Review: BIOLOGICAL CONTROL 1
Biological Control: A Review
Ayesha Khalid
Saba Shahzadi
Kiran Hanif
Samia Abdul Rahim
Ayesha Zikria
Department of zoology: Govt. Islamia College for Women University
Dr. Mehwish Khan
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Abstract
A biological control refers to the beneficial effects of predators, parasites, pathogens, and
competitors on pests and their damage. It is the use of natural control agents to control
insect pests and diseases in a non-chemical and environmentally friendly manner. The goal
of this review is to illustrate the fundamental principles of biological pest control, with a
focus on the various agents and techniques that can be used to implement an effective
control program in farms, greenhouses, gardens, and forests. Conservation biological
control, importation (also known as Classical biological control), and augmenting are
examples of these. Classical biological control involves introducing a non-native biocontrol
agent into a new region or nation for long-term pest control. Predators, parasitoids, and
microbial antagonists are, however, the most effective biological control agents used in pest
control.
Keywords
Biological Control, Biocontrol Strategies, Natural Enemies/Biocontrol Agents.
Method
Firstly to understand the topic, Google was used and then Google Scholar as the main
source to find out the articles and to get the citations that are needed for this article review
using the search items: as biological control, biocontrol, principles of biocontrol, biological
control agents, augmentation biological control, conservational biocontrol, Classical
biological control, predators as biocontrol agents, parasitoids as biological agents,
microorganisms as biological control agents and methods of biological control. By following
this search, the first selection was made based on the titles and abstracts of the scholarly
articles and the second selection was done by using the critical reading of the articles. The
third selection was done by using the cross-references in the article and through websites as
Google using Wikipedia, Britannica, agriculture.gov, ResearchGate, Elsevier, Sciencedirect,
and Springer.
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Introduction
Smith (1919) coined the term "biological control" to describe the use of natural enemies,
whether introduced or otherwise manipulated, to control insect pests. Its context has
evolved over the years, and seeking a satisfactory description is challenging, partially due to
the term's applied and educational perspectives. However, some researchers include in this
terminology a variety of other biologically dependent nonchemical forms of control (Wilson
and Huffaker, 1976).
The term Biological control (or biocontrol, that is synonymous) has been defined
many times. A definition by Eilenberg et al., (2001) is:
“The use of living organisms to suppress
the population density or impact of a
specific pest organism, making it less
abundant or less damaging than it would
otherwise be”
Biological control should not require metabolites from different species that are
used for pest control that are not added to the organisms that create them; instead, they
should be known as "biorational control" (Eilenberg, 2006). Biological control, on the other
hand, has been used for over a century, and the history of biocontrol, including its successes
and failures, has been thoroughly studied. For a variety of reasons, interest in biological
control has grown in recent decades. First, a greater awareness of environmental
stewardship among regulators, farmers, and the general public has helped the creation of
more environmentally friendly farming practices. Second, a variety of arthropod pests have
gained resistance to one or more pesticides, forcing farmers to look for other options (Nafiu
et al., 2014).
Finally, customers are increasingly looking for goods that are grown sustainably and
do not contain insecticide residue (Dabbert et al., 2004). Despite this, farmers have been
reluctant to integrate biological pest control into their pest management plans. Biological
influence, for example, is used in just 5% of the estimated 741,290 acres of greenhouses
worldwide. Efficacy, predictability, and cost are the main factors influencing biological
control adoption (Van Driesche et al., 2004).
Biological control is a rapidly evolving field that always brings together scientists
from different disciplines. Ecologists, entomologists, weed scientists, plant pathologists,
insect pathologists, and microbiologists all take various approaches to the topic and have
established specialized vocabularies as a result. (1) Biological control of invertebrate pests
using predators, parasitoids, and pathogens, (2) Biological control of weeds using herbivores
and pathogens, and (3) biological control of plant pathogens using antagonistic
microorganisms and mediated plant resistance are the most common applications of
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biological control agents. Furthermore, biological control is also being investigated in
veterinary and human medical science and practice (Eilenberg et al., 2001).
Biological control is the reduction of insect species by the use of parasitoids, pests,
pathogens, antagonists, or competitor populations, or the use of parasitoids, predators,
pathogens, antagonists, or competitor populations, rendering them less numerous and
therefore less dangerous. There are, however, many more commonly quoted and accepted
concepts of biological control (Gnanamanickam et al., 2002).
The effective detection of pests and any beneficial species with biocontrol potential
is one of the most critical needs in biocontrol programs. This factor has a direct effect not
only on deciding the pest's geographic range but also on obtaining the permits required for
the release of control agents. Furthermore, this simple but critical knowledge has a direct
effect on their effectiveness as biocontrol agents (Grewal et al., 2005).
History of Biological Control
In China, biological pest control dates back to the 16th century. In the third century, they
were the first to use natural enemies to combat insect pests, using nests of the ant
Oecophylla smaragdina in Canton to control citrus insect pests like Tesseratoma papillosa-
Lepidoptera. Date growers in Yemen also traveled to North Africa to collect predaceous ant
colonies, which they then colonized in date groves to combat various pests. For a variety of
reasons, interest in biological regulation has grown in recent decades. First, a greater
understanding of environmental stewardship among regulators, farmers, and the general
public has aided the creation of more environmentally friendly farming methods (Kogan,
1998). Second, a variety of arthropod pests have gained resistance to one or more
pesticides, forcing farmers to look for other options. Finally, customers are increasingly
seeking goods that are grown sustainably and are pesticide-free (Dabbert et al., 2004)
Following the Green Revolution in the second half of the twentieth century,
biological control has resurfaced with renewed vigor in recent years, aided by the
introduction of integrated pest management (IPM) systems. These initiatives were initiated
as a result of the widespread use of agrochemicals, which resulted in a slew of issues
including insect and mite resistance to insecticides and acaricides, as well as pollution of the
environment (Nafiu et al., 2014).
Types of biological control
Four different types of biological control are known: Natural, Conservation, Classical
Biological Control (Importation), and Augmentation (Eilenberg et al., 2001; Cock et
al., 2010).
1. Natural Biological control:
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Natural biological control is a function offered by the ecosystem (Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment, 2005) in which naturally occurring beneficial species minimize pest
organisms. This happens naturally in all of the world's ecosystems, with no human
interference, and is the most important contribution of biological control to agriculture in
terms of economics (Waage and Greathead, 1988).
2. Conservation Biological control:
Conservation biological control is the application of practices that help pests' natural
enemies (predators, parasitoids, and pathogens) reproduce, survive, and be more
successful. Many agricultural and forest insect pests depend on natural enemies to manage
their populations (McCravy, 2008). For pest control, this form of biological control is
currently gaining a lot of publicity. The role of the natural microbiome in suppressing plant
diseases in the soil and crop residues, as well as the role of the natural microbiome in and
on plants in providing immunity to pest and pathogen infection, is the subject of
conservation biological control of plant diseases (Lenteren et al., 2018).
Conservation biological control aims to protect NEs from pesticides and incompatible
cultural practices while also increasing their productivity by providing food sources. During
non-crop times, natural enemies can need pollen and nectar to survive. Natural enemies
may be preserved by supplying them with habitat and tools (El-Wakeil et al., 2017).
Natural enemy preservation can be done by ensuring habitat and support for natural
enemies (Fiedler et al., 2008). Over the winter, they are normally dormant. They must have
good habitat for overwintering unless they are re-released each year (Sotherton, 1984).
Over the winter, they normally hibernate in crop residues, other vegetation, or the soil.
Overwintering natural enemies are normally protected by the ground cover of fruit orchards
and winter crops (such as alfa alfa and breccias). Plants or other food sources for natural
enemies must be added with knowledge of the natural enemies and pest's behavior and
biology (Bianchi and Wäckers, 2008).
3. Classical Biological control:
Natural enemies are collected in an exploration area (usually the pest's origin) and
then released in areas where the pest is invasive in classical biological control, often
resulting in permanent pest population reduction and tremendous economic benefits
(Lenteren et al., 2018).
The importation of pest natural enemies from other countries to a new location
where they do not occur naturally is known as classical biological control. It is the
international introduction of an exotic biological control agent, typically co-evolved, for the
long-term establishment and pest control (Pickett et al., 2004). Traditional biological control
aims to find useful natural enemies, introduce them into the target pest's area, and
permanently create them so that they can provide pest control with little or no human
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interference in the future. Foreign exploration is the term used to describe the hunt for
natural enemies in other countries,
The following steps are involved in the importation process:
1- Determining the origin of the pest that has been introduced.
2- Gathering natural enemies that are associated with the pest or are closely related to it.
3- Selected natural enemies are then subjected to a detailed examination, testing, and
quarantine process to ensure that they will function and that no harmful species (such as
hyperparasitoids) will be introduced.
4- Mass manufacture and release of natural enemies in large numbers.
5- Follow-up experiments are carried out to see whether the natural enemy establishes
itself successfully at the release site and to evaluate the long-term value of its presence
(Nafiu et al., 2014).
4. Augmentative biological control:
The term "augmentation" refers to any form of biological control under which
natural enemies are added regularly, and it typically necessitates the commercial
development of the released agents. Augmentative control has been successfully applied
against a range of open-field and greenhouse pests (Bale et al., 2008). Supplemental
releases of natural enemies that occur in a specific region are used to raise naturally
occurring populations in that area. Small quantities of control agents are released at
intervals to enable them to multiply in the hopes of establishing longer-term control and
thereby controlling the pest at a low level, which is referred to as prevention rather than
cure in Inoculative release. In comparison, inundative release involves releasing a large
number of pests in the hopes of quickly eliminating a harmful pest population and resolving
an issue that has already arisen. Augmentation can be successful, but it is not guaranteed to
function, and it is dependent on the specificity of each pest's relationship with the control
agent (Wikipedia, 2021).
The term population is central to the concept of biological control. Almost all
biological control methods include the use of natural enemy species to kill insect
populations and reduce densities, either forever or temporarily. In certain cases, natural
enemy species are manipulated to permanently alter the food chain around the pest. In
other instances, the released natural enemies are unable to replicate, and only the
individuals that are used have some effect. Any biological control methods aim to improve
the natural enemies' working environments to improve their fates (Driesche et al., 2009).
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There are two general approaches to augmentation: Inundative releases and
Inoculative releases.
Inundative Releases
Inundation means releasing a large number of natural enemies to rapidly reduce a
harmful or near-harmful pest population. It's a preventative measure, with the aim of
achieving immediate pest control. Flooding the crop with numerous releases of insectary-
reared natural enemies is how the inundative strategy works. The released insects control
pests that are present at the time, but later generations are unlikely to survive at sufficient
levels to provide control (Nafiu et al., 2014).
Inoculative Releases
Inoculation means the release of small numbers of natural enemies at
predetermined intervals during the pest cycle, beginning when the pest population is
extremely low. Natural enemies are required to regenerate in order to retain long-term
power. Inoculative releases, on the other hand, are intended to hold the pest at a low
population, never allowing it to reach a point where it causes economic harm; hence, they
are more of a preventive measure (Nafiu et al., 2014).
Discussion:
Biological control research and implementation are gaining traction in developing countries
like Brazil, for both augmentative and conventional biocontrol. In recent decades, increased
educational opportunities in entomology training have resulted in the widespread effective
use of biological control in Brazil. Half of Brazil's sugarcane crop (approximately 4 million
hectares) is subject to pest management using biological control programs involving insects
or pathogens. Brazil's expanding food export markets are adding to the need to minimize
chemical residues in goods (Parra, 2014).
Insect, pest, and weed biological control, both classic and augmentative, has a long
track record of success. Biocontrol practices, on the other hand, have not been widely
embraced or used to their full potential. An initiative of the International Organization for
Biological Control (IOBC) brought practitioners and researchers from a wide range of fields
to identify the major limitations to biocontrol adoption and propose solutions. The following
were some of the barriers to adoption risk aversion and lack of knowledge. Insufficient
interaction and contact with the public, stakeholders, growers, and politicians; unwieldy
regulatory processes; increasingly bureaucratic barriers to access to biocontrol agents;
insufficient engagement and communication with the public, stakeholders, growers, and
politicians biocontrol has significant economic benefits; and Biocontrol sub-disciplines are
becoming increasingly fragmented (Barratt et al., 2018).
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For permanent control over large areas:
The introduction of natural enemies is the only long-term sustainable method for controlling
pests over vast areas. Classical biological control is used where the target pest is an invasive
non-native plant and natural enemies are added.
The technique is known as new-association biological control when the target is a
native pest or an invasive species of unknown origin, and the natural enemies released
against it are from different species (Driesche et al., 2009).
For temporary pest suppression in production areas:
When living organisms are used to control pests, control is accomplished simply by the
organisms that have been released; this biological approach is known as Inundative
biological control. Inundative control is commonly used for short-term crops grown in
monocultures because viable populations of natural enemies with the potential to increase
do not exist in the habitats provided by temporary monocultures. Inundative releases, on
the other hand, are required when damage levels are extremely low, meaning that control
must be achieved in a short period and that rapid control is required during the early stages
of pest infestation.
The foreign release of a living organism as a biological agent with the hope that it
can reproduce and control the pest for a while but not permanently; this biological
approach is termed as Inoculative biological control (Hajek and Eilenberg, 2018).
Biological control agents:
A biological control agent is an organism, such as an insect or plant disease, that is used to
control a pest species (Biological pest control, 2021).
Biological control agents, also known as natural enemies, are organisms that are
used to control pest species, such as insects or plant diseases. Predators, parasitoids, and
pathogens are examples of natural enemies of insect pests, also known as biological control
agents. Plant disease biological control agents are often referred to as antagonists.
Herbivores and plant pathogens are examples of biological weed control agents (Nafiu et
al., 2014).
The use of natural or modified species, gene products, to minimize the impact of
undesirable organisms and favor desirable organisms such as crops, beneficial insects, and
microorganisms is referred to as biological control agents. These agents increase pathogen
resistance, compete with pathogens for space and nutrients, interact through an antibiosis
mechanism, secrete antimicrobial agents against pathogens, and destroy and invade
pathogen spores, mycelium, cells, and endospores. These agents have the potential to be
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useful in the treatment of plant diseases. To control various pest diseases, biological control
agents are an alternative to conventional pesticides and fertilizers. Biotechnological
applications such as genetic manipulation allow us to change the properties of these
biological agents so that they can function in stressful and nutrient-limited environments,
produce more antibacterial and antifungal compounds, and grow under different pH and
temperature conditions than the original strain. The potential for improving the properties
of these biocontrol agents has increased due to advances in molecular approaches (Singh et
al., 2020).
List of Biological Control Agents
● Insect Predators such as spiders, flies, ladybugs, wasps, beetles, and dragonflies.
● Pathogenic microorganisms such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, etc. Coccobacillus bacteria are
more pathogenic to insects. They affect the digestive system of insects and are used against
insects and aphids. The fungi Entomophaga is used against green peach aphid.
● Parasitoids lay eggs in the host body and kill it. It is later used as a source of food for the
developing larva. It is commonly used as biocontrol agents (GDPR, 2021).
Predators:
Predators are mostly free-living animals that eat a large number of prey during their
lives. Since insects are such common crop pests, many of the predators used in biological
control are insectivorous. Lady beetles, especially their larvae, which are active in the
northern hemisphere between May and July, are voracious aphid predators that also eat
mites, scale insects, and small caterpillars. The Colorado potato beetle's eggs and larvae can
also be eaten by the spotted lady beetle (Coleomegilla maculata) (Leptinotarsa
decemlineata) (Wikipedia, 2021). A review of manipulative field studies showed that in
∼75% of cases, generalist predators, whether single species or species assemblages,
reduced pest numbers significantly (Symondson et al., 2021).
Parasitoids
A parasitoid is an insect that feeds and develops within or on other arthropods’
bodies. On a single human, every parasitoid larva evolves and eventually kills the host. Most
parasites are guinea pigs, but some flies and a little number have grown into parasitoids,
moths and lacewings, and even one caddy species (Rafferty, 2021)
The Neotropical region is characterized by its rich biodiversity, resulting in a wide range of
natural enemies of pests represented by parasitoids, predators, and pathogens. Parasitoids
are natural enemies most used around the world for biological control (Colmenarez et al.,
2018).
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Insects that parasitize other insects are commonly referred to as parasites. Parasites
are normally much smaller than their hosts and live for a much shorter period. In most
cases, they do not consume their prey. Tapeworms and ticks are two examples. A parasitoid
is an organism that spends a large portion of its life cycle attached to or within a single host
organism, in a parasitic relationship. Unlike a true parasite, however, it sterilizes or kills the
host and occasionally eats it. When the parasitoid's life cycle is complete, it transforms into
a free-living insect that is no longer reliant on the host (Nafiu et al., 2014).
Pathogens:
Insect pathogens can be used in several pesticide management methods ranging
from inundation releases to increased flooding and classically biological controls, as well as
in microevolution (Cory and Franklin, 2012).
Biological control using pathogens is often called microbial control. Bacterium
Bacillus thuringiensis is a well know microbial control agent that is available commercially
because it is important to verify with your certifier before using all Bacillus thuringiensis
formulations in an organic framework. Several insect-pathogenic fungi are used as microbial
control agents, including Beauveria, Metarhizium, and Paecilomyces (Barbercheck, 2019).
Many insect pests from different families were isolated from insect viruses, which
represent a possible alternative to chemical pesticides. Baculovirus, cypovirus, and
densovirus family viruses were registered as biological control agents. Insect viruses are
considered successful and environmentally friendly and can help achieve sustainable
agriculture objectives by providing an adequate alternative to chemical insecticides which
have negative environmental impacts and non-target species. However, there are also some
limitations to the application of insect viruses as biological control agents. These include its
slow action against its objective, its limited range of host, problems with the processing of
large scales, and the creation of resistance to certain viruses by insects. (Abd-Alla et al.,
2019)
Microorganisms:
Phytopathogens pose an important threat to ecosystem stability and food
production, which shows that the extreme losses caused by these pathogens need to be
controlled using development methods. The use of different chemical pesticides is mostly
practiced to combat these pathogens. These pesticides are related to environmental and
health threats and also poses a risk of phytopathogenic production by forcing researchers to
develop alternative and innovative methods of sustainable plant disease management
(Babbal et al., 2017).
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These microbial agents encourage plant growth and stress tolerance, in addition to
controlling plant pathogens. Bioinsecticides, bio nematicides, and biopesticides can be used
with Biological Control Agents. It is also used in post-harvest disease management. Recently,
recombinant microbes with improved biocontrol capabilities have been developed. Several
biological control agents that are available on a commercial basis are currently used to
manage plant diseases effectively with increased productivity in many cultures (Babbal et
al., 2017).
The pathogenic impact on the target pests of these microorganisms is so unique to
species. Invalidation via the integument or gut of the insect, accompanied by replication of
the pathogen that contributes to the death of the host, for example, of insects, results in the
impact of microbial entomopathogens. Studies have shown that insecticidal toxin is
essential for pathogenesis with pathogens. The majority of the toxins released by known
microbial pathogens are peptides, but their structure, toxicity, and specificities differ greatly
(Usta, 2013).
Entomopathogenic Nematodes:
Nematodes are roundworms that are colorless, segmented, and without
appendages. They may be parasitic, predaceous, or free-living. Many parasitic organisms are
responsible for serious diseases in plants, livestock, and humans. Other species are useful in
the fight against insect pests, sterilizing or incapacitating their prey (Stuart et al., 2006).
Entomopathogenic nematodes of the families Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae have
been used to control insect pest populations in several agro habitats, and their beneficial
effects on crop yield have been demonstrated in many cases.
Furthermore, beneficial entomopathogenic nematodes such as Steinernema
carpocapsae and Heterorhabditis indica are effective at infecting and killing soil-dwelling
larvae (Yan et al., 2013) and probably pupal stages of the striped flea beetle, Phyllotreta
striolata, thus minimizing the occurrence of adult flea beetles from pupae in future
generations. Similarly, the efficacy of EPNs against the cucurbit fly, Dacus ciliatus Loew
(Diptera: Tephritidae), was investigated using a high virulence native strain of
Heterorhabditis bacteriophora Poinar (Rhabditida: Heterorhabditidae) and a commercial
strain of Steinernema carpocapsae Weiser (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae). At 25 and 30°C,
the efficacy of S.carpocapsae and H. bacteriophora was higher than at 19°C. Based on its
higher virulence and better ability to locate fly larvae inside infected fruits, the results
suggested that S. carpocapsae had the best potential as a D. ciliatus biocontrol agent
(Kamali et al., 2013).
Biological Control Agents and Their Importance for the Plant Health
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In the improvement of plant health worldwide, biological control agents (BCAs) play an
important role. Three classes of BCAs include bacteria, animals, and plants. The major
difference between groups represents a difference in the way plant health is improved. The
first community comprises viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and fungi, while nematodes, acarii,
spiders, and insects are part of the second. The third group consists of trees and plants. The
BCAs keep the pest under the accepted range. Generally, the ability of these three groups
toward the plants can be determined through direct method, indirect method, and/or a
combination of both methods (Al-Ani et al., 2020). The direct technique is more interesting
and can be used to control plant diseases, pesticides, and weeds (plant enemies). On the
other hand, the indirect method is not so successful and operates mainly through the
control or determination of plant enemies' growth. Microbes are highly efficient and simple
to manufacture among various BCAs. The useful species of plants can be used as BCAs as
both biopesticides and biofertilizers.
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