BDA 2042

MATERIALS ENGINEERING
SELECTION

CHAPTER 5 :
SELECTION OF
FERROUS METALS
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CONTENT
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Classification, Designation & Specification for Steel
5.3 Procurement & Specification

Materials Selection 2
 INTRODUCTION 3

Ferrous metals & alloys – irons with carbon added to them

• Alloys < 2% C – STEEL
• Alloys > 2% C – CAST IRON

Materials Selection 3
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Metal & alloys C
Carbon steel Low CS (< 0.25%)
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Mid CS (0.25 – 0.55%)
Ferrous Steel A Alloy steel
High CS > 0.55%

S Stainless steel

Metal Low Alloy steel

T Tool steel (<5%)
Cast iron
High Alloy steel
(>5%)
Nodular CI White CI Austenitic SS

Martensitic SS
Fe Gray CI Malleable CI
Non-ferrous Ferritic SS

Duplex SS
Al & alloys Quench High Carbon High Chromium
(D-series) PH SS

Water-hardening
Ni & alloys (W series) Hot-work Cold-work

Oil-hardening High-speed Shock-resisting

Cu & alloys (O series)
Special purpose
Air-hardening
(A series)
 Classification, Designation and 6

Specifications for Steels

Composition

Classification 1 Yield/tensile strength

Final processing/finishing
2

Shape
3

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 Classification According to Composition 7

Carbon Content Alloy Content

Low Carbon: < 0.25% Plain Carbon – no alloying element
except Mn up to 1.65%
Medium Carbon: 0.25 – 0.55%
Low Alloy – total alloy content < 5%
High Carbon: > 0.55%
High Alloy – total alloy content > 5%

Tool steels and stainless steels

Materials Selection 7
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Iron-carbon phase in the solidified state,

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 Summary of Austenite Transformations 11

Austenite

Slow cooling Moderate cooling Rapid quench

Pearlite (α + Fe3C) + a
Bainite (α + Fe3C) Martensite (BCT phase)
proeutectoid phase

Reheat

Tempered martensite (α + Fe3C)

Hard, brittle, not suitable in most

application
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Classification according to:

 Composition
 Strength
 Product Shape, Finish Processing and Quality Descriptors

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 Classification According to Composition 13

Carbon Content Alloy Content

Low Carbon: < 0.25% Plain Carbon – no alloying element

except Mn up to 1.65%
Medium Carbon: 0.25 – 0.55%
Low Alloy – total alloy content < 5%
High Carbon: > 0.55%
High Alloy – total alloy content > 5%
Tool steels and stainless steels

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Example:

** Exceptional for 9XX (SAE grades 

XX indicates minimum yield strength
in ksi)

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Low Carbon Steel

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Cast Iron 18

Annealing

Quenching

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 White Cast Iron 19

• Carbon formed as iron carbide, Fe3C

• Hard, brittle and interstitial compound
• Brittle and difficult to machine due to large amount of
cementite
• Non machinable

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 Malleable Cast Iron 20

• white cast iron which has been modified

by heat treatment.
• They have High ductility
• They are tougher than gray cast iron
• They can be twisted or bent without fracture
• They have excellent machining capabilities

Chain hoist
Pipe fitting
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 Gray Cast Iron 21
• Carbon formed as graphite
• Good machinability
• Good resistance to wear
• Application: heavy-duty machine tools,
high pressure hydraulic parts, frame,
gears, bushings, piston rings, cams,
crankshaft, cylinder block, cylinder head,
gear, flywheel, brake wheel, pressure
valve. Gear

Bushings Sprocket
Pressure valve 21
 Nodular Cast Iron 22

• Ductile cast iron

• It has High ductility
• It has High strength

Crank shaft

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Composition of cast iron

Type C Si Mn S P
White 1.8-3.6 0.5-1.9 0.25-0.8 0.06-0.2 0.06-0.2
Malleable 2.0-2.9 0.9-1.9 0.15-1.2 0.02-0.2 0.02-0.2
Gray 2.5-4.0 1.0-3.0 0.2-1.0 0.02-0.25 0.02-1.0
Nodular 3.0-4.0 1.0-3.0 0.2-1.0 0.02-0.25 0.02-1.0

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Advantages of cast iron 24

• It has good casting properties

• It is available in large quantities, hence produced in mass scale. Tools required for casting process are
relatively cheap and inexpensive. This results into low cost of its products.
• It can be given any complex shape and size without using costly machining operations
• It has three to five times more compression strength compared to steel
• It has Good machinability (gray cast iron)
• It has excellent anti-vibration (or damping) properties hence it is used to make machine frames
• It has good Sensibility
• It has excellent resistance to wear
• It has constant Mechanical properties between 20 to 350 degree Celsius
• It has very low notch sensitivity
• It has Low stress concentration
• It bears Low cost
• It has Durability
• It has Resistance to deformation

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Disadvantages of cast iron

• does not exhibit yield point. The failure is sudden and total
• poor impact resistance.
• poor machinability.
• High weight to strength ratio.
• very brittle

Which type of cast iron would allow the greatest amount of working before
fracture?

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• Which type of cast iron would allow the greatest amount of working before
fracture?

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Stainless Steel 27

• alloy of Iron with a minimum of 10.5% Chromium.

• Chromium produces a thin layer of oxide on the surface of the steel known as
the 'passive layer‘
• Nickel and Molybdenum to enhance formability
• Versatile applications

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SELECTION OF STAINLESS STEEL 28

Compositional and property linkages in stainless steel alloys. Starting from 304, improvements in property
indicated by arrows lead to appropriate alloys.

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 Selection Stainless Steel 29

• Corrosion and heat resistance

• Mechanical properties
• Fabrication operations
• Cost

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SELECTION OF STAINLESS STEEL 30

DESIGNATION, CLASSES & PROPERTIES

• American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)  3-digit number

 200 & 300 Grades  austenitic
 400 Grades  ferritic or martensitic

• Unified Numbering System (UNS)  S***** (5-digit numbers)

 S  stainless steel

 ***  AISI grades

 **  modification to grades

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 SELECTION OF STAINLESS STEEL 31

DESIGNATION, CLASSES & PROPERTIES

• FERRITE STABILIZERS
• Elements that widen ferrite phase
• Si, Cr, Mo, V, Nb, Ti

• AUSTENITE STABILIZERS
• Elements that widen austenite
phase
• Ni, Mn, C, N

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 SELECTION OF STAINLESS STEEL 32

DESIGNATION, CLASSES & PROPERTIES

FERRITIC SS
• 10.5 - 30% Cr with small
austenite-forming elements
• Usage depends on Cr content
• BCC at room temperature
• Cannot be hardened by heat-
treatment
• Yield strength: 275 – 350 MPa
• Poor toughness  limited
fabricability
• Resistance to chloride stress-
corrosion cracking, atmospheric
corrosion & oxidation
• Relatively low cost

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 Austenitic Stainless Steel 33

• Cr + Ni →300 series
• Cr + Ni + Mn →200 series
• FCC
• Can be harden by cold work, but NOT heat treatment
• Non magnetic (can be slightly magnetic after cold work)
• Excellent corrosion resistance
• Good formability
• 18-8 (type 304) is nominal composition

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 Martensitic Stainless Steel 34

• 400 series
• BCC
• Hardenable by heat treatment
• Magnetic
• Fairly good ductility
• <14% Cr (except 440C)
• Nb, S, W, V  modify tempering characteristic
• Ni  improve corrosion resistance & toughness
• From austenite structure at high temperatures to
martensite when rapidly cooled in air or liquid

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SELECTION OF STAINLESS STEEL 35

DESIGNATION, CLASSES & PROPERTIES

DUPLEX SS
• Improved properties over austenitic or ferritic SS due to equal
amounts of both phases.
• Better stress corrosion cracking (SCC) resistance – ferrite phase
• Better ductility & toughness – austenite phase
• Mostly for industrial applications  oil & gas, petrochemical, pulp
& paper, pollution control industries.

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SELECTION OF STAINLESS STEEL 36

DESIGNATION, CLASSES & PROPERTIES

PRECIPITATION HARDENING (PH) SS

• Semi-austenitic or martensitic
• Very low C content  need PH for primary hardening
• Alloying elements: Al, Ti, Nb, Cu
• Good ductility & toughness; moderate  good corrosion resistance.

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SELECTION OF STAINLESS STEEL 37

DESIGNATION, CLASSES & PROPERTIES

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 SELECTION OF STAINLESS STEEL 38

Factor that need to consider;

1. Corrosion resistance
2. Mechanical properties
3. Others:
• Fabricabillity
• Wear
• Service temperature
• Roughness
• Physical properties

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 Tool Steel 39

The selection depend on; the cost effectiveness, working

temperature, required surface hardness, strength, shock
resistance, and toughness requirement
 SELECTION OF TOOL STEELS 40

• Tool steels
 to make tools for cutting, forming or shaping a material into
part or component for a specific use
 subjected to very high, rapidly applied loads

•Selection:
•Resistance to softening at elevated temperature or ability to
retain high red hardness or hot hardness
•Resistance to wear, deformation and breakage
•Toughness to absorb sudden load application

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 SELECTION OF TOOL STEELS 41

• Performance of tool steel

• Selection of proper tool steel
• Proper design of tools
• Tool accuracy
• Application of proper heat treatment to tool steel

•High speed steel

•Hot-work tool steel – Group H
•Cold-work Tool steel
•Shock resisting steel – Group S
•Low-Alloy Special-Purpose Steel – Group L
•Mold Tool Steels – Group P
•Water Hardening Tool Steels – Group W

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5.7 Selection of
Cast Iron

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SELECTION OF CAST IRON 43

• Depending on chemical composition, cooling rate, types and

amount of inoculants that are used.
• Silicon (Si)-substitutes partially for C and promotes
formation of graphite as the carbon rich component.

(i) Gray cast (ii)

ironWhite cast
(iii)iron
Malleable cast iron

(v) Compacted
(iv) Ductile/Nodular cast iron graphite iron
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Iron-carbide phase diagram

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Table 5: Range of compositions of

unalloyed types of cast iron
(P.L.Manganon, 1999)
Percent (%)
Type
C Si Mn S P

White 1.8 – 3.6 0.5 – 1.9 0.25 – 0.8 0.06 – 0.2 0.06 – 0.2

Malleable 2.2 – 2.9 0.9 – 1.9 0.15 – 1.2 0.02 – 0.2 0.02 – 0.2

Gray 2.5 – 4.0 1.0 – 3.0 0.2 – 1.0 0.02 – 0.25 0.02 – 1.0

Ductile 3.0 – 4.0 1.8 – 2.8 0.1 – 1.0 0.01 – 0.03 0.01 – 0.1

Compacted 2.5 – 4.0 1.0 – 3.0 0.2 – 1.0 0.01 – 0.03 0.01 – 0.1

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Microstructure of cast iron result from a variety of heat treatments.

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Approximate ranges in C and Si contents in the various

types of cast irons

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 SELECTION OF CAST IRON 49

DESIGN OF IRON CASTINGS

Consideration:
• Technical / functional requirements / constraints of casting /
components
• Forces/stresses the casting must withstand
• Shape and section size of casting
• Materials to be used
• Manufacturing processes that may include casting or forming
process, machining and some welding.

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APPLICATION OF WHITE CAST IRON 50

• It can be used as liners of cement mixers, ball mills, drawing

dies and extrusion nozzles.

Nozzle Ball mill

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APPLICATION OF GRAY CAST IRON 51

• Miscellaneous soft iron casting in which strength is not a

primary consideration. It can be used as small cylinder blocks,
clutch plates, diesel engine casting, cylinder heads, piston.

Piston Clutch plate

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APPLICATION OF DUCTILE CAST IRON 52
• valves, pump bodies, gears, crankshafts, pistons, rolls for rolling
mills, tubes and door hinges, automotive engine crankshafts, heavy
duty gears, military and railroad vehicles.

. Crankshaft
Differential housing

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APPLICATION OF MALLEABLE CAST IRON 53

•parts of power train of vehicles, bearing caps, steering gear housings,

agricultural equipment, railroad equipment, connecting rods,
transmission gears, and differential cases for the automotive industry,
and also flanges, pipe fittings, and valve parts , railroad, marine, and
other heavy-duty services.

Transmission gears

Connecting rod

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 APPLICATION OF COMPACTED GRAPHITE CAST IRON 54

• Base structure for machine and heavy equipment, diesel engine

blocks, engine cylinders, exhaust manifold and brake discs for
high speed train.

Engine block
Brake disc

• High thermal conductivity

• Better resistance to thermal shock
• Lower oxidation at elevated temperature
• Good strength and allow complicated casting
• The ability to dissipate heat
• Increased dampening properties

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