SUBGROUPS HANDOUT

Dept. Of Mathematics,PRGC(A),Kakinada Sem-III/Paper-III/Unit-II

SUBGROUPS

Complex definition: Any subset of a group 𝑮 is called a complex of 𝑮 .

e.g. 1. The set of integers is a complex of the group (𝑅, +).
2. The set of even integers is a complex of the group (𝑍, +).
Multiplication of two complexes:
Definition: If M and N are any two complexes of group 𝑮 then
MN={𝒎𝒏 ∈ 𝑮 / m∈ 𝑴, 𝒏 ∈ 𝑵}
Clearly 𝑴𝑵 ⊆ 𝑮 and 𝑴𝑵 is called the product of the complexes
𝑴, 𝑵 of 𝑮.
Note: 1. The multiplication of complexes of a group 𝑮 is associative.
2. If M, N are any two complexes in group 𝑮 then (𝑀𝑁)−1 = 𝑁 −1𝑀−1.
Subgroups: Let (𝐺,∙) be a group. Let 𝐻 be a non-empty subset of 𝐺 such that
(𝐻,∙) be a group. Then 𝐻 is called a subgroup of 𝐺.
It is denoted by 𝑯 ≤ 𝑮 or 𝑮 ≥ 𝑯. And 𝑯 < 𝐺 or 𝑮 > 𝐻 we mean
𝑯 ≤ 𝑮 but 𝑯 ≠ 𝑮.
Examples:
 (𝑍, . )is a subgroup of (𝑄, . ).
 The additive group of even integers is a subgroup of the additive group
of all integers.
 The multiplicative group {1,-1} is a subgroup of the multiplicative group
{1,-1,i,-i}
 (N,+) is not a subgroup of the group (Z,+) .since identity does not exists
in N under +.
The identity and inverse of an element of a subgroup H of a group G:

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Theorem1: The identity of a subgroup H of a group is same as the identity of

G.
Proof: Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝑯 and 𝑒 ′ be the identity of 𝑯.
Since 𝑯 is a group, 𝑎𝑒 ′ = 𝑎 -----(1)
Let 𝑒 be the identity in 𝑮.
Again 𝑎 ∈ 𝑯 ⇒ 𝑎 ∈ 𝑮.
∴ 𝑎𝑒 = 𝑎 − − − (2)
Also 𝑒 ′ ∈ 𝑯 ⇒ 𝑒 ′ ∈ 𝑮.
From (1)&(2) ,𝑎𝑒 ′ = 𝑎𝑒 ⇒ 𝑒 ′ = 𝑒.
Hence the identity of a subgroup is same as the identity of group.
Theorem 2: The inverse of any element of a subgroup 𝑯 of a group 𝑮 is same
as the inverse of that element regarded as an element of the
group 𝑮.
Proof: Let 𝑒 be the identity in 𝑮 .

Since 𝑯 is a subgroup of 𝑮, 𝑒 is also the identity in 𝑯.

Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝑯

∴ 𝑎 ∈ 𝑮.

Let 𝑏 be the inverse of 𝑎 in 𝑯 and 𝑐 be the inverse of 𝑎 in 𝑮.

Then 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑒 and 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑒.

⇒ 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑐

⇒ 𝑏 = 𝑐 ( using left cancellation law).

Theorem 3: If 𝑯 is any subgroup of a group 𝑮, then 𝑯−𝟏 = 𝑯.

Proof: Let 𝑯 be a subgroup of a group 𝑮. let ℎ −1 ∈ 𝐻 −1.

By the definition of 𝐻 −1, ℎ ∈ 𝐻.

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Dept. Of Mathematics,PRGC(A),Kakinada Sem-III/Paper-III/Unit-II

Since 𝐻 is a subgroup of a group 𝐺, ℎ −1 ∈ 𝐻

∴ 𝐻 −1 ⊆ 𝐻.----------(1)

Again ℎ ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ ℎ−1 ∈ 𝐻

⇒ (ℎ −1)−1 ∈ 𝐻 −1

⇒ ℎ ∈ 𝐻 −1

∴ 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐻 −1.---------- (2)

From (1) & (2)

𝑯−𝟏 = 𝑯.

Note: The converse of the above theorem is not true i.e. if H is any complex of
a group 𝐺 such that 𝑯−𝟏 = 𝑯 ,then 𝑯 need to be a subgroup of 𝐺.

Example: 𝐻 = {−1} is a complex of the multiplicative group 𝐺 = {1, −1}.

Since the inverse of -1 is -1 , then 𝑯−𝟏 ={-1}

But 𝑯 ={-1} is not a group under multiplication since

(−1)(−1) = 1 ∉ 𝑯 (closure is not true)

i.e. 𝑯 is not a subgroup of 𝑮.

Hence even if 𝑯−𝟏 = 𝑯, 𝑯 is not a subgroup of 𝑮.

Theorem 4: If 𝑯 is any subgroup of a group 𝑮, then HH= 𝑯.

Proof: Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝑯𝑯 so that 𝑥 = ℎ1 ℎ2

Where ℎ1 ∈ 𝑯 and ℎ2 ∈ 𝑯.

Since 𝑯 is a subgroup, ℎ1 ℎ2 ∈ 𝑯

∴𝑥∈𝑯

∴ HH ⊆ 𝑯

Let ℎ3 ∈ 𝑯 and 𝑒 be the identity in 𝑯.

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Dept. Of Mathematics,PRGC(A),Kakinada Sem-III/Paper-III/Unit-II

Then ℎ3 = ℎ3 𝑒 ∈ HH

∴ H ⊆ 𝑯𝑯

∴ HH= 𝑯
CRITERION FOR A COMPLEX TO BE A SUBGROUP:

Theorem: A non empty complex 𝑯 of a group 𝑮 is a subgroup of 𝑮 if and only

if i) 𝒂 ∈ 𝑯, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯 ⇒ 𝒂𝒃 ∈ 𝑯,

ii) 𝒂 ∈ 𝑯, 𝒂−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯.

Proof: Let 𝐺 be a group , 𝑒 is identity in 𝐺.

𝐻 is a non empty complex of 𝐺.

i.e. ∅ ≠ 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺.

Claim: 𝐻 is subgroup of 𝐺 iff i) 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻,

ii) 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻.

Case: (1) consider 𝐻 is subgroup of 𝐺

i ) 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 (∵ by closure property)

ii) 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻 (∵ by inverse law in 𝐻).

Case: (2) we need to prove that 𝐻 is subgroup of 𝐺.

By hypothesis 𝐻 clearly satisfies closure and inverse

properties.

So it is enough to show that 𝐻 satisfies associative and

identity properties.

Associative law in 𝑯: for 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐻.

Since 𝐻 is subset of 𝐺 ⇒ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺.

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Dept. Of Mathematics,PRGC(A),Kakinada Sem-III/Paper-III/Unit-II

The elements of 𝐻 are also elements of 𝐺.since 𝐺 is a group,

the composition in 𝐺 is associative and hence the composition
in 𝐻 is associative.

Identity in 𝑯: for 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻.

By hypothesis ii) 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻

Now for 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻(∵by (i))

⇒ 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻(∵ 𝑎𝑎−1 = 𝑒 in 𝐺)

∴ 𝑒 is identity in subgroup 𝐻.

∴ 𝐻 is a group and ∅ ≠ 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺.

∴ 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺.

Hence 𝐻 is subgroup of 𝐺 ⇔ i) 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻,

ii) 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻.

Theorem: 𝑯 is a non empty complex of a group 𝑮. The necessary and

sufficient condition for 𝑯 to be a subgroup of 𝑮 is

𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯 ⇒ 𝒂𝒃−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯 where 𝒃−𝟏 is the inverse of 𝒃 in 𝑮.

Proof: Let 𝐺 be a group , 𝑒 is identity in 𝐺.

𝐻 is a non empty complex of 𝐺.

i.e. ∅ ≠ 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺.

Claim: 𝐻 is subgroup of 𝐺 ⇔ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻.

Case: (1) consider 𝐻 is subgroup of 𝐺

Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻

for 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻 (∵ by inverse law in 𝐻)

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Dept. Of Mathematics,PRGC(A),Kakinada Sem-III/Paper-III/Unit-II

Now for 𝑎, 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻(∵ by closure law in 𝐻).

∀ 𝑎 ∈, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻

Hence necessary condition satisfied.

Case: (2) we need to prove that 𝐻 is subgroup of 𝐺.

Associative law in 𝑯: for 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐻.

Since 𝐻 is subset of 𝐺 ⇒ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺.

The elements of 𝐻 are also elements of 𝐺.since 𝐺 is a group,

the composition in 𝐺 is associative and hence the composition
in 𝐻 is associative.

Identity in 𝑯: for 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻.

For 𝑎, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻 (∵by hypothesis)

⇒ 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻.

∴ 𝑒 is identity in 𝐻.

Inverse in 𝑯: for 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻

Now for 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑒𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻 (∵by hypothesis)

⇒ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻.

∴ 𝑎−1 is the inverse of 𝑎 in 𝐻.

Closure in 𝑯: for 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻

Since 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻 (by inverse in 𝐻)

Now for 𝑎, 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎(𝑏−1 )−1 ∈ 𝐻 (by hypothesis)

⇒ 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻

∴ ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻

∴ 𝐻 is a group and ∅ ≠ 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺.

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∴ 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺.

Hence 𝐻 is subgroup of 𝐺 ⇔ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻.

Theorem: The necessary and sufficient condition for a non empty subset 𝑯

of a group 𝑮 to be a subgroup is that 𝑯𝑯−𝟏 = 𝑯.

Proof: Let 𝐺 be a group , 𝑒 is identity in 𝐺.

𝐻 is a non empty complex of 𝐺.

i.e. ∅ ≠ 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺.

Claim: 𝐻 is subgroup of 𝐺 ⇔ 𝐻𝐻 −1 = 𝐻.

Case (1): consider 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺.

𝑯𝑯−𝟏 ⊆ 𝑯: Let ℎ1 ℎ2 −1 ∈ 𝐻𝐻 −1 whereℎ1 , ℎ2 ∈ 𝐻

Since 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺

For ℎ1, ℎ2 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ ℎ1ℎ2 −1 ∈ 𝐻

∴ 𝐻𝐻 −1 = 𝐻 − − − −(1)

𝑯 ⊆ 𝑯𝑯−𝟏 : Let ℎ ∈ 𝐻

Consider ℎ = ℎ𝑒 = ℎ𝑒 −1 ∈ 𝐻𝐻 −1

⇒ ℎ ∈ 𝐻𝐻 −1

∴ 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐻𝐻 −1 − − − −(2)

From (1)&(2) 𝐻 = 𝐻𝐻 −1

∴ 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺 ⇒ 𝐻 = 𝐻𝐻 −1.

Case (2): Consider 𝐻 = 𝐻𝐻 −1 − − − −(𝐴)

Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻𝐻 −1.(by def of 𝐻𝐻 −1)

⇒ 𝑎𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻𝐻 −1 = 𝐻 (by (A))

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⇒ 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻

∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻

∴ 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺.

∴ 𝐻 = 𝐻𝐻 −1 ⇒ 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺

∴ 𝐻 is subgroup of 𝐺 ⇔ 𝐻𝐻 −1 = 𝐻.

Theorem: The necessary and sufficient condition for a finite complex 𝑯 of a

group 𝑮 to be a subgroup of 𝑮 is 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯 ⇒ 𝒂𝒃 ∈ 𝑯.

OR

Prove that a non empty finite subset of a group which is closed

under multiplication is a subgroup of 𝑮.

Proof: Let 𝐺 be a group , 𝑒 is identity in 𝐺.

𝐻 is a finite non empty complex of 𝐺.

i. e. ∅ ≠ 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺.

Claim: 𝐻 is finite subgroup of 𝐺 ⇔ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻.

Case 1: Consider 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺.

Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 and 𝐻 is subgroup of 𝐺.

⇒ 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 (by closure in 𝐻)

∴ ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻

Hence necessary part satisfied.

Case 2: Consider 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 − − − −(𝑎) .

We know that 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺 ⇔ i) 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏 ∈

𝐻,

ii) 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻.

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Dept. Of Mathematics,PRGC(A),Kakinada Sem-III/Paper-III/Unit-II

From condition (𝑎),we proved condition (i).

Now we have to prove that ii) 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻.

From (𝑎) 𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑎4 , … . . 𝑎𝑛 , … . . ∈ 𝐻 − − − −(1)

Since 𝐻 is finite there must be repetitions in these elements.

∃ 𝑟, 𝑠 ∈ 𝑍 + ∋ 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑎𝑠 where 𝑟 > 𝑠.

Now 𝑎𝑟−𝑠 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑎−𝑠

= 𝑎𝑠 𝑎−𝑠

= 𝑎0 = 𝑒 − − − − − −(2)

𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑎4 , … . . 𝑎𝑛 , … . . ∈ 𝐻 − − − − − (3)

Since 𝑟 > 𝑠 ⇒ 𝑟 − 𝑠 > 0

⇒ 𝑟−𝑠 ≥1 > 0

⇒ 𝑟−𝑠−1≥ 0

⇒ 𝑎𝑟−𝑠−1 ∈ 𝐻 (by(3))

From (𝑎), 𝑎, 𝑎𝑟−𝑠−1 ∈ 𝐻

⇒ 𝑎. 𝑎𝑟−𝑠−1 ∈ 𝐻

Now 𝑎. 𝑎𝑟−𝑠−1 = 𝑎1+𝑟−𝑠−1

= 𝑎𝑟−𝑠

= 𝑎0 = 𝑒 (from (2))

∴ 𝑎𝑟−𝑠−1 is inverse of 𝑎 in 𝐻.

∴ Every element in 𝐻 has inverse in 𝐻

∴ 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺.

Hence the sufficient part satisfied.

Abstract Algebra
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Dept. Of Mathematics,PRGC(A),Kakinada Sem-III/Paper-III/Unit-II

∴ 𝐻 is finite subgroup of 𝐺 ⇔ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻.

Theorem: A non empty subset 𝑯 of a finite group 𝑮 is a subgroup if

𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯 ⇒ 𝒂𝒃 ∈ 𝑯.

OR

A necessary and sufficient condition for a complex 𝑯 of a finite

group 𝑮 to be a subgroup is that 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯 ⇒ 𝒂𝒃 ∈ 𝑯.

Proof: Let 𝐺 be a finite group , 𝑒 is identity in 𝐺.

𝐻 is a non empty complex of 𝐺.

i.e. ∅ ≠ 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺.

Claim: 𝐻 is subgroup of a finite group 𝐺 ⇔ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻.

Case 1: Consider 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺.

Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 and 𝐻 is subgroup of 𝐺.

⇒ 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 (by closure in 𝐻)

∴ ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻

Hence necessary part satisfied.

Case 2: Consider 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 − − − −(𝑎) .

We need to prove that 𝐻 is a subgroup of a finite group 𝐺.

From condition (𝑎),we proved closure axiom.

Associative in 𝑯 : for 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐻.

Since 𝐻 is subset of 𝐺 ⇒ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺.

The elements of 𝐻 are also elements of 𝐺.since 𝐺 is a group,

the composition in 𝐺 is associative and hence the
composition in 𝐻 is associative.

Identity in 𝑯: Let ∈ 𝐻 .

Abstract Algebra
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Dept. Of Mathematics,PRGC(A),Kakinada Sem-III/Paper-III/Unit-II

∴ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺. Since 𝐺 is finite and since every element of a finite

group is of finite order, it follows that the order of 𝑎 is finite.

Let 𝑜 (𝑎) = 𝑛.

∴ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒 where 𝑒 is the identity in 𝐺.

By closure law in 𝐻, we have 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑎4 , … . . 𝑎𝑛 , … . . ∈ 𝐻 − −(1).

Since 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒 = 𝑎0 ,we have 𝑎0 = 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻i.e. identity exists

in 𝐻.

Inverse in 𝑯: Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 here 𝑒 = 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎0 .

∴ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑜(𝑎) = 𝑛 ⇒ 𝑛 is the least positive integer such

that

⇒ (𝑛 − 1) ≥ 0.

𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒.

By (1),𝑎𝑛−1 ∈ 𝐻.

Now in 𝐺, 𝑎𝑛−1𝑎 = 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎𝑛−1.

⇒ 𝑎𝑛−1𝑎 = 𝑎𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑒

⇒ 𝑎 −1 = 𝑎𝑛−1

⇒ every element of 𝐻 is invertible.

⇒ 𝐻 is a group and hence a subgroup of 𝐺.

CRITERION FOR THE PRODUCT OF TWO SUBGROUPS TO BE A SUBGROUP:

Theorem: If 𝑯 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑲 are two subgroups of a group 𝑮, then 𝑯𝑲 is a subgroup

of 𝑮 if and only if 𝑯𝑲 = 𝑲𝑯.

Proof: Let 𝐻&𝐾 are two subgroups of a group 𝐺.

For 𝐻 is subgroup of 𝐺 ⇒ 𝑖)𝐻 −1 = 𝐻

𝑖𝑖) 𝐻𝐻 = 𝐻

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𝐾 is subgroup of 𝐺 ⇒ 𝑖)𝐾 −1 = 𝐾

𝑖𝑖) 𝐾𝐾 = 𝐾

Claim: 𝐻𝐾 is subgroup of a group 𝐺 ⇔ 𝐻𝐾 = 𝐾𝐻

Case: 1 Consider 𝐻𝐾 is subgroup of group 𝐺

⇒ (𝐻𝐾 )−1 = 𝐻𝐾

⇒ 𝐾 −1𝐻 −1 = 𝐻𝐾

⇒ 𝐾𝐻 = 𝐻𝐾.

Hence the necessary part proved.

Case: 2 Consider 𝐻𝐾 = 𝐾𝐻

To prove that 𝐻𝐾 is a subgroup of 𝐺. It is sufficient to

prove that (𝐻𝐾 )(𝐻𝐾 )−1 = 𝐻𝐾.

Consider (𝐻𝐾 )(𝐻𝐾 )−1 = (𝐻𝐾 )(𝐾 −1𝐻 −1)

= 𝐻(𝐾𝐾 −1)𝐻 −1 (∵ Complex multiplication is

associative)

= 𝐻 (𝐾𝐾 )𝐻

= 𝐻 (𝐾 )𝐻

= 𝐻(𝐾𝐻)

= 𝐻 (𝐻𝐾 )

= (𝐻𝐻 )𝐾

= 𝐻𝐾.

∴ (𝐻𝐾 )(𝐻𝐾 )−1 = 𝐻𝐾.

⇒ 𝐻𝐾 is subgroup of 𝐺.

Hence the sufficient part proved.

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∴ 𝐻𝐾 is subgroup of a group 𝐺 ⇔ 𝐻𝐾 = 𝐾𝐻

UNION AND INTERSECTION OF SUBGROUPS:

Theorem: If 𝑯𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅𝑯𝟐 are two subgroups of a group 𝑮 then 𝑯𝟏 ∩ 𝑯𝟐 is also

a subgroup of 𝑮.

OR

Prove that intersection of two subgroups of a group is a subgroup of

that group.

Proof: Let 𝐺 be a group and 𝑒 is identity in 𝐺

𝐻1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻2 are two subgroups of a group 𝐺.

Let = 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2.

We need to prove that 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 is a subgroup of 𝐺.

Since 𝐻1 is subgroup of 𝐺 ⇒ 𝐻1 ⊆ 𝐺

𝐻2 is subgroup of 𝐺 ⇒ 𝐻2 ⊆ 𝐺

⇒ 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 ⊆ 𝐺

⇒ 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺.

𝐻1 is subgroup of 𝐺 and 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 ⇒ 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻1

𝐻2 is subgroup of 𝐺 and 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 ⇒ 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻2

⇒ 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 = 𝐻

⇒ 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻.

∴ 𝐻 is non empty complex of 𝐺.

Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2

⇒ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻1 and 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻2

⇒ 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻1 , 𝑎𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻2

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⇒ 𝑎𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2.

⇒ 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻.

∴ ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻

∴ 𝐻 is subgroup of 𝐺.

∴ 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 is subgroup of 𝐺.

Hence intersection of two subgroups of a group is a subgroup of

that group.

Theorem: The union of two subgroups of a group is a subgroup if and only if

one is contained in another.

Proof: Let 𝐺 be a group and 𝑒 is identity in 𝐺

𝐻1𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻2 are two subgroups of a group 𝐺.

We need to prove that 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 is a subgroup of 𝐺 ⇔ 𝐻1 ⊆ 𝐻2 or

𝐻2 ⊆ 𝐻1 .

Case 1: Consider 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 is a subgroup of 𝐺.

We need to show that 𝐻1 ⊆ 𝐻2 or 𝐻2 ⊆ 𝐻1.

Assume that 𝐻1 ⊈ 𝐻2 and 𝐻2 ⊈ 𝐻1.

For 𝐻1 ⊈ 𝐻2 ∃ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐻1 ∋ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐻2

𝐻2 ⊈ 𝐻1 ∃ 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻2 ∋ 𝑦 ∉ 𝐻1.

We have 𝑥 ∈ 𝐻1 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 − − − −(1)

𝑦 ∈ 𝐻2 ⇒ 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 − − − −(2)

From (1) & (2) 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 and 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 is subgroup of 𝐺.

By closure axiom 𝑥𝑦 ∈ 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2

⇒ 𝑥𝑦 ∈ 𝐻1 or 𝑥𝑦 ∈ 𝐻2

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For 𝑥 ∈ 𝐻1 ⇒ 𝑥 −1 ∈ 𝐻1 (∵by inverse property in 𝐻1 )

Consider 𝑥 −1 ∈ 𝐻1, 𝑥𝑦 ∈ 𝐻1 ⇒ 𝑥 −1(𝑥𝑦 ) ∈ 𝐻1 (∵by closure

property in 𝐻1)

⇒ (𝑥 −1𝑥)𝑦 ∈ 𝐻1( ∵by

associativity in 𝐻1)

⇒ 𝑒𝑦 ∈ 𝐻1

⇒ 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻1 − − − (∗)

This is contradiction to 𝑦 ∉ 𝐻1 .

For 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻2 ⇒ 𝑦 −1 ∈ 𝐻2 (∵by inverse property in 𝐻2 )

Consider , 𝑥𝑦 ∈ 𝐻2, 𝑦 −1 ∈ 𝐻2 ⇒ (𝑥𝑦 )𝑦 −1 ∈ 𝐻2 (∵by closure

property in 𝐻2 )

⇒ 𝑥(𝑦𝑦 −1 ) ∈ 𝐻2

⇒ 𝑥𝑒 ∈ 𝐻2

⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐻2 − − − (∗)

This is contradiction to 𝑥 ∉ 𝐻2.

∴ Our assumption is wrong.

Hence 𝐻1 ⊆ 𝐻2 or 𝐻2 ⊆ 𝐻1.

Case 2: Consider 𝐻1 ⊆ 𝐻2 or 𝐻2 ⊆ 𝐻1 .

We have to prove that 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 is a subgroup of 𝐺

If 𝐻1 ⊆ 𝐻2 ⇒ 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 = 𝐻2 and 𝐻2 is subgroup of 𝐺

Hence 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 is a subgroup of 𝐺.

If 𝐻2 ⊆ 𝐻1 ⇒ 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 = 𝐻1 and 𝐻1 is subgroup of 𝐺.

Hence 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 is a subgroup of 𝐺.

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Note: (𝒁𝟏𝟔 , +𝟏𝟔 ) is a group. 𝑺 = {0,8}, 𝑻 = {0.4,8,12} under +𝟏𝟔 are two
groups. Clearly they are subgroups of 𝒁𝟏𝟔 . Since 𝑺 ∪ 𝑻 = {0,4,8,12} =
𝑻 , we have (𝑺 ∪ 𝑻, +𝟏𝟔 )

as a subgroup of 𝒁𝟏𝟔 .observe that 𝑺 ⊂ 𝑻 i.e. 𝑺 is contained in 𝑻.

Examples to show that union of two subgroups of a group need not to

be a subgroup of that group

Let 𝑍 = {… … . −4, −3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3,4, … … } is a group of integers

w.r.to ‘+’

Let 𝑯1 = 𝟐𝒁 = {… … . −6, −4, −2,0,2,4,6, … … } is a subgroup of

(𝒁, +).

𝑯1 ∪ 𝑯2 = {… … . , −9, −8, −6, −4, −3, −2,02,3,4,6,8,9}

Let 2 ∈ 𝑯1 and 3 ∈ 𝑯2

⇒ 2,3 ∈ 𝑯1 ∪ 𝑯2

⇒ 2 + 3 = 5 ∉ 𝑯1 ∪ 𝑯2

∴ 𝑯1 ∪ 𝑯2 is not closure.

Hence union of two subgroups of a group need not to be a

subgroup of that group.

Cosets and Lagrange’s Theorem

DEFINITION: Let (𝑯, . ) be a subgroup of the group (𝑮, . ).

 Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝑮. Then the set 𝒂𝑯 = {𝑎ℎ ⁄ℎ ∈ 𝑯} is called a left coset of

𝑯 in 𝑮 generated by 𝑎 and the set 𝑯𝒂 = {ℎ𝑎 ∕ ∈ 𝑯} is called a
left coset of 𝑯 in 𝑮 generated by .
 Also 𝒂𝑯, 𝑯𝒂 are called cosets of 𝑯 generated by a in 𝑮.

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 Since every element of 𝒂𝑯 𝑜𝑟 𝑯𝒂 is in 𝑮 , 𝒂𝑯 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑯𝒂 are

complexes of 𝑮.
 If 𝑒 is the identity in 𝑮, then 𝒆𝑯 = {𝑒ℎ⁄ℎ ∈ 𝑯} = {ℎ⁄ℎ ∈ 𝑯} = 𝑯
and

𝑯𝒆 = {ℎ𝑒 ∕ ℎ ∈ 𝑯} = 𝑯. Hence the subgroup of 𝑮 is itself a left

and right cosets of 𝑯 in 𝑮.

 If 𝑒 is the identity in 𝑮, it is also the identity in 𝑯. Therefore , for

𝑎 ∈ 𝑮, 𝑒 ∈ 𝑯 we have 𝑒𝑎 ∈ 𝑯𝑎 and 𝑎𝑒 ∈ 𝑎𝑯. Hence the left coset
or the right coset of 𝑯 generated by 𝑎 is non empty. Further 𝑎 ∈
𝑯𝒂, 𝑎 ∈ 𝒂𝑯 and 𝑯𝒂 ∩ 𝒂𝑯 ≠ ∅.
 If the operation in 𝑮 is denoted additively, then the left subset of
𝑯 in 𝑮 generated by 𝑎, denoted by 𝑎 + 𝑯 is {𝑎 + ℎ ⁄ℎ ∈ 𝑯}
.Similarly the right coset of 𝑯 in 𝑮generated by 𝑎. 𝑯 + 𝒂 = {ℎ +
𝑎 ∕ ∈ 𝑯} .
PROPERTIES OF COSETS:
Theorem 1: 𝑯 is any subgroup of a group (𝑮, . ) and 𝒉 ∈ 𝑮. Then 𝒉 ∈ 𝑯 iff
𝒉𝑯 = 𝑯 = 𝑯𝒉.
Proof: Given that 𝑯 is any subgroup of group (𝑮, . ) and ℎ ∈ 𝐺.
We need to prove that ℎ ∈ 𝐻 iff ℎ𝐻 = 𝐻 = 𝐻ℎ.
Case 1: Suppose ℎ ∈ 𝐻.
Let ℎ′ be an arbitrary element of 𝑯. Then ℎℎ′ is an
arbitrary element of 𝒉𝑯. Since 𝑯 is a subgroup of 𝑮, ℎ, ℎ′ ∈ 𝑯 ⇒
ℎℎ′ ∈ 𝑯
Thus every element of ℎ𝐻 is also an element of 𝑯.
∴ 𝒉𝑯 ⊆ 𝑯 − − − − − (𝟏).

Again ℎ′ = 𝑒 ℎ′ = (ℎℎ −1) ℎ′ = ℎ(ℎ−1ℎ′ ) ∈ 𝒉𝑯(∵ ℎ ∈ 𝐻 ⇒

ℎ−1 ∈ 𝐻 and ℎ−1, ℎ′ ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ ℎ−1 ℎ′ ∈ 𝑯. )
∴ 𝑯 ⊆ 𝒉𝑯 − − − − − (𝟐)
From (1) & ( 2), 𝒉𝑯 = 𝑯.
Similarly we can prove that 𝑯 = 𝒉𝑯.
∴ 𝒉 ∈ 𝑯 ⇒ 𝒉𝑯 = 𝑯 = 𝑯𝒉.
Case 2: Suppose ℎ𝐻 = 𝐻 = 𝐻ℎ.

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Now ℎ ∈ 𝑮. Since ℎ = ℎ𝑒, ℎ ∈ ℎ𝐻.

But ℎ𝐻 = 𝐻
∴ ℎ ∈ 𝐻.
Similarly 𝐻ℎ = 𝐻 ⇒ ℎ ∈ 𝐻.
∴ ℎ𝐻 = 𝐻 = 𝐻ℎ ⇒ ℎ ∈ 𝐻.
Theorem 2: If 𝒂, 𝒃 are any two elements of a group (𝑮,∙) and 𝑯 any
subgroup of 𝑮 , then 𝑯𝒂 = 𝑯𝒃 ⇔ 𝒂𝒃−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯 and 𝒂𝑯 = 𝒃𝑯 ⇔
𝒂−𝟏 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯.
Proof: Suppose that 𝐻𝑎 = 𝐻𝑏
Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻𝑎 then 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻𝑏(∵ 𝐻𝑎 = 𝐻𝑏)
⇒ 𝑎𝑏−1 ∈ (𝐻𝑏)𝑏 −1
⇒ 𝑎𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻(𝑏𝑏−1)
⇒ 𝑎𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻𝑒 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻
Conversely, Suppose that 𝑎𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻.
Then 𝐻 (𝑎𝑏 −1)𝑏 = 𝐻𝑏(∵ by theorem 1 in cosets).
⇒ 𝐻𝑎(𝑏−1𝑏) = 𝐻𝑏
⇒ 𝐻𝑎(𝑒) = 𝐻𝑏
⇒ 𝐻𝑎 = 𝐻𝑏.
Similarly we can prove that 𝑎𝐻 = 𝑏𝐻 ⇔ 𝑎−1𝑏 ∈ 𝐻.
Theorem 3: If 𝒂, 𝒃 are any two elements of a group (𝑮,∙) and 𝑯 any
subgroup of 𝑮,
Then 𝒂 ∈ 𝒃𝑯 ⇔ 𝒂𝑯 = 𝒃𝑯 and 𝒂 ∈ 𝑯𝒃 ⇔ 𝑯𝒂 = 𝑯𝒃.
Proof: Suppose that 𝑎𝐻 = 𝑏𝐻.
If 𝑎 ∈ 𝑎𝐻, then 𝑎 ∈ 𝑏𝐻(∵ 𝑎𝐻 = 𝑏𝐻)
Conversely, Suppose 𝑎 ∈ 𝑏𝐻.
Then 𝑏−1𝑎 ∈ 𝑏−1𝑏𝐻
⇒ 𝑏−1𝑎 ∈ 𝑒𝐻
⇒ 𝑏 −1𝑎 ∈ 𝐻
⇒ 𝑏𝐻 = 𝑎𝐻.
Similarly, we can prove that 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻𝑏 ⇔ 𝐻𝑎 = 𝐻𝑏.
Theorem 4 : Any two left (right) cosets of a subgroup are either disjoint
or identical.
(OR)

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If 𝒂𝑯 = 𝒃𝑯 be two left cosets of 𝑯 in 𝑮, then either 𝒂𝑯 ∩

𝒃𝑯 = ∅ or 𝒂𝑯 = 𝒃𝑯.

Proof : Let 𝐻 be a subgroup of group 𝐺. Let 𝑎𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝐻 be two left

cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺. If 𝑎𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝐻 are disjoint, there is
nothing to prove.

Then ∃𝑐 ∈ 𝑎𝐻 ∩ 𝑏𝐻 ⇒ 𝑐 ∈ 𝑎𝐻 & 𝑐 ∈ 𝑏𝐻
Let 𝑐 = 𝑎ℎ1 and 𝑐 = 𝑏ℎ2 where ℎ1, ℎ2 ∈ 𝐻.
∴ 𝑎ℎ1 = 𝑏ℎ2 ⇒ 𝑎ℎ1 ℎ1−1 = 𝑏ℎ2 ℎ1−1 ⇒ 𝑎𝑒 =
𝑏(ℎ2 ℎ1−1)
⇒𝑎=
−1
𝑏(ℎ2 ℎ1 )
Since 𝐻 is a subgroup, ℎ2 ℎ1 −1 ∈ 𝐻.Let ℎ3 = ℎ2 ℎ1−1 .
∴ ℎ3 ∈ 𝐻. Now 𝑎 = 𝑏ℎ3
∴ 𝑎𝐻 = 𝑏ℎ3𝐻 = 𝑏𝐻 (∵ ℎ3 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ ℎ3 𝐻 = 𝐻)
Two left Cosets are identical if they are not disjoint.
∴ 𝑎𝐻 ∩ 𝑏𝐻 = ∅ or 𝑎𝐻 = 𝑏𝐻.
Similarly we can prove that 𝐻𝑎 ∩ 𝐻𝑏 = ∅ 𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑎 = 𝐻𝑏.
CONGRUENCE MODULO 𝑯:
Definition: Let (𝐺,∙) be a group and (𝐻,∙) be a subgroup of 𝐺. For 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺,
if 𝑏−1𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 we say that 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝐻 ).
Theorem 5: If 𝑯 is a subgroup of group 𝑮, for 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑮, the relation 𝒂 ≡
𝒃(𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝑯) is an equivalence relation.
Proof: Reflexive: Let 𝑒 be the identity in (𝐺, . ).
Since 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺, 𝑒 is the identity in 𝐻.

Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺. Since 𝑎 −1𝑎 = 𝑒, we have 𝑎−1 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻.

∴ 𝑎 ≡ 𝑎 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝐻) ⇒ relation is reflexive .

Symmetric: Let 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝐻 ) for 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.

∴ 𝑏−1𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ (𝑏−1𝑎)−1 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎−1𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑏 ≡ 𝑎(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝐻 )

⇒ relation is symmetric.

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Transitive: Let 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝐻 ) and 𝑏 ≡ 𝑐 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝐻 ) for 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺

∴ 𝑏−1𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 and 𝑐 −1𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ (𝑐 −1𝑏)(𝑏−1 𝑎) ∈ 𝐻

⇒ 𝑐 −1 (𝑏𝑏−1)𝑎) ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑐 −1 (𝑒𝑎) ∈ 𝐻.

⇒ 𝑐 −1 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎 ≡ 𝑐 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝐻 )

⇒ Relation is transitive.

Since the congruence modulo 𝐻 is reflexive, symmetric and

transitive, it is an equivalence relation.

Note: Let 𝑯 be a subgroup of group 𝑮 and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, then the equivalence

class containing 𝑎 w.r.to. the equivalence relation (≡ 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝐻) is
denoted by 𝑎̅.

Theorem 6: Let (𝑯,∙) be a subgroup of a group (𝑮,∙) .For 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮, let the

equivalence class 𝒂 ̅ = {𝒙 ∈ 𝑮⁄𝒙 ≡ 𝒂(𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝑯)}. Then 𝒂 ̅=
𝒂𝑯.

Proof: We need to prove that 𝑎̅ = 𝑎𝐻

Let 𝑒 be the identity in 𝐺 ⇒ 𝑒 is also identity in 𝐻

𝑥 ∈ 𝑎̅ ⇔ 𝑥 ≡ 𝑎(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝐻)

⇔ 𝑎−1𝑥 ∈ 𝐻

⇔ 𝑎−1𝑥 = ℎ ∈ 𝐻 for some ℎ ∈ 𝐻

⇔ 𝑎(𝑎−1𝑥) = 𝑎ℎ ∈ 𝑎𝐻 for some ℎ ∈ 𝐻

⇔ (𝑎𝑎−1)𝑥 = 𝑎ℎ ∈ 𝑎𝐻 for some ℎ ∈ 𝐻

⇔ 𝑒𝑥 = 𝑎ℎ ∈ 𝑎𝐻 for some ℎ ∈ 𝐻

⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑎ℎ ∈ 𝑎𝐻 for some ℎ ∈ 𝐻

⇔ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑎𝐻

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∴ 𝑎̅ = 𝑎𝐻

Theorem 7: Let (𝑯,∙) be a subgroup of a group (𝑮,∙). Then there exists a

bijection between any two left cosets of 𝑯 in 𝑮.

Proof: Let 𝑎𝐻, 𝑏𝐻 are left cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺.

Define 𝑓: 𝑎𝐻 → 𝑏𝐻 by 𝑓 (𝑎ℎ) = 𝑏ℎ, for some ℎ ∈ 𝐻.

𝒇 is well-define:

Suppose 𝑎ℎ1 = 𝑎ℎ2 for some ℎ1 , ℎ2 ∈ 𝐻

⇒ ℎ1 = ℎ2 (by left cancellation law)

⇒ 𝑏ℎ1 = 𝑏ℎ2.

⇒ 𝑓(𝑎ℎ1) = 𝑓(𝑎ℎ2 ).

𝒇 is one –one :

Suppose 𝑓(𝑎ℎ1) = 𝑓(𝑎ℎ2)

⇒ 𝑏ℎ1 = 𝑏ℎ2.

⇒ ℎ1 = ℎ2 (by left cancellation law)

⇒ 𝑎ℎ1 = 𝑎ℎ2

𝒇 is onto:

Now 𝑏ℎ ∈ 𝑏𝐻 ⇒ ∃ℎ ∈ 𝐻 such that 𝑏ℎ ∈ 𝑏𝐻

⇒ ∃ℎ ∈ 𝐻 such that 𝑎ℎ ∈ 𝑎𝐻

For 𝑎ℎ ∈ 𝑎𝐻,𝑓 (𝑎ℎ) = 𝑏ℎ

∴ 𝑓 is onto.

Note: Let 𝑮 be a finite group and 𝑯 is its subgroup then by the theorem 7
there exists a bijection between any two left (right) cosets of 𝑯 in 𝑮.

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It means any two left(right ) cosets of 𝑯 in 𝑮 have equal number of

elements.

Theorem 8: If 𝑯 is a subgroup of a group 𝑮, then there is one to one

correspondence between the set of all distinct left cosets of 𝑯 in
𝑮 and the set of all distinct right cosets of 𝑯 in 𝑮.

Proof: Let 𝐿𝐻 = the set of all left cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺

𝑅𝐻 = the set of all right cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺

Define a mapping 𝑓: 𝐿𝐻 → 𝑅𝐻 such that 𝑓(𝑎𝐻 ) = 𝐻𝑎−1 ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐺

𝒇 is well-define: Suppose 𝑎𝐻 = 𝑏𝐻

⇒ 𝑎 −1𝑏 ∈ 𝐻

⇒ (𝑎−1𝑏)−1 ∈ 𝐻(∵ 𝐻 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝)

⇒ 𝑏 −1(𝑎−1)−1 ∈ 𝐻

⇒ 𝐻𝑎−1 = 𝐻𝑏 −1(∵ 𝐻𝑎 = 𝐻𝑏 ⇔ 𝑎𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻)

⇒ 𝑓(𝑎𝐻 ) = 𝑓 (𝑏𝐻 ).

𝒇 is one-one: Suppose 𝑓 (𝑎𝐻 ) = 𝑓 (𝑏𝐻 )

⇒ 𝐻𝑎−1 = 𝐻𝑏−1

⇒ 𝑎−1(𝑏−1)−1 ∈ 𝐻 (∵ 𝐻𝑎 = 𝐻𝑏 ⇔ 𝑎𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻)

⇒ 𝑎−1𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 (∵ 𝐻 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 )

⇒ 𝑎𝐻 = 𝑏𝐻.

𝒇 is onto: For 𝐻𝑎 ∈ 𝑅𝐻 . Since 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, we get 𝑎 −1 ∈ 𝐺 and hence

𝑎−1𝐻 ∈ 𝐿𝐻 .

Thus 𝑓 (𝑎−1𝐻 ) = 𝐻(𝑎−1)−1 = 𝐻𝑎

∴ 𝑓 is onto and hence 𝑓 is bijective.

There is one to one correspondence between 𝐿𝐻 &𝑅𝐻 .

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Index of a subgroup of a finite group:

Definition: If 𝑯 is a subgroup of a finite group 𝑮 ,then the number of distinct

left (right) cosets of 𝑯 in 𝑮 is called the index of 𝑯 in 𝑮 .it is
denoted by (𝑮: 𝑯)𝒐𝒓 𝒊𝑮 (𝑯).

LAGRANGE’S THEOREM:

Theorem 9: The order of a subgroup of a finite group divides the order of

the group.

(or)

If (𝑮,∙) is a finite group and (𝑯,∙) is its subgroup then 𝑶(𝑯)

divides 𝑶(𝑮).

Proof: Let 𝐻 be a subgroup of finite group 𝐺. Then 𝐻 is also finite.

Let 𝑂 (𝐻 ) = 𝑚 &𝑂(𝐺 ) = 𝑛.

We need to prove that 𝑂(𝐻 )⁄𝑂 (𝐺 ) ⇒ 𝑚 ∕ 𝑛.

If 𝐻 = 𝐺 then clearly 𝑂 (𝐻 )⁄𝑂 (𝐺 ).

If 𝐻 ≠ 𝐺,

Let 𝑘 be the number of disjoint right cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺 . They are

𝐻𝑎1, 𝐻𝑎2 , 𝐻𝑎3 , … . . , 𝐻𝑎𝑘 .

∴ 𝐻𝑎1 ∪ 𝐻𝑎2 ∪ 𝐻𝑎3 … … ∪ 𝐻𝑎𝑘 = 𝐺 − − − (1)

We know that there is bijection any two right cosets of 𝐻 in

𝐺.That means no. of elements in any two right cosets are equal.

⇒ 𝑂 (𝐻𝑎1 ) = 𝑂 (𝐻𝑎2 ) = 𝑂 (𝐻𝑎3 ) = − − −−= 𝑂 (𝐻𝑎𝑘 ) =

𝑂 (𝐻𝑒) = 𝑂 (𝐻 ) = 𝑚

⇒ 𝑂 (𝐻𝑎1 ) = 𝑚; 𝑂 (𝐻𝑎2 ) = 𝑚; − − −−= 𝑂(𝐻𝑎𝑘 ) = 𝑚

From (1), 𝐻𝑎1 ∪ 𝐻𝑎2 ∪ 𝐻𝑎3 … … ∪ 𝐻𝑎𝑘 = 𝐺

⇒ 𝑂 (𝐻𝑎1 ) + 𝑂 (𝐻𝑎2 ) + 𝑂 (𝐻𝑎3 ) + − − − − +𝑂 (𝐻𝑎𝑘 ) = 𝑂 (𝐺 ).

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⇒ 𝑚 + 𝑚 + 𝑚 + − − − − +𝑚(𝑘 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠) = 𝑛

⇒ 𝑘𝑚 = 𝑛
𝑛
⇒ = 𝑘.
𝑚

⇒𝑚∕𝑛

Hence the order of a subgroup of a finite group divides the order of

that group.

Note: Converse of Lagrange’s theorem is not true.

Example: Consider 𝑮 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖}. clearly 𝑮 is a group of order 4

w.r.to multiplication.

Let 𝑯 = {𝑖, −𝑖} is a complex of group 𝑮. Here order of 𝑯 is 2

which is divisor of 4 i.e. the order of the group 𝑮.

Since – 𝑖. 𝑖 = 1 ∉ 𝑯. 𝑯 is not a subgroup of 𝑮.

Therefore, in conclusion that even if order of a complex is

divisor of order of that group. The complex need not to be a
subgroup of that group.

Normalizer of an element of a group:

Definition: If 𝑎 is an element of a group 𝑮, then the normalizer on 𝑎 in 𝑮

is the set of all those elements of 𝑮 which commute with 𝑎.
The normalizer of 𝑎 in 𝑮 is denoted by 𝑵(𝒂).where 𝑵(𝒂) =
{𝒙 ∈ 𝑮⁄𝒂𝒙 = 𝒙𝒂}.

Self conjugate element of a group:

Definition: (𝑮,∙) is a group and 𝑎 ∈ 𝑮 such that 𝑎 = 𝑥 −1 𝑎𝑥 ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑮. Then 𝑎

is called self conjugate element of 𝑮. A self conjugate element
is sometimes called an invariant element. Here 𝑎 = 𝑥 −1𝑎𝑥 ⇒
𝑥𝑎 = 𝑎𝑥 ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑮.

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Dept. Of Mathematics,PRGC(A),Kakinada Sem-III/Paper-III/Unit-II

Centre of a group:

Definition: The set 𝒁 of all self conjugate elements of a group 𝑮 is called

the centre of the group 𝑮.

Thus 𝒁 = {𝒛 ∈ 𝑮, 𝒛𝒙 = 𝒙𝒛 ∀𝒙 ∈ 𝑮}

If 𝐺 is abelian,then centre of 𝐺 is 𝐺.

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