization of material prosperity.
promotion of trans-sector efforts, it is becoming On the other hand, it also leads to all kinds of
increasingly important to foster personnel who are environmental problems including destruction of
capable of taking a broad viewpoint to combine the natural environment and other problems.
various forms of knowledge, or who can take a Utilization of new science and technology alone is
bird’s-eye view of events. Such development of not enough to attempt resolution of environmental
human resources can take the form of a stronger problems; a societal response is also needed,
educational perspective in, for example, graduate through such means as development of programs
school Ph.D. courses that foster researchers with such as the Basic Environment Law and the Air
advanced specialization on broad foundations of Pollution Prevention Law, and through promotion
knowledge, guidance provided at the university of changes in people’s modes of living toward
level by multiple professors, introduction of double lifestyles that take the environment more into
major programs (efforts to systematically take consideration.
courses in sectors outside of the main course major As can be seen, the process of applying science
program), or support for all these efforts. and technology to society requires investment in
In addition, the humanities and social sciences social infrastructure and the development of
are expected to play important interdisciplinary programs designed to promote such applications, as
roles in reflecting on human management and well as responses to newly appearing social issues.
various social phenomena. In Japan, however, it In fact, according to results from the “Public
has been pointed out that research in the humanities Opinion Poll on Social Awareness,” people’s
and social sciences has not always been sufficient favorable awareness of science and technology is
in tackling issues related to science and technology, declining year by year, revealing the complex
and to society. If trans-sector efforts are to be feelings people have toward progress in science
effectively used for appropriate responses to social and technology (Figure 1-2-31).
issues, it will be necessary to promote the
humanities and social science sectors, as well as
the
 （％）
30
Moving in favorable direction
Moving in unfavorable direction
20.4 18.2
19.0
20
14.8

10
1.5 2.0 2.1 2.5

0
December December December February 2004
1998 2000 2002

Figure 1-2-31 Changes in people's awareness of the direction of science and technology

Source: Cabinet Office. "Public Opinion Poll on Social Awareness"

On the other hand, as the “Survey on the standards (Figure 1-2-32). For this reason, it is
Awareness about Science and Technology (2001)” important in the application of science and
found, most people believe that progress in science technology in society that the benefits and issues
and technology has made life more comfortable, include a study of the social aspects alongside a
and expectations are high for the future role of restudy of the technological aspects, to ensure that
science and technology in promoting progress in science and technology and the benefit
socioeconomic growth and boosting people’s to society are not canceling each other out.
living

Strongly Don't know

13.0% Strongly agree
disagree
1.0% 6.0%

Disagree
13.0%

Agree
67.0%

Figure 1-2-32 Awareness of opinions regarding science and technology making life more
comfortable

Note: Response to the assertion that "Science and technology has made life more healthy, simple, and comfortable."
Source: National Institute of Science and Technology Policy. "Survey on the Awareness about Science and Technology (2001)"
1.2.3.2 Dealing with Ethical, Legal, ・ develop policy options to assure that
and Social Implications of Science the information is used for the benefit
and Technology of the individual and society.

As can be seen by the bioethics issue, in the In response to this report, the National Human
application of new technology in society, Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), operating
investigation into its social aspects should not be under the National Institute of Health (NIH), and
limited to effects on the natural environment or on the Department of Energy (DOE) commenced
people’s health, but should also extend to specific investigations of ELSI. The NIH and DOE
consideration of the effect on ethics and on the committed 3-5% of their Human Genome Project
legal order, and of various other social effects. budgets to ELSI-related efforts.
To put a general name on the ethical, legal, and In the United States, measures are also being
social issues that are generated in society alongside taken in the relationship of society to the
progress in science and technology, this discussion nanotechnology sector. As noted in Section 1-1, the
will hereafter use the acronym ELSI (Ethical, Legal, “21st Century Nanotechnology Research and
and Social Implications). In recent years, a number Development Act” of December 2003 establishes
of foreign countries have been promoting efforts research programs for consideration of the
into the study of ELSI, for promotion of science implications for society of the ethical, legal, and
and technology and clarification of the environmental aspects of nanotechnology, thus
accompanying social effects and the responses incorporating into official regulations specific
required. investigations of ELSI.
Because ELSI is strongly linked to the social In Europe, the EU’s Sixth Framework Program
systems prevailing in each country, and to people’s (2002 to 2006) established the Science and Society
cultural background and sense of values, examples program from the perspective of encouraging
from individual countries may not always be dialogue between the scientific community and the
directly applicable to Japan. For this reason, Japan people of Europe, and the program has promoted
needs to actively pursue its own efforts in regards research into the ethical aspects of science and
to ELSI. technology.
As can be seen, in Western nations specific
efforts are being promoted for research into ethical,
(International Trends)
legal, and social implications, including positioning
In the United States, when the Human Genome
of public programs and investment of funding,
Project (HGP) was first implemented, there were
which, based on the recognition that science and
high expectations for the contribution that analysis
technology are the foundations supporting the
of the human genome would make toward
future of society, ensure that science and
promotion of the health of humanity, but also fears
technology and society, do not drift too far apart.
from the very beginning of the project’s concept
stage about how individual gene data would be
handled and other social issues. As a result, studies (Study and Response into the Social Implications of
were commenced into ELSI in regards to human Science and Technology
genome research, and the following ELSI efforts —Centering on the Bioethics Issue)
were listed as necessary in the first report, issued in Scientific and technological advances in the life
1990: sciences have been remarkable, contributing to
huge developments in medicine, and to resolution
・address and anticipate the implications of food and environmental issues, and raising
for individuals and society of mapping expectations of the development of wholly new
and sequencing the human genome; industries. On the other hand, because these
・examine the ethical, legal and social ramifications sciences target humanity and because they open the
of mapping and sequencing the human genome; door to the artificial creation of functions and
・stimulate public discussion of these issues; characteristics that do not exist in nature, and
for
other similar reasons, consideration for bioethics result was the enactment and promulgation of the
and the assurance of safety is needed. Here in “Law Concerning Regulation Relating to Human
Japan, as well, discussion between experts and Cloning Techniques and Other Similar
people are now in progress on multiple fronts in Techniques.” in December 2000. This law bans the
bioethics and safety issues. transfer of human cloned embryos, etc., into human
While the specific problems and issues requiring or animal wombs for the purpose of producing
attention may vary depending on the research human cloned individuals, and stipulates severe
content and state of implementation, some of the penalties for violators. In addition, in regard to the
concerns that have been raised include the problem creation of human cloned embryos, the law calls
of respect for people, the problems of the right to for the Council for Science and Technology Policy
self-determination and invasion of privacy in to engage in discussions about the future handling
research that targets human subjects, and the risks of fertilized human embryos, while banning the
to human health and life, and also go beyond these practice for the time being, in accordance with
issues to include concern about the effects on the guidelines established under the law.
environment. Moreover, with the heightened Meanwhile, in response to the moves of a few
societal interest in the subject in recent years, there scientists after the birth of Dolly to attempt
is a need for promotion of greater understanding in production of a human clone, Germany and France
society and particular groups. joined in 2001 to propose the start of negotiations
In response to this situation, the Biotechnology at the United Nations for the adoption of an
(BT) Strategy Council prepared a BT strategy international treaty banning the production of
outline in 2002, in which it called for the cloned humans, and discussions began toward the
“promotion of ethical, legal, and social issues in adoption of such a treaty. At present, while the
regards to BT.” shape of an agreement regarding prohibition of the
Here follows some examples of research, production of human cloned individuals is in sight,
looking at their significance and social there is disagreement between countries insisting
implications, and the responses made (Table 1-2- that the creation and utilization of human cloned
33). embryos for research purposes should be banned in
the treaty, and countries insisting that the handling
(1) Cloning Technology of human clone embryos should be regulated by
The birth of the cloned sheep Dolly in the United each country in accordance with domestic
Kingdom in July 1996 attracted the attention of the conditions, and should therefore not be targeted by
world with the successful application of a cloning the treaty. As a result, the United Nations General
technology using the nuclei of mammalian cells, Assembly voted in November 2003 to extend the
which had previously been considered to be discussion period regarding adoption of the treaty
impossible. Cloning technology is widely expected by one extra year.
to contribute to the stable supply of livestock food
sources, to the manufacture of pharmaceutical (2) Human ES Cells
products, to the protection and reproduction of rare Because human ES (Embryonic Stem) cells have
animals, and to mass production of test animals. On the potential to differentiate into every type of cell
the other hand, the suddenly approaching in the human body, they are often called “master
possibility of production of human cloned cells.” Cells that are lost to disease or accident, and
individuals carries with it ethical and social issues which cannot regenerate on their own, for example,
from the perspective of raising the possibility of could be created from human ES cells and then
infringing on respect for human life. Other issues transferred into the body, opening up new
focus on safety, such as the appearance of gene treatments of ailments that were previously
abnormalities in animal testing. considered to be difficult to cure. But human ES
In Japan, as well, in September 1997 the cells are created (established) through the
(then-called) Council for Science and Technology destruction of a human embryo, giving rise to
established the Bioethics Committee to engage in ethical issues, because a human embryo that could
studies into the issue, including hearings for have developed into a fetus if it had been
gathering public comment from the people. The
transferred into a human womb is being used for a insurance contracts, for example, will require
purpose other than the birth of a human life. consideration of serious societal issues.
As a result, the Bioethics Committee Faced with these issues, in Japan, the Council for
Subcommittee on Human Embryo Research was Science and Technology’s Bioethics Committee
established in 1999 under the Council for Science laid down basic principles in June 2000 in regards
and Technology (which was renamed the Council to human genome research. Based on these
for Science and Technology Policy in January principles, the Ministry of Education, Culture,
2001), to engage in studies into the utilization of Sports, Science and Technology joined with the
human embryos for research purposes, followed in Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare and the
September 2001 by the “Guidelines for the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry in March
Establishment and Utilization of Human ES Cells” 2001 to establish the joint “Ethical Guidelines for
being adopted by the Ministry of Education, Human Genome and Gene Analysis Research.”
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. These The guidelines stipulate an emphasis on respect for
guidelines require that careful ethical and societal people, securing individuals’ consent (informed
consideration be taken in regards to the handling consent), protection of individual information,
of human embryos. appropriate return of research results to society,
In other countries, as well, ethical discussions in and procedures for ethical investigations in
regards to human ES cells are recognized as research institutions.
necessary, and the preparation of frameworks in
regards to ethical issues is in progress. Moreover, a
number of countries have drawn up rigorous laws
(4) Gene Recombinant Tests
and public ordinances in regards to the handling of Gene recombinant technology, which is already
these cells. in technical use in society, is well-suited to
elucidation of the framework of living things, to the
efficient manufacture of medical and
(3) Human Genome and Gene Analysis pharmaceutical products, and to the improvement of
Research agricultural crops, etc., and expectations are high
The human genome is the blueprint for human for its technological applications. On the other
life, and human genome and gene analysis research hand, one social concern is the fear of the adverse
has led to the development of new treatment effect it may have on biodiversity and on
methods through the explication of affected genes, sustainable utilization.
and to clarification of people’s tendencies to catch In addition, the handling of living things using
disease based on their genetic characteristics, gene recombinant technology has developed into
which is leading to expectations of medical an international issue. In 2000, the “Cartagena
treatment suited to specific individuals (the so- Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on
called “tailor-made medical treatment”), and other Biological Diversity” was adopted under the
major contributions to progress in the life sciences auspices of the Convention on Biological Diversity,
and health treatment science. On the other hand, for the purpose of adopting measures in line with
information obtained in the process of human the safe transport, handling, and utilization of gene
genome and gene analysis research will enable the recombinant lifeforms that could adversely affect
identification of genetic factors in the providers of the protection of biological diversity and their
specific samples and all their blood relatives, which sustainable utilization, with particular focus on the
could lead to various ethical, legal, and social appropriate control of movement that crosses
problems. In addition, while information regarding international borders. In Japan, the “Law for
the analysis of gene structure or function could be Preservation of Biological Diversity Through
utilized in tests, diagnoses, and medical treatment, Regulation of the Use, etc., of Gene Recombinant
utilization of such information to determine the Lifeforms, etc.,” stipulating the domestic measures
gender of unborn children, to discriminate in required to conform with the protocol, was passed
employment, or to influence the content of in June 2003.
 Table 1-2-33 Life sciences in Japan, the ethical issues, and responses
Life science research issues Expected societal benefits Presumed societal issues Japan's response to date

Cloning technology Stable supply of livestock, Production of cloned Law Concerning

etc., manufacture of humans (violation of Regulation Relating to
pharmaceuticals, respect for people, risks to Human Cloning
protection and restoration the human bloodline and Techniques and Other
of rare animals, large- human body), etc. Similar Techniques
scale supply of test (issued in December
animals, regeneration 2000)
medicine, etc.

Human ES cell research Regeneration medicine, Destruction of human Guidelines for the
etc. embryos, "the germination Establishment and
of human life" Utilization of Human ES
Cells (announced in
September 2001)

Human genome and gene Development of Misuse of individuals' Ethical Guidelines for
analysis research medicines suited to genetic information, Human Genome and
individuals (tailor-made effects on social Gene Analysis Research
medicines), etc. evaluation, etc. (announced in March
2001)

Gene recombinant testing Elucidation of lifeform Adverse effects on Recombinant DNA test
frameworks, efficient biodiversity and guidelines (announced in
manufacture of sustainable use, etc. 1974, abolished in
pharmaceuticals, etc., February 2004)
improvement and stable
supply of farm products, Law for Preservation of
etc. Biological Diversity
Through Regulation of the
Use, etc., of Gene
Recombinant Lifeforms,
etc. (issued in June 2003)

Source: Prepared by MEXT

1.2.3.3 Toward the Utilization of New For example, the Internet has vastly broadened
Technologies communications and brought people closer together,
but is also recognized as generating serious social
(Basic Recognition) problems, such as the appearance of on-line dating
As can be seen in the United States, where sites that can encourage criminal activity, the spread
efforts for ELSI are stipulated in the law for of sites that encourage slander against other people,
research in the nanotechnology sector, and intrusions into people’s rights through leaks of
investigation into ELSI is probably needed in personal information.
Japan, as well, and not only in the life sciences, but So while various sciences and technologies have
also in any sectors where the people feel become familiar in people’s lives in recent years,
insecurities about the circumstances, and even in there are still many issues that stimulate discussion
sectors where it is impossible to predict what kind of social issues. For this reason, as well, efforts for
of effects may occur. ELSI will likely be needed for a wide spectrum of
sectors in the future.

(Perspective on Efforts Relating to (Consideration for International Society)

Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications) While international cooperation in science and
In cases where scientific and technological technology has become increasingly active in
progress has ethical implications, and in which recent years, it is easy to imagine that science and
efforts due to legal and other social measures have technology with no social implications for Japan
not kept up, some people feel that the research could have major social implications in some other
itself should not be attempted, even if it can be country, and that the science and technology in that
beneficial to society. country could have social implications in Japan.
But as was discussed in Section 1.2.1, results of For this reason, when engaged in research
science and technology are not linked only to social cooperation with other countries, care must be
benefits, since their effects can spread outward to taken to ensure harmony with international society,
give rise to new science and technology that link to and efforts in ELSI that take into consideration
benefits for future generations. Moreover, activities international trends or conditions in the partner
that pursue the truth, or lead to research that results country for exchanges are required.
in creativity, are related to academic freedom, and
are therefore deserving of respect, because they (Scientists Awareness of Ethical, Legal,
constitute a universal right for satisfying and Social Implications)
humanity’s intellectual curiosity, which is essential According to the “Survey of the State of Japan’s
for the development of society as a whole, and not Research Activities (FY2003),” a questionnaire
just for scientists and technologists. survey directed at researchers, the vast majority of
In ELSI investigations, the focus tends to settle researchers recognize the importance of efforts in
on the negative aspects of science and technology, ELSI, which clarifies the social benefits and issues
and the discussion is based on what needs to be from science and technology, and which also hints
restricted. But an important point that needs at the response needed (Figure 1-2-34).
restating here is that ELSI efforts should proceed Moreover, a large proportion of those
under the assumption that the research results are researchers who recognized the importance of
valid and important for society. Discussions should efforts in ELSI also recognized the need for
never be limited to the negative aspects for society, reforming awareness among researchers and the
and the contributive aspects to society must not be research community (Figure 1-2-35).
overlooked.
Not important at all
0.6%
Not very important
1.7% No response 1.0%
Neither
10.5%

Very important
Somewhat important 47.4%
38.8%

Figure 1-2-34 Researcher awareness of research into ethical, legal, and social issues

Source: MEXT. "Survey of the State of Japan's Research Activities (FY2003)"

 Reform awareness among researchers and in the
53. 0
research community (academic associations, etc.)

Make suitable national government or corporate, etc.,

29.2
use of ELSI research results
Strengthen links between researchers in the
26.9
humanities and social sciences, and those in the
natural sciences
Foster human resources to become expert in ELSI research 25.7

More financial support from national government, 24.6

etc.
23.3
Increase awareness in own research institution

Other
1.5
No response
0.7

0 20 40 60
80 (%)

Figure 1-2-35 Efforts required for promotion of future research into ethical, legal, and
social implications

Source: MEXT. "Survey of the State of Japan's Research Activities (FY2003)"

It follows that the promotion of ELSI efforts experts in the natural sciences, but also be extended
requires that researchers, academic associations, to experts in as broad a spectrum of sectors as
and other members of the research community possible, such as researchers in the humanities and
recognize the importance of efforts for ELSI. But social sciences, including experts in ethics and law,
with the present situation, where already the vast as well as policymakers, and that discussions reach
majority of researchers recognize the importance of beyond sector boundaries.
efforts for ELSI, it is probably the community For this purpose, in regards to practical support
where the fostering of consciousness of ELSI is for the establishment of ELSI efforts, and for the
most needed in the future. development of a suitable environment, as well as
At the same time, it is also important for the for such issues as fostering human resources,
countries, corporations, and others actually sharing information, and transmitting that
utilizing the results of science and technology to information to society, comprehensive efforts
put discernment obtained through investigation of extending to the nation overall, including research
ELSI to practical use. In addition, it is important institutions, corporations, and governments, rather
that participation in studies of the various issues than to individual researchers alone, are important
that arise at the point of contact between science for ensuring that science and technology can truly
and technology and society, using the relationships be accepted and utilized as being for society.
between various social models, not be restricted to
1.2.4 Japan’s international contributions state.
Japan’s advanced competence for science and
(Contribution as a Leader in Science and technology has created excellent results in
Technology) automobiles, electrical equipment, and compact
Japan has historically introduced and developed equipment, etc., and these have gone out to the
many sciences and technologies from overseas, and world, contributing to the improvement of societal
in that sense can be considered to be the recipient of convenience in countries everywhere. According to
many benefits from international society. At the “Public Opinion Poll on Science and
present, Japan is a major economic power that is Technology and Society (February 2004),” many
ranked No.2 in the world in terms of GDP, and is people in Japan recognize that Japan’s science and
now aiming to become a world leader in science technology is more advanced than that of most
and technology, and as can be seen by studies now foreign countries (Figure 1-2-36). At the same
in progress at the Council for Science and time, a public opinion poll of attitudes toward
Technology Policy, the Advisory Council on Japan in Western nations found that even residents
Economic and Fiscal Policy, and elsewhere, based of advanced nations hold high expectations for
on the state policy of an Advanced Science- and Japan’s international contribution in the area of
Technology-Oriented Nation, the promotion of science and technology (Figure 1-2-37).
science and technology is a top priority issue for the

Don't
know
8.7%
Cannot say either way
6.3%
Agree
Don't agree at all 6.6% 27.8
%

Don't agree very much

15.2%

Somewhat agree 35.5%

Figure 1-2-36 Awareness that Japan's science and technology is more advanced than most
foreign countries

Note: Response to question about the assertion that "Japan's science and technology is more advanced than most foreign
countries."
 (
%)
2002 92 91
100 1996

80

57

60
40
37 35

40
19 20 17
17
12 10
20

0 U.K. Germany France Italy Netherlands U.S.

Figure 1-2-37 Proportion of respondents in foreign countries selecting science and

technology when asked where Japan should make a greater international
contribution

Note: For the United States, the result shows the proportion of respondents who selected the "science and technology
sector" in response to the question "in what sector should Japan play an important international
role."
Source: UK, Germany, France, Italy, Netherlands: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. "Public Opinion Poll on Attitudes Toward
Japan in Five EU (European Union) Countries (April 2003)" United States: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. "Public
Opinion Poll on Attitudes Toward Japan in the United States (among the general public) June 2002)"

As can be seen, many people today believe that Earth, because resources would quickly be
Japan will make an international contribution in exhausted and the environment destroyed. As a
science and technology. But while science and result, the role played by science and technology
technology has helped to improve the living will be increasingly important in promoting
standards of mankind in general, it may also be “sustainable development,” which aims to leave a
promoting a widening divide between nations. The nice living environment for future generations, and
Digital Divide, for example, describes a new divide to maintain and develop the living standards of our
that has arisen between the countries that are able own generation.
to catch up with the progress of leading-edge In response to the 2002 Johannesburg Summit,
science and technology, and those countries that Japan is making specific efforts to support the
are not capable of such responses, and it could well formation and implementation of environmental
be widening the economic gap between the two. policies, through cooperation in fostering human
In addition, any attempt to promote in all regions resources, as well as through Earth observation and
everywhere the mass production, mass other activities related to S&T. At the Evian
consumption, and mass waste that has been the Summit of G8 advanced nations in 2003, Japan
hallmark of economic development in the advanced announced to international society that science and
nations would clearly be impossible in a physically technology is the key to upholding both world
limited economic growth
 and the preservation of the global environment, With demand rising for a science and technology
after which the “Science and Technology G8 strategy from the international perspective, the
Action Plan for Sustainable Development” was leading role that Japan plays in the utilization of
adopted. Following the summit, Japan hosted the science and technology for ensuring society’s
Earth Observation Summit II in Tokyo in April safety and security, discussed in Section 1.2.2, as
2004. In this meeting, recognizing that Earth well as in various other efforts related to science
observation holds the key for understanding the and technology for society, and to science and
Earth, for strengthening the safety and welfare of technology in society, should be considered
people’s lives, and for ensuring sustainable growth extremely important, as one of Japan’s
for our society, several goals for socioeconomic contributions to international society, and as one of
benefits were clarified, including to “reduce human its policies for demonstrating an international
and property losses due to natural disasters,” presence.
“respond to climate change,” and “improve water
resource management.” Moreover, based on a
review of past Earth observation activities, Japan (Contributions to the Asia Region)
has actively played a role in the establishment of a In the late 19th century, Japan aimed for
framework for an Earth observation industrial development toward the goal of
implementation program over the next 10 years, to formation of a modern state, and then in the mid-
construct a new Earth observation system with the 20th century for economic growth toward the goal
cooperation of the member countries and related of recovery from World War II, in both cases
institutions. harnessing science and technology as a national
policy for the modernization and industrialization of
Other specific contributions related to science
the state. Meanwhile, the science and technology
and technology include efforts to develop
that was so deeply rooted in the culture of the
technology for humanitarian reasons for the
nations of the West penetrated deeply into Japan’s
detection and removal of antipersonnel mines, now
society, completely overturning it and leading in
being promoted by the Japan Science and
some cases to the discarding of older traditions and
Technology Agency, and the project is expected to
customs. Japan, after a period of worry about how
be an international and visible contribution of
to maintain traditional culture in the face of science
Japan’s advanced science and technology.
and technology, is now universally recognized as
In recent years, Japan has utilized science and
being at the forefront of science and technology.
technology to contribute to improvements in the
Japan’s experience and history as a nation that
quality of life, and has felt the need to take the
introduced science and technology while coming
initiative in dealing with societal issues shared by
from a different cultural background than the
all of humanity in such areas as global
nations of the West offers rich hints for the
environmental and bioethics issues for which
development of science and technology in the
solutions by single countries cannot be successful.
nations of the developing world, and particularly
Moreover, science and technology is now so
for the nations of Asia.
closely connected to the economy and society that
scientists must join with all levels of the people in In a public opinion poll targeting Asian nations
dealing with these problems. (the member nations of ASEAN) on attitudes
toward Japan, people in Asian nations, while
To this end, Japan called for the convening of a
showing some differences from one country to the
Science and Technology in Society Forum of
next, tended to exhibit a high degree of interest in
scientists, policymakers, economists, journalists,
Japan’s science and technology (Figure 1-2-38).
and others to discuss such international issues as
While the results probably need to be treated with
the global environment and bioethics, in relation to
some care, because the survey targeted the literate
the future of mankind. With an enthusiastic
classes, they do show the importance for Asian
international response to the idea, the forum was
countries, with their similarity to Japan in being
held in November 2004, with an agenda that
culturally distinct from the nations of the West, in
included discussion of how to achieve harmonious
engaging in various research exchanges and
progress between science and technology and
drawing on the current conditions and experiences
society.
of Japan’s science and technology.
 (Country name) 7
33 Government and
14 17
14 23 diplomacy
Indonesia
43
8
20 Economy
3
8
33
15
19 Corporations active
Malaysia 27
21 overseas
32
11 23
1
Economic
12 cooperation
43
30
32
Philippines 21
13 Culture and arts
52
14
26
0
7 History and
1 13 traditions
4
Singapore 25
21
20
5 Science and
1 824
technology
10
23 31
Thailand 28 Sports
26
24
48
9
47
3 Lives and ways of
thinking of Japanese
15
42 people
Vietnam 22
28
37 Other
25
39
21 27
2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
(%)
70

Figure 1-2-38 Sectors in which people in ASEAN countries would like to know more about
Japan
Source: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. "Public Opinion Poll on Attitudes Toward Japan in ASEAN Countries (November
2002)"

To date, the Asian countries and Japan have exchange of opinions in scientific sectors by
engaged in a variety of joint activities in science representatives of 10 Asian countries. In response
and technology. For the purpose of promoting to this suggestion, annual meetings of the council
cooperation in scientific sectors in the Asia region, have been held since 2001, contributing to the
and of encouraging mutual understanding, the promotion of international scientific activities in
Science Council of Japan called for the Asian countries (Table 1-2-39).
establishment of a Science Council of Asia for
the
 Table 1-2-39 Countries and organizations participating in the Science Council of Asia
Country name Organization
Japan Science Council of Japan (SCJ)
China Chinese Academy of Space Technology (CAST)
India Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR)
Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI)
Indonesia
Department of National Education
National Academy of Science (NAS)
Korea
Korean Academy of Science and Technology (KAST)
Academy of Sciences Malaysia (ASM)
Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment
Malaysia
(MOSTE)
Institute for Environment and Development
National Research Council of the Philippines (NRCP)
Philippines Philippine Social Science Council (PSSC)
Marine Sciences Institute
Agency for Science, Technology and Research
Singapore
(A*STAR)
Thailand Academy of Science and Technology
Thailand
The Science Society of Thailand (SST)
Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST)
Vietnam Ministry of Health (MOH)

Source: Prepared by MEXT, based on materials from the Science Council of Japan.

If the countries of Asia are to take their places demonstrate its leadership as an advanced scientific
alongside the United States and the countries of and technological country within Asia, so as to
Europe in the fields of science and technology in contribute greatly to the vitality of Asia as a whole.
the future, Japan needs to build a partnership with One specific example of such efforts is at the
them as the nucleus for a long-term perspective in Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, which
the fields of science and technology. has systematically implemented a university
In such an effort, it is important to foster and exchange program for exchanges of researchers on
ensure human resources able to support various a bilateral or multilateral basis to participate in
science and technology activities, and in this regard international joint research, and has contributed to
Japan will need to strengthen programs to invite the formation of a network in Asia. Moreover,
excellent young researchers to Japan for the some problems facing Asian countries include
purpose of fostering front-line class researchers in floods, earthquakes, and other natural disasters, and
Asian countries, while at the same time sending also parasites and infectious diseases. In all these
Japanese researchers to Asian countries. In regard cases Japan has shared similar experiences, and has
to efforts toward global-scale issues, it is important developed advanced technologies for preventing or
to develop activities centering on the Asia region. reducing the effects of natural disasters, and for
Furthermore, Japan can, as a member of the Asia responding to infectious diseases. In regard to the
region, act in concert with Asian countries to technologies in these sectors, Japan has
promote cooperation and exchanges with Western demonstrated international leadership among Asian
nations in science and technology, a process that countries, and is actively engaged in hosting
will require dialogue with Asian nations at the international forums and in performing the
bilateral policy level, as well as the formation, accompanying international surveys and research,
strengthening, and utilization of an Asian network as well as in dispatching people to developing
linking researchers and research institutions in countries to train people in skills for the prevention
Asian countries. of earthquake disasters. Through these activities,
In implementing these efforts, Japan will need to Japan contributes to the Asian countries.
make available technologies in sectors where it has
demonstrated particular excellence, and to