CRO

 In many applications, observing certain voltage waveforms in a circuit plays a crucial

role in understanding the operation of the circuit. For that purpose several
measurement instruments are used like voltmeter, ammeter, or the oscilloscope.
 An oscilloscope (sometimes abbreviated as “scope”) is a voltage sensing electronic
instrument that is used to visualize certain voltage waveforms. An oscilloscope can
display the variation of a voltage waveform in time on the oscilloscope’s screen.
Applying DC voltage to vertical or horizontal plates

Applying DC voltage to both vertical and horizontal plates

Applying pulsating DC to vertical or horizontal plates

Applying pulsating DC to both vertical and horizontal

 Applying a sine wave to vertical or horizontal

Applying phase-shifted sine waves to vertical and horizontal plates

 Block diagram of Simple CRO

Parts of CRO

• CRT

• Vertical amplifier

• Delay line

• Time base

• Horizontal amplifier

• Trigger circuit

• Power supply
The function of the various blocks are as follows.

Cathode Ray Tube:

Cathode Ray Tube is the heart of the oscilloscope. When the electrons emitted by the electron gun strikes
the phosphor screen of the CRT, a visual signal is displayed on the CRT.

Vertical Amplifier
The signal under the analysis is to be applied to vertical deflection plates through the vertical amplifier. In
Vertical Amplifier, The input signals are amplified by the vertical amplifier. Usually, the vertical amplifier is a
wide band amplifier which passes the entire band of frequencies.

Delay Line
Delay Line is a circuit used to delay the signal for a period of time in the vertical section of CRT. The input
signal is not applied directly to the vertical plates because the part of the signal gets lost, when the delay
Time not used. Therefore, the input signal is delayed by a period of time.

Time Base Circuit

Time base circuit uses a uni junction transistor, which is used to produce the sweep. The saw Tooth voltage
produced by the time base circuit is required to deflect the beam in the horizontal Section. The spot is
deflected by the saw tooth voltage at a constant time dependent rate.
Horizontal Amplifier
In Horizontal Amplifier, The saw tooth voltage produced by the time base circuit is amplified by the horizontal
amplifier before it is applied to horizontal deflection plates.

Trigger Circuit
In the Trigger Circuit, the signals which are used to activate the trigger circuit are converted to trigger pulses
for the precision sweep operation whose amplitude is uniform. Hence input signal and the sweep frequency
can be synchronized.

Power supply:
The Power supply voltages required by CRT, horizontal amplifier and vertical amplifier are provided by the
power supply block.
 CRT features
Electrostatic CRTs are available in a number of types and sizes to suit individual
requirements.
The important features of these tubes are as follows.
Size: Size refers to the screen diameter. 3 inches is most common for portable
instruments.
Both round and rectangular CRTs are found in scopes today. The vertical viewing size
is 8 cm and horizontal is 10 cm.
Phosphor: The screen is coated with a fluorescent material called phosphor. This
material determines the color and persistence of the trace, both of which are
indicated by the phosphor. The trace colors in electrostatic CRTs for oscilloscopes are
blue, green and blue green. White is used in TVs and blue-white, orange, and yellow
are used for radar.
Persistence is expressed as short, medium and long. This refers to the length of time
the trace remains on the screen after the signal has ended.
The phosphor of the oscilloscope is designated as follows.
• P1 --Green medium
• P2--Blue green medium
• P5--Blue very short
• P11--Blue short

Medium persistence traces are mostly used for general purpose

applications.
Long persistence traces are used for transients, since they keep the fast
transient on the screen for observation after the transient has disappeared.

Short persistence is needed for extremely high speed phenomena, to

prevent interference caused when one image persists and overlaps with
the next one.
Operating Voltages: The CRT requires a heater voltage of 6.3 volts ac or dc at 600mA.
Several dc voltages are listed below. The voltages vary with the type of tube used.
• Negative grid (control) voltage -14 V to - 200 V.
• Positive anode no. 1 (focusing anode) -100 V to - 1100 V
• Positive anode no. 2 (accelerating anode) 600 V to 6000 V
• Positive anode no. 3 (accelerating anode) 200 v to 20000 V in some cases

Deflection Voltages: Either ac or dc voltages will deflect the beam. The distance
through which the spot moves on the screen is proportional to the dc, or peak ac
amplitude. The deflection sensitivity of the tube is usually stated as the dc voltage (or
peak ac voltage) required for each cm of deflection of the spot on the screen.

Viewing Screen: The viewing screen is the glass face plate, the inside wall of which is
coated with phosphor. The viewing screen is a rectangular screen having graticules
marked on it. The standard size used nowadays is 8 cm x 10 cm (8 cm on the vertical
and 10 cm on horizontal). Each centimeter on the graticule corresponds to one division
(div). The standard phosphor color used nowadays is blue.
 Vertical Amplifier

The sensitivity (gain) and frequency

bandwidth (B. w.) response
characteristics of the oscilloscope are
mainly determined by the vertical
amplifier.

Since the gain- B.W, product is constant,

to obtain a greater sensitivity the BW is
narrowed, or vice-versa.

Some oscilloscopes give two

alternatives, switching to a wide
bandwidth position, and switching to a
high sensitivity position.

The block diagram of a vertical amplifier is shown

The vertical amplifier consists of stages, with fixed overall sensitivity or gain expressed in V/div.

The advantage of fixed gain is that the amplifier can be more easily designed to meet the requirements of
stability and B.W.

The vertical amplifier is kept within its signal handling capability by proper selection of the input attenuator
switch.

The first element of the pre- amplifier is the input stage, often consisting of a FET source follower whose high
input impedance isolates the amplifier from the attenuator.
 Horizontal deflecting system
The horizontal deflecting system consists of a Time Base Generator and an output amplifier.

A continuous sweep CRO using a UJT as a time base generator is shown in Fig.

The UJT is used to produce the sweep.

When the power is first applied, the UJT is off and the
CT charges exponentially through RT;

The UJT emitter voltage VE rises towards VBB and when

VE reaches the peak voltage VP, as shown in Fig.,

The emitter to base diode becomes forward biased and

the UJT triggers ON.

This provides a low resistance discharge path and the

capacitor discharges rapidly. Figure: (a) Sweep Generator (b) continuous Sweep wave

The emitter voltage VE reaches the minimum value The sync pulse enables the sweep frequency to be exactly
rapidly and the UJT goes OFF. The capacitor recharges equal to the input signal frequency, so that the signal is locked
and the cycle repeats. on the screen and does not drift.
 Triggered Sweep CRO

The continuous sweep is of limited use in displaying periodic signals of constant frequency and amplitude. When
attempting to display voice or music signals, the pattern falls in and out of sync as the frequency and amplitude
of the music varies resulting in an unstable display.
A triggered sweep can display such signals, and those of short duration, e.g. narrow pulses. In triggered mode,
the input signal is used to generate substantial pulses that trigger the sweep. Thus ensuring that the sweep is
always in step with the signal that drives it.

(a) Trigger Sweep circuit (b) Sweep waveforms

As shown in Fig., resistance R3 and R4 form a voltage divider such that the
voltage VD at the cathode of the diode is below the peak voltage Vp for
UJT conduction.
When the circuit is switched on, the UJT is in the non-conducting
stage, and CT charges exponentially through RT towards VBB until the
diode becomes forward biased and conducts;

The capacitor voltage never reaches the peak voltage required

for UJT conduction but is clamped at VD .if a negative pulse of
sufficient amplitude is applied to base and the peak voltage Vp
is momentarily lowered .

As a result, capacitor CT discharges rapidly through the UJT until

the maintaining voltage of UJT is reached ;

At this point the UJT switches off and capacitor CT charges

towards VBB ,until it is clamped again at VD
 Delay line

All electronic circuitry in the oscilloscope

(attenuators, amplifiers, pulse shapers,
generators, and indeed the circuit wiring itself)
causes a certain amount of time delay in the
transmission of signal voltages to the deflection
plates.

The horizontal signal (time base, or sweep

voltage) is initiated, or triggered, by a portion of
the output signal applied to the vertical CRT
plates.

Signal processing in the horizontal channel consists of

generating and shaping a trigger pulse (trigger
pickoff) that starts the sweep generator, whose
output is fed to the horizontal amplifier and then to
the horizontal deflection plates.

This whole process takes time on the order of 80 ns

or so.