Saurabh Kumar Sharma

Regd no. 214-08-32-50116-2161

1 Course : PGDIDM

2 Course Title : HIGHWAY PROJECT MANAGEMENT

3 Assignment No : 02

4 Date of Dispatch : 15.05.2016

5 Last Date of Receipt : 31.05.2016

6 Name : Saurabh Kumar Sharma

7 Regd no. : 214-08-32-50116-2161

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INDEX

S.NO. DESCRIPTION PAGE NO.

Highway Project Development , Steps of DPR, Details

1 of Study & Data required for DPR 3 – 15

Difference between Rigid & flexible Pavement,

2 procedure od construction of rigid pavement 16 - 18

3 List of some testing and detailed procedure 19 - 31

Causes of deterioration of road Pavement ,

4 32 - 35
Maintenance of Bituminus Road.

5 Quality Control of Road during construction 36 - 37

6 Bibliography/ Readings 38

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1. Overview of the Highway Planning and Development

Process

Highway design is only one element in the overall highway development

process. Historically, detailed design occurs in the middle of the process,
linking the preceding phases of planning and project development with
the subsequent phases of right of way acquisition, construction, and
maintenance. While these are distinct activities, there is considerable
overlap in terms of coordination among the various disciplines that work
together, including designers, throughout the process.

THE STAGES OF HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT

Although the names may vary by State, the five basic stages in the
highway development process are: planning, project development
(preliminary design), final design, rightofway, and construction. After
construction is completed, ongoing operation and maintenance activities
continue throughout the life of the facility.

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STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN PREPARATION OF DETAILS PROJECT

REPORT OF A HIGHWAY PROJECT

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1.1 Project Background

1. Introduction 1.2 Core Network
CHAPTER 1
1.3 Geography
1.4 Climatic Condition
1.5 The Sub-Project Road

CHAPTER 2 2. Alignment 2.1 General

2.2 Sailent Features

3. Land Requirement 3.1 General

CHAPTER 3
3.2 Proposed ROW
3.3 Additional Land

4.1 General
4.2 Terrain
4.3 Design Speed
4.4 Right of Way (ROW)
4.5 Roadway Width
4.6 Carriageway Width
4.7 Earthen Shoulders
4.8 Roadway width at cross-
4. Geometric Design
CHAPTER 4 drainage structures
Standards
4.9 Sight Distance
4.10 Radius of Horizontal Curve
4.11 Camber & Super elevation
4.12 Vertical Alignment
4.13 Vertical Curves
4.14 Cross Section Element and
Side slope
4.15 Extra Widening of Pavement

5.1 General
5. Topographic 5.2 Traversing
CHAPTER 5 Survey 5.3 Levelling
5.4 Cross Section & Detailing
5.5 Data Processing

6.1 General
6. Soil and Materials 6.2 Soil sample collection and
CHAPTER 6 Survey Testing
6.3 Analysis of Test Results
6.4 Coarse and Fine Aggregates

7.1 General
CHAPTER 7 7. Traffic Survey 7.2 Traffic Data and Analysis
7.3 Traffic Growth Rate and
forecast

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8.1 General
8.2 Pavement Design Approach
8.2.1 Design Life
CHAPTER 8 8. Pavement Design 8.2.2 Design Traffic
8.2.3 Determination of ESAL
applications
8.2.4 Subgrade CBR
8.3 Pavement composition

9.1 General
9.2 Rainfall Data
9.3 Catchment Area
9.4 Time of Concentration
9. Hydrological 9.5 Existing Cross Drainage
CHAPTER 9
Survey Structures
9.6 Justification for
retaining/widening and
replacement of culverts
9.7 Hydraulic calculation for
Culvert

10. Design of Cross 10.1 General

CHAPTER 10
Drainage 10.2 Hydrological Design
10.3 Design Feature

11. Protective Works 11.1 General

CHAPTER 11
& Drainage 11.2 Road side drain
11.3 Protective Works

12. Specification
CHAPTER 12

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CHAPTER 13 13. Environmental Issues

CHAPTER 14 14. Analysis of Rates

CHAPTER 15 15. Cost Estimate

CHAPTER 16 16. Construction Programme

CHAPTER 17 17. Environmental Code of Practice (ECoP)

CHAPTER 18 18. Road Safety

19. Road Furniture including Citizen Information

CHAPTER 19 Signboards

Various Study Required

20. Geometric Design Standards

20.1 General
The geometric design standards for this project conform to MORTH /
PMGSY (ADB) guidelines and the guidelines as stated in IRC-SP
20:2002. Recommended design standards vis-à-vis the standards
followed for this road are described below.

21. Topographic Survey

21.1 General
Topographic survey true to ground realties have been done using
precision instruments like Total Stations and Auto Levels, and

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bringing out data in digital form (x, y, z format) for developing digital
terrain model (DTM).

The topographic survey was carried out by the Surveyors /

Supervisors under the guidance of DRE.

The in-house standards, work procedures and quality plan prepared

with reference to IRC: SP 19-2001, IRC: SP 20, IRC: SP 13 (in respect
of surveys for rivers / streams) and current international practices
have been followed during the above survey.

21.2 Traversing
Traverse will be done by Total Station having angular measurement
accuracy of ± 1 sec.

Control pillars were established at suitable intervals along the project

corridor and their coordinates were established by Total Station. The
starting coordinate was assumed and accordingly the coordinates of
the other Reference/ Temporary Benchmark (TBM) were established.
All the Control points have been established on concrete pillars.

21.3 Levelling
All leveling for establishing Benchmark are to be carried out as per
method adopted by Survey of India. All leveling are to be carried out
with Auto Level having accuracy ± 2.5 mm/ km. The Consultant
started the work by assuming arbitrary level, as no GTS benchmark
was available in the nearby location of the road.

21.4 Cross Section & Detailing

Cross section taken at 50 m interval and at closer interval in curved
portion of the existing road. The following features of the road were
recorded:

 Existing road details

 Existing toe point of Road
 Canal / River & Banks
 Natural Surface Points
 Edge of Water Body / Pond

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 Edge of ditch / Borrow pit

 Electricity and Telephone poles
 Edge of Building & Fence line
 Religious Structure & Graves
 Temporary House or Hut
 Edge of Wall
 Bore Well
 Concrete Wall
 Level Crossing / Railway Tracks
 Trees
 Cross roads and other major crossings

21.5 Data Processing

All data from topographic survey recorded by total station were
downloaded and final alignment, plan, profile is prepared and
presented in AutoCAD Format.

22. Soil and Materials Survey

22.1 General
The soil and material investigations have been done following the
guidelines of IRC:SP:20-2002 and IRC:SP:72-2007 and other relevant
IS codes. The potential sources of borrow areas for soil and quarry
sites have been identified.

22.2 Soil sample collection and Testing

Soil samples have been collected along and around the road
alignment at three (3) locations per km, from the adjoining borrow
areas, as well as one sample is collected from the existing road. Soil
Classification tests like grain size analysis and Atterberg’s limit were
conducted for all the samples collected. Standard Proctor test and
the corresponding 4 day soaked CBR test were conducted either for a
minimum of one test per km for soil samples of same group or more
tests due to variation of soil type. The following tests were conducted
as detailed below:

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 Grain size analysis as per IS : 272 (Part 4) – 1985

 Atterberg’s limit as per IS : 2720 (Part 5) – 1985
 Standard Proctor density test as per IS : 2720 (Part 7) – 1980
 4 day soaked CBR test as per IS : 2720 (Part 16) – 1985
22.3 Analysis of Test Results
The laboratory soaked CBR value ranges from 4.2% to 4.4%.
22.4 Coarse and Fine Aggregates
Information regarding the source of aggregate and sand was
gathered. The stone aggregate shall be procured from Nalhati. The
source and the lead distance from the quarry to project site was
finalized in discussion with the PIU. The aggregates and sand shall
be used for Bituminous work, Concrete works, other pavement
works.

23. Traffic Survey

23.1 General
In the present scenario of new connectivity road, 3 day, 24 hr traffic
volume count has been conducted. The Classified Volume count
survey has been carried out in accordance with the requirements of
the TOR and relevant codes (IRC: SP: 19-2001, IRC: SP: 20, IRC: SP:
72-2007).The surveys have been carried out by trained enumerators
manually under the monitoring of Engineering Supervisor.

23.2 Traffic Data and Analysis

All the field data sheet collected from site has been dispatched from
site to project design office for data entering and analysis. The traffic
count done has been classified into different vehicle category as given
below:

 Motorized vehicle comprising of light commercial vehicle, medium

commercial vehicle, heavy commercial vehicle, Car, Jeep, two
wheelers etc.
 Non motorized vehicles comprising of cycle, rickshaw, cycle van,
Animal drawn vehicle etc.

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The number of laden and un-laden commercial vehicles have also

been recorded during the traffic counts. Traffic volume count for this
project road has been done during lean season. However, as per local
information, the traffic will be double during the peak harvesting
season.

Average daily traffic (ADT) has been found for each vehicle type.
Computation of Average Annual Daily traffic (AADT) is given below:

1 .2 nTt
T+
AADT = 365

T = Average number of vehicles plying during lean season

nT= Enhanced traffic during peak season, over and above lean
season traffic T

t = Duration of Harvesting season

23.3 Traffic Growth Rate and forecast

In the absence of any specific information to the designer, an average
annual growth rate of 6% over the design life has been adopted. .

24. Pavement Design

24.1 General
Considering the subgrade strength , projected traffic and the design
life, the pavement design for low volume PMGSY roads have been
carried out as per guidelines of IRC : SP : 72 – 2007.

24.2 Pavement Design Approach

24.2.1 Design Life
A design life of 10 years is considered for the purpose of pavement
design of flexible and granular pavements.

24.2.2 Design Traffic

The average annual daily traffic (AADT) computed in the opening year
is 2038 as described in Chapter 7. The total commercial vehicle per
day (CVPD) works out to 23.

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24.2.3 Determination of ESAL applications

Only commercial vehicles with a gross laden weight of 3 tonnes or
more are considered. The design traffic is considered in terms of
cumulative number of standard axles to be carried during the design
life of the road. The numbers of commercial vehicles of different axle
loads are converted to number of standard axle repetitions by a
multiplier called the Vehicle Damage Factor (VDF).An indicative VDF
value has been considered as the traffic volume of rural road does
not warrant axle load survey.

For calculating the VDF, the following categories of vehicles have

been considered as suggested in paragraph 3.4.4 of IRC: SP: 72 –
2007.

 Laden Heavy/Medium Commercial vehicles

 Un-laden /partially loaded heavy/medium commercial vehicles
 Over loaded heavy/medium commercial vehicles

Indicative VDF values considered 10% of laden MCV and 10% laden
HCV as overloaded & given below:

Un-laden /Partially
Vehicle type Laden
laden
HCV 2.86 0.31
MCV 0.34 0.02
Lane distribution factor (L) for Single lane road = 1.0

Cumulative ESAL application = To x 4811 x L, where To = ESAL

application per day

The Cumulative ESAL application for the project road works out to
74,907 and falls in traffic category T3 as per paragraph 3.5 of IRC:
SP: 72 – 2007.

24.2.4 Subgrade CBR

The average subgrade CBR 4.2, range of 3-4 has been considered.

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24.3 Pavement composition

The designed pavement thickness and composition have calculated
by referring Figure 4 (Pavement design catalog) of IRC : SP : 72 –
2007.The pavement layers provided are given below:

Top Layer Premix Carpet with Type B Seal 26 mm

Coat
Base Layer WBM Grading III & WBM Grading 150 mm
II
Sub – Base Granular Sub-base Grading II 175 mm
Layer
Total thickness 325 mm
25. Hydrological Survey
25.1 General
Hydrological survey is necessary for design of adequate and safe
Cross Drainage Structures so that the rain water can pass as per
natural slope. Hydrological survey of the proposed road is based on
the following observations:

 Rainfall Data
 Catchments Area
 Time of Concentration
 Existing Cross Drainage Structures

25.2 Rainfall Data

Rainfall Data as applicable for the project road has been collected
having an average annual rainfall of more than 1500 mm with
maximum rainfall occurring in the months of July and August.

25.3 Catchment Area

The Catchments area has been calculated by gathering local
information as it could not be calculated from topographical sheets
due to their unavailability.

25.4 Time of Concentration

Time of concentration (tc) is calculated from the formula of (0.87 x
L3/H)0.385, where L is distance from the critical point to the structure

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site in km and H is the difference in elevation between the critical

point and the structure site in meters.

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DIFFERENT DATA REQUIRED FOR ROAD WORK

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Sl no Description of DATA Source

Site Plan / Internet

Geography

Climatic Condition Internet

Alignment Survey Data

Geometric Design Standards Codal Provision

Design Speed As per Client’s

Right of Way (ROW) requirement /
Roadway Width MORTH
Carriageway Width

Earthen Shoulders MORTH or other

Roadway width at cross-drainage standerd
structures
Sight Distance
Radius of Horizontal Curve
Camber & Super elevation
Vertical Alignment
Vertical Curve

Cross Section Element and Side slope Survey data

 Existing road details
 Existing toe point of Road
 Canal / River & Banks
 Natural Surface Points
 Edge of Water Body / Pond
 Edge of ditch / Borrow pit
 Electricity and Telephone
poles
 Edge of Building & Fence line
 Religious Structure & Graves
 Temporary House or Hut

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Sl no Description of DATA Source

 Edge of Wall
 Bore Well
 Concrete Wall
 Level Crossing / Railway
Tracks
 Trees
Cross roads and other major crossin

Soil and Materials Lab Testing

 Grain size analysis as per IS :
272 (Part 4) – 1985
 Atterberg’s limit as per IS :
2720 (Part 5) – 1985
 Standard Proctor density test
as per IS : 2720 (Part 7) –
1980
4 day soaked CBR test as per IS : 2720
(Part 1

Coarse and Fine Aggregates Lab Testing

Traffic Data and Analysis Traffic Survey

Design Traffic Traffic Survey

Rainfall Data Internet

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2. Difference between Flexible and

Rigid Pavement
 

Flexible pavement Rigid  pavements

Deformation in the sub grade is

Deformation in the sub grade is
transferred to subsequence
transferred to upper layers
Layers

Have low flexural strength Have high flexural Strength

No such phenomenon of grain to

Load transferred to gain to gain
grain load transferred
contract
exist

Have low completion test but high Have low repairing cost but high
repairing cost completion cost

Damaged by oil and chemicals No damage by oil or Greece

Design Based on load distribution Design based on Flexural strength

factor or slab action

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Construction Steps for Cement Concrete Pavement /

Road

Concrete pavements are rigid pavements having very high flexure strength
as compared to flexible pavements. Concrete pavements can be constructed
using two different methods:

1. Alternate Bay method

2. Continuous bay method

 In alternate bay method, concrete pavement slab are laid on whole

width of pavement in alternate bays.

 In continuous bay method, concrete pavement slabs are laid

continuously only on one bay and another bay is open for the traffic. 

Generally the second method of continuous bay, is preferred over alternate

bay method because, traffic movement is allowed while it is restricted in the
first. Also, the alternate empty spaces invites the rainwater collection and
create in-convenience to the construction work.

Various steps for the construction of concrete pavements:

1. Preparation of Sub-grade and Sub-base

2. Placing of forms

3. Batching of material and Mixing

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4. Transporting and Placing of Concrete

5. Compaction and Finishing

6. Floating and Straight Edging

7. Belting, Booming and Edging

8. Curing of Cement concrete

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3. LIST OF SOME COMMON TEST:

Requirement as per
Sl No Type Of Test Code reference
Code

A. Coarse Aggregate

IS:383 / IS 2386-Part
1 Sieve Analysis  
I

IS:383 / IS 2386-Part
2 Specific Gravity  
III

IS:383 / IS 2386-Part
3 Flakiness Index Maximum 30%
I

Road - 30% (Max) IS:383 / IS 2386-Part

4 Crushing Strength
Other -45% (Max) IV

Road - 30% (Max) IS:383 / IS 2386-Part

5 Impact Value
Other -45% (Max) IV

6 Moisture Content 1% - 2%  

Road - 30% (Max) IS:383 / IS 2386-Part

7 Abrasion Value
Other -50% (Max) IV

Maximum 12% & IS:383 / IS 2386-Part

8 Soundness
18% V

IS:383 / IS 2386-Part
9 Water absorption 1% - 2%
III

Alkali Aggregate Reactivity IS:383 / IS 2386-Part

10  
test VII

IS:383 / IS 2386-Part
11 Deleterious Material Content Maximum 5%
II

Alkali Silica Reactivity

12   ASTM C 289
Potential of Aggregate

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Requirement as
Sl No Type Of Test Code reference
per Code

B. Soil      

Liquid Limit & Plasticity below 50% &

1 IS: 2720 - PART 5
Index 25%

2 Maximum Dry Density   IS: 2720 - PART 8

3 Field Dry Density   IS: 2720 - PART 28 & 29

4 Swelling Index Below 50% IS: 2720 - PART 40

 5 Moisture Content   IS: 2720 - PART 2

C. Bitumen    

ASTM D5 [ASTM,
1 Penetration Test   2001] / 1201 - 1220 :
1978

ASTM D1310 / 1201 -

2 Flash Point Test  
1220 :1978

ASTM D 2042 / 1201 -

3 Solubility Test  
1220 :1978

ASTM D113 / 1201 -

4 Ductility Test  
1220 :1978

ASTM D2171/ 1201 -

5 Viscosity Test  
1220 :1978

D. Cement     

1 Compressive Strength   IS: 8112 - 2013

2 Normal Consistency   IS: 8112 - 2013

3 Setting time   IS: 8112 - 2013

4 Finesse   IS: 8112 - 2013

5 Soundness   IS: 8112 - 2013

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26.  DETERMINATION OF AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE

AIM:

(i) To determine the impact value of the road aggregates;

(ii) To assess their suitability in road construction on the basis of impact

value

APPARATUS:

The apparatus as per IS: 2386 (Part IV) – 1963 consists of:

(i) A testing machine weighing 45 to 60 kg and having a metal base with a

painted lower surface of not less than 30 cm in diameter. It is supported on
level and plane concrete floor of minimum 45 cm thickness. The machine
should also have provisions for fixing its base.

(ii) A cylindrical steel cup of internal diameter 102 mm, depth 50 mm and
minimum thickness 6.3 mm.

(iii) A metal hammer or tup weighing 13.5 to 14.0 kg the lower end being
cylindrical in shape, 50 mm long, 100.0 mm in diameter, with a 2 mm
chamfer at the lower edge and case hardened. The hammer should slide
freely between vertical guides and be concentric with the cup. Free fall of
hammer should be within 380±5 mm.

(iv) A cylindrical metal measure having internal diameter 75 mm and depth

50 mm for measuring aggregates.

(v) Tamping rod 10 mm in diameter and 230 mm long, rounded at one end.

(vi) A balance of capacity not less than 500g, readable and accurate upto 0.1
g.

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THEORY:

The property of a material to resist impact is known as toughness. Due to

movement of vehicles on the road the aggregates are subjected to impact
resulting in their breaking down into smaller pieces. The aggregates should
therefore have sufficient toughness to resist their disintegration due to
impact. This characteristic is measured by impact value test. The aggregate
impact value is a measure of resistance to sudden impact or shock, which
may differ from its resistance to gradually applied compressive load.

PROCEDURE:

The test sample consists of aggregates sized 10.0 mm 12.5 mm. Aggregates
may be dried by heating at 100-110° C for a period of 4 hours and cooled.

(i) Sieve the material through 12.5 mm and 10.0mm IS sieves. The
aggregates passing through 12.5mm sieve and retained on 10.0mm sieve
comprises the test material.

(ii) Pour the aggregates to fill about just 1/3 rd depth of measuring cylinder.

(iii) Compact the material by giving 25 gentle blows with the rounded end of
the tamping rod.

(iv) Add two more layers in similar manner, so that cylinder is full.

(v) Strike off the surplus aggregates.

(vi) Determine the net weight of the aggregates to the nearest gram(W).

(vii) Bring the impact machine to rest without wedging or packing up on the
level plate, block or floor, so that it is rigid and the hammer guide columns
are vertical.

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(viii) Fix the cup firmly in position on the base of machine and place whole of
the test sample in it and compact by giving 25 gentle strokes with tamping
rod.

(ix) Raise the hammer until its lower face is 380 mm above the surface of
aggregate sample in the cup and allow it to fall freely on the aggregate
sample. Give 15 such blows at an interval of not less than one second
between successive falls.

(x) Remove the crushed aggregate from the cup and sieve it through 2.36
mm IS sieves until no further significant amount passes in one minute.
Weigh the fraction passing the sieve to an accuracy of 1 gm. Also, weigh the
fraction retained in the sieve.

Compute the aggregate impact value. The mean of two observations,

rounded to nearest whole number is reported as the Aggregate Impact
Value.

OBSERVATIONS

Sample 1 Sample 2

Total weight of dry sample ( W1 gm)

Weight of portion passing 2.36 mm sieve

(W2 gm)

Aggregate Impact Value (percent) = W2 / W1 X

100

Mean =

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RESULT:

Aggregate Impact Value =

 RECOMMENDED VALUES

Classification of aggregates using Aggregate Impact Value is as given below:

Aggregate Impact Value Classification

<20% Exceptionally Strong

10 – 20% Strong

20-30% Satisfactory for road surfacing

>35% Weak for road surfacing

27. Determine the Maximum Dry Density and

the Optimum Moisture Content Of Soil
This test is done to determine the maximum dry density and the optimum
moisture content of soil using heavy compaction as per IS: 2720 (Part 8 ) –
1983.The apparatus used is

i) Cylindrical metal mould – it should be either of 100mm dia. and 1000cc

volume or 150mm dia. and 2250cc volume and should conform to IS: 10074
– 1982.
ii) Balances – one of 10kg capacity, sensitive to 1g and the other of 200g
capacity, sensitive to 0.01g

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iii) Oven – thermostatically controlled with an interior of non corroding

material to maintain temperature between 105 and 110 oC
iv) Steel straightedge – 30cm long
v) IS Sieves of sizes – 4.75mm, 19mm and 37.5mm

PREPARATION OF SAMPLE
A representative portion of air-dried soil material, large enough to provide
about 6kg of material passing through a 19mm IS Sieve (for soils not
susceptible to crushing during compaction) or about 15kg of material
passing through a 19mm IS Sieve (for soils susceptible to crushing during
compaction), should be taken. This portion should be sieved through a
19mm IS Sieve and the coarse fraction rejected after its proportion of the
total sample has been recorded. Aggregations of particles should be broken
down so that if the sample was sieved through a 4.75mm IS Sieve, only
separated individual particles would be retained.

Procedure To Determine The Maximum Dry Density And The Optimum

Moisture Content Of Soil
A) Soil not susceptible to crushing during compaction –

i) A 5kg sample of air-dried soil passing through the 19mm IS Sieve should
be taken. The sample should be mixed thoroughly with a suitable amount of
water depending on the soil type (for sandy and gravelly soil – 3 to 5% and
for cohesive soil – 12 to 16% below the plastic limit). The soil sample should
be stored in a sealed container for a minimum period of 16hrs.

ii) The mould of 1000cc capacity with base plate attached, should be
weighed to the nearest 1g (W1 ). The mould should be placed on a solid base,
such as a concrete floor or plinth and the moist soil should be compacted
into the mould, with the extension attached, in five layers of approximately

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equal mass, each layer being given 25 blows from the 4.9kg rammer
dropped from a height of 450mm above the soil. The blows should be
distributed uniformly over the surface of each layer. The amount of soil used
should be sufficient to fill the mould, leaving not more than about 6mm to
be struck off when the extension is removed. The extension should be
removed and the compacted soil should be levelled off carefully to the top of
the mould by means of the straight edge. The mould and soil should then be
weighed to the nearest gram (W2).

iii) The compacted soil specimen should be removed from the mould and
placed onto the mixing tray. The water content (w) of a representative
sample of the specimen should be determined.

iv) The remaining soil specimen should be broken up, rubbed through
19mm IS Sieve and then mixed with the remaining original sample. Suitable
increments of water should be added successively and mixed into the
sample, and the above operations i.e. ii) to iv) should be repeated for each
increment of water added. The total number of determinations made should
be at least five and the moisture contents should be such that the optimum
moisture content at which the maximum dry density occurs,
lies within that range.

B) Soil susceptible to crushing during compaction –

Five or more 2.5kg samples of air-dried soil passing through the 19mm IS
Sieve, should be taken. The samples should each be mixed thoroughly with
different amounts of water and stored in a sealed container as mentioned in
Part A)

C) Compaction in large size mould –

For compacting soil containing coarse material upto 37.5mm size, the
2250cc mould should be used. A sample weighing about 30kg and passing
through the 37.5mm IS Sieve is used for the test. Soil is compacted in five
layers, each layer being given 55 blows of the 4.9kg rammer. The rest of the

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procedure is same as above.

REPORTING OF RESULTS
Bulk density Y(gamma) in g/cc of each compacted specimen should be
calculated from the equation,

Y(gamma) = (W2-W1)/ V
where, V = volume in cc of the mould.
The dry density Yd in g/cc

Yd = 100Y/(100+w)
The dry densities, Yd obtained in a series of determinations should be
plotted against the corresponding moisture contents,w. A smooth curve
should be drawn through the resulting points and the position of the
maximum on the curve should be determined. The dry density in g/cc
corresponding to the maximum point on the moisture content/dry density
curve should be reported as the maximum dry density to the nearest 0.01.
The percentage moisture content corresponding to the maximum dry density
on the moisture content/dry density curve should be reported as the
optimum moisture content and quoted to the nearest 0.2 for values below 5
percent, to the nearest 0.5 for values from 5 to 10 percent and to the nearest
whole number for values exceeding 10 percent

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Penetration Test on Bitumen

The penetration test is one of the oldest and most commonly used tests on
asphalt cements or residues from distillation of asphalt cutbacks or
emulsions. The standardized procedure for this test can be found in ASTM
D5 [ASTM, 2001]. It is an empirical test that measures the consistency
(hardness) of an asphalt at a specified test condition.

Procedure of Penetration Test on Bitumen:

In the standard test condition, a standard needle of a total load of 100 g is

applied to the surface of an asphalt or Liquid bitumen sample at a
temperature of 25 °C for 5 seconds. The amount of penetration of the needle
at the end of 5 seconds is measured in units of 0.1 mm (or penetration
unit). A softer asphalt will have a higher penetration, while a harder
asphalt will have a lower penetration. Other test conditions that have
been used include

1. 0 °C, 200 g, 60 sec., and

2. 46 °C, 50 g, 5 sec.

The penetration test can be used to designate grades of asphalt cement, and
to measure changes in hardness due to age hardening or changes in
temperature.

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Flash Point Test on asphalt:

The flash point test determines the temperature to which an asphalt can be
safely heated in the presence of an open flame. The test is performed by
heating an asphalt sample in an open cup at a specified rate and
determining the temperature at which a small flame passing over the
surface of the cup will cause the vapors from the asphalt sample temporarily
to ignite or flash. The commonly used flash point test methods include

1. The Cleveland Open Cup (ASTM D92)

2. Tag Open Cup (ASTM D1310).

The Cleveland Open-Cup method is used on asphalt cements or asphalts

with relatively higher flash points, while the Tag Open-Cup method is used
on cutback asphalts or asphalts with flash points of less than 79 °C.
Minimum flash point requirements are included in the specifications for
asphalt cements for safety reasons. Flash point tests can also be used to
detect contaminating materials such as gasoline or kerosine in an asphalt
cement. Contamination of an asphalt cement by such materials can be
indicated by a substantial drop in flash point.

When the flash point test is used to detect contaminating materials, the
Pensky-Martens Closed Tester method (ASTM D93), which tends to give
more indicative results, is normally used. In recent years, the flash point
test results have been related to the hardening potential of asphalt. An
asphalt with a high flash point is more likely to have a lower hardening
potential in the field.

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Initial and Final Setting Time Of Cement

To do so we need Vicat apparatus conforming to IS: 5513 – 1976, Balance,
whose permissible variation at a load of 1000g should be +1.0g, Gauging
trowel conforming to IS: 10086 – 1982.

Procedure to determine initial and final setting time of cement

i) Prepare a cement paste by gauging the cement with 0.85 times the water
required to give a paste of standard consistency.
ii) Start a stop-watch, the moment water is added to the cement.
iii) Fill the Vicat mould completely with the cement paste gauged as above,
the mould resting on a non-porous plate and smooth off the surface of the
paste making it level with the top of the mould. The cement block thus
prepared in the mould is the test block.

A) INITIAL SETTING TIME

Place the test block under the rod bearing the needle. Lower the needle
gently in order to make contact with the surface of the cement paste and
release quickly, allowing it to penetrate the test block. Repeat the procedure
till the needle fails to pierce the test block to a point 5.0 ± 0.5mm measured
from the bottom of the mould.The time period elapsing between the time,
water is added to the cement and the time, the needle fails to pierce the test
block by 5.0 ± 0.5mm measured from the bottom of the mould, is the initial
setting time.

B) FINAL SETTING TIME

Replace the above needle by the one with an annular attachment. The
cement should be considered as finally set when, upon applying the needle

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gently to the surface of the test block, the needle makes an impression
therein, while the attachment fails to do so. The period elapsing between the
time, water is added to the cement and the time, the needle makes an
impression on the surface of the test block, while the attachment fails to do
so, is the final setting time.

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4. CAUSES OF DETERIOTION OF ROAD PAVEMENT:

Traffic:

Traffic is the most important factor influencing pavement performance. The

performance of pavements is mostly influenced by the loading magnitude,
configuration and the number of load repetitions by heavy vehicles. The
damage caused per pass to a pavement by an axle is defined relative to the
damage per pass of a standard axle load, which is defined as a 80 kN single
axle load (E80). Thus a pavement is designed to withstand a certain number
of standard axle load repetitions (E80’s) that will result in a certain terminal
condition of deterioration.

MOISTURE (WATER):

Moisture can significantly weaken the support strength of natural gravel

materials, especially the subgrade. Moisture can enter the pavement
structure through cracks and holes in the surface, laterally through the
subgrade, and from the underlying water table through capillary action. The
result of moisture ingress is the lubrication of particles, loss of particle
interlock and subsequent particle displacement resulting in pavement
failure.

SUBGRADE:

The subgrade is the underlying soil that supports the applied wheel loads. If
the subgrade is too weak to support the wheel loads, the pavement will flex
excessively which ultimately causes the pavement to fail. If natural
variations in the composition of the subgrade are not adequately addressed
by the pavement design, significant differences in pavement performance
will be experienced.

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CONSTRUCTION QUALITY

Failure to obtain proper compaction, improper moisture conditions during

construction, quality of materials, and accurate layer thickness (after
compaction) all directly affect the performance of a pavement. These
conditions stress the need for skilled staff, and the importance of good
inspection and quality control procedures during construction. 

MAINTENANCE:

Pavement performance depends on what, when, and how maintenance is

performed. No matter how well the pavement is built, it will deteriorate over
time based upon the mentioned factors. The timing of maintenance is very
important, if a pavement is permitted to deteriorate to a very poor condition,
as illustrated by point B in Error! Reference source not found., then the
added life compared with point A, is typically about 2 to 3 years. This added
life would present about 10 percent of the total life. The cost however of
repairing the road at point B is minimum four times the cost if the road had
been repaired at point A. The postponement of maintenance hold further
implications, in that for the cost of repairing one badly deteriorated road
(Point B), four roads at point A would have to be deferred, which would
mean that in a few years the rehabilitation cost could be 16 times as much.
Thus, postponing maintenance because of budget constraints, will result in
a significant financial penalty within a few years.

Maintaining and Repairing Bituminous Road:

The maintenance and repair of roads and airfields are particularly important
because of increased mobility in modern warfare. Damage caused by the
weight of heavy loads, the abrasive action of military traffic, and combat
conditions must be repaired as quickly as possible. The repairs are often
made under adverse conditions, such as shortages of manpower, material,

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equipment, and time and the possibility of an attack. Continuous

maintenance cannot be overemphasized; small repairs made immediately
are much cheaper than major repairs made at a later date.

PRINCIPLES

For effective results, the cause of a failure must be corrected. If surface

repairs are made without correcting a defective subgrade or base, the
damage will reappear and repairs can be more extensive. Also, a minor
maintenance job that is postponed can develop into a major repair job
involving the subgrade, the base, and the wearing surface. Repairing the
surface without correcting the base is justifiable only as a temporary
measure to meet immediate needs under combat or other urgent conditions.
Ensure that the maintenance and repair of a surface conform as closely as
possible to the original specifications for strength, appearance, texture, and
design. Ignoring the original specifications can mean recurring maintenance
on areas that are below standard, and differences in wear and traffic impact
may result from spot strengthening.

The priority for maintenance and repair depends on tactical requirements,

traffic volume, and hazards that can result from failure of the paved area.
For example, roads used to support tactical operations should have priority
over less essential facilities. A single pothole in a heavily used road that is in
excellent condition otherwise should have priority over a less used road that
is in poor condition.

MATERIALS.

Use any stable material for temporary repairs in combat areas or in areas
where suitable material is unavailable and the area must be patched to keep
traffic moving. Use good-quality soils and masonry or concrete rubble for
this purpose. Ensure that patches are thoroughly compacted and constantly
maintained. Permanently patch the area as soon as possible.

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Blade the shoulders to facilitate rainwater drainage from the surface, and fill
in ruts and washouts. Grade the shoulder material flush against the FM 5-
436

Maintaining and Repairing Bituminous Wearing Surfaces pavement edges to

restrict water seepage to the subgrade and to prevent the pavement edge
from breaking under traffic. Replace material that is displaced from the
shoulders with new material as required.

Successful repair with bituminous materials is more likely in warm, dry

weather. When breaks occur during cold weather, repair them on a
temporary, expedient basis to prevent progressive failures until the weather
conditions allow more permanent repairs. Eliminate frost and moisture from
the area with surface heaters or blowtorches.

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5. QUALITY CONTROL MEASURES DURING

CONSTRUCTION OF ROAD.

All m a t e r i a l s to be used, all methods adopted and a l l works

performed shall be strictly in accordance with the requirements of
Specifications.

The C o n t r a c t o r shall carry out quality control tests on the

materials and work.

For cement, mild steel, and similar other m a t e r i a l s where

essential tests are to be carried out at the manufacturer's plants or
at laboratories other than the site laboratory.

For testing of cement concrete at site during construction,

arrangements for supply of samples, sampling, testing and supply
of test results shall be made. The method of sampling and testing of
materials shall be as required by the "Handbook of Quality Control for
Construction of Roads and Runways" (IRC: SP: 11), and these MOST
Specifications.

Similarly, the supply of aggregates for construction o f road pavement

shall be f r o m q u a r r i e s a p p r o v e d by the Engineer.

Cement concrete pavement: The defective areas having surface

irregularity exceeding 3 mm but not greater than 6 mm may be
rectified by bump cutting or scrabbling or grinding using approved
equipment.

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Dry lean concrete sub-base:

Sampling and testing of cubes: Samples of dry lean concrete for

making cubes shall be taken from the uncompacted material from
different locations

In-situ density: The dry density of the laid material shall be

determined from three density holes at marked locations

Thickness: The average thickness of the subbase layer as computed

by the level data of sub-base and subgrade or lower sub-base shall be
as per the thickness specified in the contract drawings. The thickness
at any single location shall not be 10 mm less than the specified
thickness.
Pavement concrete

Sampling and testing of beam and cube specimens: At least two beam
and two cube specimens, one each for 7 day and 28 day strength testing
shall be cast for ever 150 cu.m (or part thereof) of concrete placed
during construction. On each day's work, not less than three pairs of
beams and cubes shall be made for each type of mix from the concrete
delivered to the paving plant.

In-situ density: The density of the compacted concrete shall be such

t h a t t h e total a i r voids are not more than 3 per cent. The air voids
shall be derived f r o m t h e difference between the
t h e o r e t i c a l maximum dry density of the concrete calculated from
the specific gravities of the constituents of the concrete mix. Thickness
shall be controlled by taking levels as indicated Thickness of the slab at
any point shall be within a tolerance of -5 mm to + 25 mm of the

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specified thickness as per Drawing. Thick ness deficiency more than 5 mm

may be accepted.

6.0 Bibliography/ Readings

1. Wikipedia, the encyclopedia

2. Study of different Model

3. Visit Google wave site

4. 28 years site experience

5. IRC Publications

6. NICMAR Study Book

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