MEDAN STATE UNIVERSITY

CIRCULATORY MECHANISM

PAPER

Submitted as One of the Requirements for Passing the Course

Human Anatomy Physiology

By

Group 6 :

Fadillah Rahma Purba (4193342004)

Gresia Palentina Hutagaol (4193342003)

Teresia Okarina Butar-butar (4193342005)

STUDY PROGRAM S-1 BILINGUAL BIOLOGY EDUCATION

MATH AND SCIENCE FACULTY

STATE UNIVERSITY MEDAN

MARCH 2021
 FOREWORD

Our gratitude goes to God Almighty who has given him his grace and blessings so that
we can complete this paper which can be completed on time. This paper contains the circulatory
system.

The purpose of writing this paper is to increase our knowledge of the human circulatory
system. The author realizes that this paper is still far from perfect, therefore constructive
criticism and suggestions are expected by the author for the perfection of this paper.

We realize that this paper is far from perfect, therefore criticism and suggestions from all
constructive parties are always expected for the perfection of this paper.

Finally, we would like to thank all those who have participated in the preparation of this
paper from start to finish and to our teachers who have given us the time to complete this paper.
May God Almighty. Always be pleased with all our efforts.

Medan, March 2021

Group 5

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD ................................................................................................................................................ 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................................................. 3

CHAPTER I PRELIMINARY ...................................................................................................................... 4

1.1 BACKGROUND .......................................................................................................... 4
1.2 PROBLEM FORMULATION...................................................................................... 4
1.3 PURPOSE ..................................................................................................................... 5

CHAPTER II DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................................ 6

CHAPTER III CLOSING ........................................................................................................................... 30

3.1 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................... 30
3.2 SUGGESTION ........................................................................................................... 30

BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................................................... 31

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 CHAPTER I

PRELIMINARY

1.1. BACKGROUND
Blood is a fluid found in all living things (except plants) at high levels, which functions
to deliver substances and oxygen needed by the body's tissues, to transport metabolic
chemicals, and also to defend the body against viruses or bacteria. with blood beginning with
the word hemo- or hemato- which comes from the Greek haima which means blood.
The circulatory system is an organ system that functions to move substances to and from
cells. This system also maintains stabilization of body temperature, fluids and pH
(homeostasis). There are three types of circulatory systems, among others, without a
circulatory system (usually by diffusion), an open circulatory system, and a closed
circulatory system.
The circulatory system ensures the survival of the organism, is supported by the
metabolism of every cell in the body and maintains the chemical and physiological properties
of body fluids. First, blood transports oxygen from the lungs to the cells and carbon dioxide
in the opposite direction. Second, which are transported from nutrients derived from
digestion such as fat, sugar and protein from the digestive tract in the respective tissues to
consume, according to their needs, processed or stored. The resulting metabolites or waste
products (such as urea or uric acid) which are then transported to other tissues or excretory
organs (kidneys and large intestine) also distribute blood such as hormones, immune cells
and parts of the clotting system in the body. .
In lower animals the means of transportation are body fluids, and in higher animals the
means of transportation are blood and its parts. The blood vessels are the heart and blood
vessels.

1.2.PROBLEM FORMULATION
1. How does the circulatory system function?
2. How is the structure of the heart?
3. What is the arterial, lymphatic and venous system?
4. How is the circulatory system in the body?

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1.3.PURPOSE
1. To determine the function of the circulatory system.
2. To find out the structure of the heart.
3. To know the arterial, lymphatic and venous systems.
4. To find out the circulatory system in the body.

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 CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION

1. Blood and Circulation

 Blood Cells

Blood is composed of a combination of blood plasma and blood cells, all of which circulate
throughout the body. These blood cells are then divided into three types, namely red blood cells,
white blood cells, and platelets. So overall, the components of human blood consist of four types,
including blood plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. All of its components
have their respective duties and functions that support the work of blood in the body.

• Erythrocytes

Erythrocytes are a part of blood cells, namely the largest number in the body. Red blood cells
or erythrocytes, Erythrocyte comes from the Greek word Erythros which means red and kytos
which means blood cell sheath. Red blood cells (erythrocytes) are round and flat, concave in the
center (bikongkaf) and do not have a nucleus. Erythrocytes are red because they contain
hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is a protein compound that contains iron.

a. Erythrocyte function
The main function of red blood cells is to transport oxygen to body cells and deliver
carbon dioxide to the lungs.
b. Erythrocyte characteristics
o It has a round shape and the center is concave or bikongkaf shape
o Do not have a cell nucleus
o Has a red color because it contains high hemoglobin
o Has thick elastic propertie
c. Hemoglobin structure
Hemoglobin is a metalloprotein (protein containing iron) in red blood cells that
functions as a carrier of oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body, [1] in mammals
and other animals. Hemoglobin also carries carbon dioxide back to the lungs to be blown

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 out of the body. The hemoglobin molecule consists of a globin, apoprotein, and four
heme groups, an organic molecule with one iron atom. there is a molecular center there is
a heterocyclic ring known as porphyrin that holds one iron atom; This iron atom is the
site / loca for oxygen bonding. Porphyrins that contain iron are called heme. The name
hemoglobin is a combination of heme and globin; globin as a generic term for globular
protein
In adult humans, hemoglobin is a tetramer (containing 4 protein subunits),
consisting of two noncovalently bound alpha and beta subunits each. The subunits are
structurally similar and about the same size. Each subunit has a molecular weight of
approximately 16,000 Daltons, bringing the total molecular weight of the tetramer to
about 64,000 Daltons. Each hemoglobin subunit contains one heme, so that overall
hemoglobin has a capacity of four oxygen molecules:
Gradual reaction:
Hb + O2 <-> HbO2
HbO2 + O2 <-> Hb (O2) 2
Hb (O2) 2 + O2 <-> Hb (O2) 3
Hb (O2) 3 + O2 <-> Hb (O2) 4
Overall reaction:
Hb + 4O2 -> Hb (O2) 4
D. Hb formation in the cytoplasm of cells
In the hemoglobin formation phase, the synthesized boundary consists mostly of
acetic acid and glycine. Most of the synthesis of this process of hemoglobin formation
occurs in the mitochondria.
The first step in this synthesis is the formation of pyrrole compounds, then 4
pyrrole compounds combine to form protoporphyrin compounds. Which in turn binds the
iron to form suture molecules. In the end, the four boundary molecules are linked to a
globin molecule. Globin, which is synthesized in the ribosomes of the endoplasmic
reticulum, forms hemoglobin. Hb synthesis begins with succinyl-coA, which is formed in
the Krebs cycle. Binds to glycine, which is influenced by the enzyme pyrrole
aminolevulinic acid (ALA) molecule. READ Astronauts take off to launch their second
SpaceX flight. The coenzyme in response to the formation of hemoglobin is pyridoxal

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 phosphate, which is stimulated by erythropoietin. Then 4 pyrrole combines to form
protoporphyrin IX. Then connect the long polypeptide chain (globin) synthesized on the
ribosome to form a total unit, namely the Hb chain.The formation of Hb in the cytoplasm
occurs simultaneously with the process of DNA formation in the nucleus. This
hemoglobin is the most important element in erythrocyte plasma. Hb molecule consists of
globin, protoporphyrin and iron.Globin is formed around the ribosome, protoporphyrin
around the mitochondria, then iron from transferrin. When cells are started, erythrocytes
are formed at transferrin receptors. Impaired binding of iron during Hb production can
lead to erythrocyte formation. Then the cytoplasm is small and contains less Hb.

• Leukocytes

White blood cells are other cells found in the blood. The general function of these white
blood cells is very different from that of HR. These white blood cells or leukocytes (leukocytes)
generally play a role in defending the body against the intrusion of foreign objects which are
always seen as having the possibility to cause harm to the survival of the individual.

• Granulocytes

Granulocytes, namely white blood cells in which the cytoplasm contains granulagranules.
These granules have different color-binding abilities, for example, eosinophils have bright red
granules, blue basophils and pale purple neutrophils.

1. Neutrophils

Neutrophils are about 14 μm in size, the granules are in the form of thin fine grains with
neutral properties resulting in a mixture of acidic (eosin) and alkaline (methylene blue) colors,
while the granules produce faint purple or pink colors. Neutrophils serve as the body's line of
defense against foreign substances, especially against bacteria. Phagocytic in nature and can
enter into infected tissue. The circulation of neutrophils in the blood is about 10 hours and can
live for 1-4 days while in the extravascular tissue

2. Eosinophils

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 Eosinophils in the body are about 1-6%, measuring 16 μm. Serves as phagocytosis and
produces antibodies against antigens released by parasites. The lifespan of eosinophils is longer
than neutrophils, which is about 8-12 hours.

Eosinophils are almost the same as neutrophils, but in eosinophils, cytoplasmic granules
are coarser and orange red. The reddish color is due to the presence of cationic protein
compounds (which are alkaline) binding to acidic aniline dyes such as eosin, which is present in
Giemsa's stain. The granules are as large and regular as bubbles and it is rare to find more than 3
core lobes. Eosinophils last longer in the blood than neutrophils.

• Agranulocytes

Agranulocytes are part of white blood cells which have a nucleus of one lobe and their
cytoplasm is not granular. Leukocytes including agranulocytes are lymphocytes and monocytes.
Lymphocytes consist of B lymphocytes which form humoral immunity and T lymphocytes
which form cellular immunity. B lymphocytes produce antibodies when antigens are present,
whereas T lymphocytes directly contact foreign bodies to phagocytes

1. Monocytes

Monocytes are leukocyte cells that have the largest size, which is about 18 μm, have a
solid nucleus and are curved like a kidney or a bean seed, the cytoplasm does not contain
granules with a life span of 20-40 hours in circulation. The core is usually eccentric, the presence
of a deep, horseshoe-shaped indentation. Azurophyll granules, which are primary lysosomes, are
larger but smaller. Few endoplasmic reticulim were encountered. Also ribosomes, few
pliribosomes, lots of mitochondria. The Golgi apparatus is well developed, microfilaments and
microtubules are found in the identification area of the nucleus. Monocytes are present in blood,
connective tissue and body cavities. Monocytes are classified as mononuclear phagocytic
(reticuloendothelial system) and have receptor sites on the membrane surface.

2. Lymphocytes

Lymphocytes are the second most common type of leukocytes after neutrophils (20-40%
of total leukocytes). The number of lymphocytes in children is relatively higher than the number
of adults, and the number of lymphocytes will increase if there is a viral infection. Based on their

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function, lymphocytes are divided into B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes. B lymphocytes
mature in the bone marrow while T lymphocytes mature in the thymus. Both of them cannot be
distinguished in Giemsa's stain because they have the same morphology with a round shape with
a size of 12 μm. The cytoplasm is small because all parts of the cell are almost covered with a
dense nucleus and do not have granules (Nugraha, 2015). B lymphocytes originate from stem
cells in the bone marrow and grow into plasma cells, which produce antibodies. T lymphocytes
are formed when stem cells from the bone marrow move to the thymus gland where it will
undergo division and maturation. In the thymus gland, T lymphocytes learn to distinguish which
is foreign and which is not. Adult T lymphocytes leave the thymus gland and enter lymph vessels
and function as part of the immune surveillance system.

• Platelets

Platelets (platelets) are also known as platelets and play an important role in the blood
clotting process. In addition, platelets are also often used in screening methods (early detection)
and in diagnosing various diseases caused by disorders of blood clotting.

The main function of platelets or platelets is for blood clotting. When the blood vessels
are injured or leaky, the body will do 3 main mechanisms to stop the bleeding, namely:

a. Perform shrinkage (contraction) on the part of the injured blood vessel.

b. Platelet activity.

c. The activity of other blood clotting components in the blood plasma.

• Blood Clotting Mechanism

The blood clotting scheme is as follows: 1) An injury occurs, 2) Blood comes out, 3)
Blood plates (broken platelets), 4) Produces the enzyme thrombokinase, 5) Together with
calcium and vitamin K ions convert prothrombin to thrombin, 6) Influencing fibrinogen to form
fibrin threads, 7) Stopping blood and clotting, 8) Closing the wound.

• Coagulation

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 Coagulation ( coagulation, clotting) is a complex process in the blood colloid system that
triggers dispersed colloidal particles to initiate the clotting process (eagglomerate) and form a
thrombus. Coagulation is an important part of hemostasis which is when the patching of blood
vessel walls damaged by platelets and coagulation factors (which contain fibrin) to stop bleeding
(hemorrhage) and initiate the repair process. Coagulation abnormalities can increase the risk of
bleeding or thrombosis.

The coagulation process occurs immediately after the occurrence of injury to the blood
vessels with damage to the endothelium (endothelium). The initial step of coagulation is the
release of a phospholipid component (called a tissue factor) and fibrinogen as the initiation of a
chain reaction]. As soon as the platelets react to form a blockage on the wound surface, this
reaction is called primary hemostasis. Advanced (secondary) hemostasis occurs almost
simultaneously: a protein in the blood plasma called a coagulation factor responds in a cascading
and complex manner to form fibrin webs that reinforce clogged platelets.

Blood Plasma

• Plasma Protein

Blood proteins, also called plasma proteins, are proteins present in blood plasma. They
serve many different functions, including the transport of lipids, hormones, vitamins and
minerals in immune system activity and function. Other blood proteins act as enzymes,
complement components, protease inhibitors or kinin precursors. Contrary to popular belief,
hemoglobin is not a blood protein, because it is carried in red blood cells, not blood serum.

• Separation of Plasma Proteins

Blood plasma is the part above the blood that is watery. If you want to observe the
presence of blood plasma, this can be done by taking a blood sample and then letting it stand
until there is a sediment in the blood. After the blood has settled, observe the part of the blood
that settles between the red blood cells and white blood cells. Between the two blood cells there
will be a liquid like straw and that fluid is known as blood plasma. Blood plasma contains
firbrinogen substances which function as blood clots. So the shape of this blood plasma also
tends to clot while other substances such as protein will settle under it. Plasma can be used as a

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diagnostic research, especially when people are going to do transfusion therapy in people who
have hypovotemia or people who lack substances that can make blood clot.

• Blood plasma formation

Plasma consists of water, metabolite electrolytes, nutrients and hormones. The solid
portion of the plasma is about 8% to 9%. Plasma protein is the main part of plasma liquid solid,
which is about 6% to 8%, so that the density value of plasma is closely related to the total protein
contained therein.

• Sedimentation rate

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (abbreviated ESR) or better known as the sedimentation

rate test or LED for short is a test that aims to measure how quickly your erythrocytes (red blood
cells) clot. The faster the red blood cells clot, it means that your body is in trouble because of
inflammation.

• Plasma Protein Functions

Coagulation (blood clotting). Fibrinogen in plasma plays a major role in blood clotting
along with thrombin and coagulation factor X.

Defense of the body. Immunoglobulins and antibodies in plasma play an important role in the
body's defense against bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. Maintenance of osmotic pressure.
The colloid osmotic pressure is maintained at approximately 25 mmHg by plasma proteins such
as albumin.

 Nutrition. Transport of nutrients, such as glucose, amino acids, lipids, and vitamins which
are absorbed from the digestive tract to various parts of the body as a source of fuel for
growth and development.
 Respiration. Respiratory gas transportation, namely carrying oxygen to various organs
and bringing carbon dioxide back to the lungs for excretion.
 Excretion. Serves to remove nitrogenous waste products produced after cellular
metabolism and transport it to the kidneys, lungs, and skin for excretion.
 Hormone. Hormones are released into the blood and transported to their target organs.

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  Acid-base balance regulation. Plasma protein contributes to the acid-base balance in the
blood.
 Body temperature regulation. This function is performed by balancing the process of heat
loss and heat gain in the body.
 Role in the erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR). Fibrinogen increases during acute
inflammatory conditions and causes an increase in ESR, a type of blood test, which is a
tool for diagnosing disease

2. Circulatory organs
a. Heart
The heart is the main pump that circulates blood throughout the body. Each side
of the heart consists of two chambers, one atrium formerly known as the auriculus, and
one ventricle.
The valves are between the atria and ventricles and between the ventricles and
aorta and the pulmonary article. The left atrioventricular valve has two cusps and is
called the mitral valve. The right atrioventricular valve, called the tricuspid valve, has
three cusps, as well as the aortic and pulmonary valves.
These valves allow contraction and relaxation, the ventricles in turn to pump
blood throughout the body. If one of the valves is damaged, the efficiency of the heart as
a pump will be greatly disturbed.

I. Heart Structure
The heart, which is located in the chest cavity, looks like an inverted cone. The
top of the heart where the blood vessels enter is called the base of the heart. The ends
of the two ventricles are called the apex of the heart. The two atria and the two
ventricles of the heart are located side by side. The entrance and exit valves in each
ventricle are located side by side, the four valves are located in the same plane on the
fibrous bulkhead or fibrous ring that separates the atria from the ventricles.
The human heart is a muscular pump, some of the hollow organs in the body have
muscular layers, like the heart which is almost entirely muscular. Unlike hollow
organs whose muscle layer is built by smooth muscle, the heart muscle layer is built

13
 by the heart muscle. The heart muscle is involuntary, meaning that it does not have to
be ordered to contract, anatomically, the heart muscle is similar to the skeleton, which
is twisting.
In the heart muscle there is an "intercalated disc" that connects two adjacent cells,
the intercalated disc functions to help increase the contraction of the heart muscle
cells to contract faster as a unit.

II. Heart Impulse Spread

The heart is composed of heart muscle that is rhythmic in nature, that is, it can
rhythmically contract and relax. This rhythmic nature is mainly in the area of the
sinuatrial knot (S.A. knot) which is located on the wall of the right atrium near the
mouth of the superior vena cava. S.A. knot serves as the trigger for each heartbeat
known as the pacemaker.
Cardiac muscle cells, also known as heart muscle fibers, are cylindrical in shape
with the nucleus located in the center. The muscle fibers branch out to form a woven
muscle or muscle layer in such a way that it is difficult to define the boundaries
between cells. The webbing of the muscles resembles the syncytium. (A true
syncytium, in no way shows any boundaries between cells.) This syncytial-like
arrangement allows the wave of contraction to spread rapidly from cell to cell until
the entire muscle is contracted.
Nerves do not play a role in spreading the contraction waves of the heart muscle.
This can be proven by making a series of incisions in a piece of the autrium muscle.
Such incisions will damage every nerve (if any) in the muscle. But when a part of the
muscle is stimulated until a contraction occurs, the wave of contraction will spread
through the complete parts of the muscle throughout the mass of the muscle. In
addition, in the embryo, the heart rate is present before the nerve hits.
Although the two atria are two separate chambers, the muscle fibers are arranged
in a ring that covers them. The heart rate, which begins as a contraction wave at the
S.A. node, spreads rapidly through the autrium muscle and causes contraction of both
autria simultaneously. Blood in the autrium is pushed into the ventricles through the
atrioventricular valves.

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 The heart muscles, which form a ring around the mouth of the superior and
inferior vena cavae and pulmonary veins, close the veins like a sphincter so that blood
does not flow back into the veins when the autria contract.
The transmission of the contraction wave through the heart muscles stops at the
fibrous barrier, which houses the four heart valves, which are located between the two
autria and the two ventricles. The propagation of the contraction wave through the
beam which is a modification of the heart muscle, not visible on the surface of the
heart, is recorded as a "short rest. After atrial contraction. The wave of contraction
enters the ventricles near the apex and spreads upward to the basal heart and out
through the aortic and pulmonary valves.

III. Pericardium
The heart is located in a cone-shaped sac called the pericardium. Pericardium
consists of serous pericardium on the inside and pericardium fibrasa on the outside.
The serous pericardium is composed of two fine layers, namely the visceral layer and
the parietal layer. The visceral layer is attached to the heart and the parietal layer is
attached to the fibrous sac. These two smooth layers allow the heart to beat in the
thoracic mediastinum with minimal friction.
The pericardium is the maximum limit of the heart chambers and prevents over-
stretching of the heart muscle fibers, which is caused by filling too much blood to the
heart.
The pericardium is attached to the diaphragm, and when the heart beats, it is as if
the apex is fixed. Thus, when the ventricles are closed, it is not the apex that moves
upward towards the base, but the base of the heart, especially the atrioventricular ring,
which moves downward towards the apex. This causes the autrium to expand as
blood pushes out of the ventricles.

IV. THE HEART-HEART CYCLE AS A PUMP

The heart has 4 separate pumps, 2 primary atrial pumps and 2 ventricular power
pumps. The period from the end of the contraction of the heart to the end of the next
contraction is called the cardiac cycle. each cycle is initiated by the spontaneous

15
generation of an action potential at the SA node (sino atrial) located on the posterior
wall of the right atrium near the mouth of the superior vena cava. Action potentials
travel rapidly through the atrioventricular (AV) bundle to the ventricles.
The ventricular contraction phase is called systolic which lasts for 0.3 seconds.
The ventricular relaxation phase is called the diastolic which lasts for 0.5 seconds.
The whole series of activities is complete, namely the cardiac cycle lasts for 0.8
seconds so that there are 60 / 0.8 = approximately 70 cycles per minute, this is called
the heart rate.
The heart beats continuously during life and only resting after contraction i.e.
during diastolic. When the heart rate increases as occurs during work or in an
emotional state, the increase in frequency is sacrificing, especially for the diastolic,
which becomes shorter.
Below is a table that shows the relationship between the length of the heart cycle
in seconds and the heart rate in beats per minute, which is listed in Appendix II.
 The Heart Functions As a Pump
In each cardiac cycle, systole and diastole occur sequentially and
regularly in the presence of open and closed heart valves. At that time, the
heart can work as a pump so that blood can circulate throughout the body.
During one work cycle the heart changes in pressure in the heart cavity so
that there is a pressure difference. This difference causes blood to flow
from a cavity with a higher pressure to a lower pressure.
 The atria function as pumps
Under normal circumstances, blood continues to flow from the
large veins into the atrium. Approximately 70% of this flow flows directly
from the atria to the ventricles even though the atria have not contracted.
Furthermore, the atrial contraction provides an additional 30% filling
because the atria serve only as the primary pump which increases the
effectiveness of the ventricles as an additional 30% pump effectiveness.
The heart can continue to work very satisfactorily in a normal resting state.
 The ventricles function as pumps

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 During ventricular systole, a certain amount of blood accumulates
in the atria because the atrial valves to the ventricles are closed. Right after
the systolic end, the ventricular pressure drops back to a low diastolic
pressure. The high atrial pressure immediately pushes the valve between
the atria and ventricles open and allows blood to flow more rapidly into
the ventricles. This is called ventricular filling, the filling period lasts
about the first 1/3 of the diastolic. During the middle 1/3 of the diastolic,
less blood flows into the ventricles. This is blood steadily entering the
atrium from the veins and traveling through the atria directly to the
ventricles.
Ventricular emptying during systole, when the ventricular
contractions begin, the ventricular pressure increases rapidly, causing the
atrial and ventricular valves to close. Therefore, an additional 0.2-0.3
seconds is required for the ventricles to increase the pressure sufficient to
push the seminular (aortic and pulmonary) valves, open, and counter the
pressure in the aorta and pulmonary artery. During this period the
ventricles contract, but no emptying occurs. This period is called the
istemic contraction period (isovolemic = whole body).
During the ejection period, when the left ventricular pressure
increases slightly above 80 mmHg, the ventricular pressure increases
slightly above 8 mmHg. The ventricular pressure pushes the seminularis
valve open and blood begins to drain immediately from the ventricles.
Approximately 60% of the discharge occurs during the first of systole and
most of the remaining 40% is expelled during the next 2/4. ¾ this part of
the systole is called the ejection period.
The diastolic period, during the last ¼ of ventricular systole there
is almost no blood flow from the ventricles into the large arteries even
though the ventricular muscles continue to contract.
A period of isometric relaxation (isovolemic), at the end of systole,
ventricular relaxation begins suddenly. It is possible that the pressure in
the ventricles drops rapidly. The sudden increase in pressure in the large

17
 arteries pushes blood back toward the ventricles, causing loud sounds of
closing the aortic and pulmonary valves for 0.03-0.06 seconds.
Subsequently, the ventricular muscle relaxes and the pressure in the
ventricles drops rapidly back to a very low systolic pressure as the atrial
and ventricular valves open and initiate a new ventricular pump cycle.

 End-volume diastole and systole

During diastole filling the ventricles under normal circumstances
increase the volume of each ventricle by 120-130 ml. this volume is called
the final diastolic volume. When the ventricle is empty during systole the
volume decreases by about 70 ml, this is called the volume of the
remaining volume in each ventricle of about 50-60 ml, which is called the
end-systolic volume.
 Valve function
The atrioventricular (tricupid and bicuspid) valves prevent
backflow of blood from the ventricles to the atria during systole and the
seminular (aortic and pulmonary) valves prevent backflow of the aorta and
pulmonary arteries into the ventricles during the diastolic period. All of
these valves open and close passively. The valve will close when the back
pressure difference pushes the blood back and opens when the forward
pressure difference pushes the blood forward.
V. HEART CHOOSE
In normal (physiological) circumstances, the amount of blood pumped by the left
ventricle and the right ventricle is the same. If this is not the case, there will be blood
accumulation in a certain place, for example, if the amount of blood pumped by the
right ventricle is greater than that of the left ventricle, the amount of blood cannot be
transmitted by the left ventricle to the systemic blood circulation, causing blood to
accumulate in the lungs.
The amount of blood pumped by the ventricles in one minute is called cardiac
output and the amount of blood pumped by the ventricles at each point of the systole
is called stroke volume. Thus, cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate frequency

18
per minute. Generally, in each ventricular systole there is no complete emptying of
the ventricles, only a part of the ventricular flow is removed, for example the contents
of the ventricles at the end of the 120 cc systole. Fill a systole = 80 cc, then at the end
of the systole there is still 40cc of blood left. In the ventricles this amount of blood
that is left behind is called the residual volume.
A person's cardiac output is not the same, but it depends on the activity of his
body. Adult male cardiac output at rest is approximately 5 liters and can fall or rise in
various circumstances. Cardiac output will increase during heavy work, stress,
increase in environmental temperature, and pregnancy, while cardiac output will
decrease during sleep.
 Cardiac Muscle Contraction Mechanism
Blood flows through the heart from the veins to the atria to the
ventricles and out into the arteries. Heart valves restrict blood flow to flow
unidirectional. This valve closes automatically. The valve between the
right atrium and the right ventricle is called the three-leaf valve (valvula
triakup dalis or valvula atrioventricular). The valve between the left atrium
and the left ventricle is a two-leaf valve (valvula bilauspidalis or valvula
mitralis) to prevent the return of blood due to the contraction of the
ventricular muscle to the heart, the chambers and blood vessels are limited
by a valve called the valvula semilunaris, the semilunar valve that limits
the chambers and the aorta is called the valvula. semilunaris aorta, while
the valve that limits the chambers and pulmonary artery is called the
valvula semulinaris pulmonalis. The antrioventricular valve is equipped
with a chorda tendinae which functions to connect the edge of the valve
with the chamber wall.
 Heart sound
Normal sounds are heard through the stethoscope during the cardiac cycle.
When the stethoscope is placed in place to hear heart sounds, a lub-dup
sound is commonly referred to as heart sound I and sound II.
Heart sounds occur due to air vibrations with a certain intensity
and frequency. The I heart sound has a lower frequency than the second

19
 heart sound and lasts longer. Heart sound I caused by muscle factor, valve
factor and vessel factor:
a. Muscle factor, when the muscles contract, there is generally a sound or
muscle sound. Likewise in ventricular systole.
b. Valve factor, when the ventricles contract, the atrioventricular valve
closes. Closing the valve leaves makes a sound.
c. Vascular factor, after the semilnaris valve opens, blood will be pumped
by the left ventricle to the aorta and the right ventricle to the pulmonary
artery. This sound flow of blood will vibrate the walls of the vessels,
causing a sound.
 Stages of heart sounds
The first low "lub" sound is caused by closing the nitral and
tricuspid valves, the duration is approximately 0.15 seconds and the
frequency is 25-45Hz.
A second, shorter, louder “dup” sound caused by closing the aortic
and pulmonary valves as soon as ventricular systolic ends. The frequency
is 50 Hz and lasts 0.15 seconds. This sound is loud and sharp as the
diastolic pressure in the aorta and pulmonary artery increases, each valve
closes firmly at the systolic end.
The third sound, this sound is weak and low, heard about a third of
the diastolic way. In young individuals, this coincides with a period of
rapid filling of the ventricles. This may be caused by shaking caused by
the blood pressure which lasts 0.1 second.

b. Blood vessel
The circulatory system in living things includes closed blood circulation so that
blood vessels are needed for circulation. Blood vessels can be divided into arteries, veins,
and capillaries.
A) Artery
Arteries are also called arteries. Arteries are vessels that carry blood from the
heart to the rest of the body. The walls of these vessels are strong and thick, and consist

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of three layers. The outermost layer is connective tissue, the middle layer is smooth
muscle, and the innermost layer is the endothelium. The location of the arteries is on the
inside far from the surface of the body. If the artery is touched, you will feel a pulse, if
this vessel is cut, it will radiate out.
The artery that comes out of the left ventricle is the aorta or the main artery. The
aorta drains from the left ventricle throughout the body. The arteries carry blood that is
rich in oxygen, except for the pulmonary arteries. The pulmonary artery is a blood vessel
that leaves the right ventricle to the lungs. These vessels carry blood that is rich in carbon
dioxide.
B) Veins
Veins are also called veins. Return vessels carry blood flow to the heart. The thin-
walled return vessels are generally located near the surface of the body. If this vessel is
cut, the blood that comes out does not radiate but only drips.
The return vessel has many valves along its vessels. This valve keeps blood
flowing to the heart. The vessels from the rest of the body empty into large veins called
vena cava. From the vena cava, blood enters the heart through the right atrium. All veins
carry blood that is rich in carbon dioxide except the pulmonary veins.
C) Capillary
Capillaries or hair vessels are very small vessels. The walls are composed of a
single layer cell. Capillaries are directly related to body cells. Each type of tissue is
served by capillaries. Capillaries function as a place for the exchange of substances
carried by arteries and veins. The cells receive oxygen and nutrients and remove waste
materials directly through the capillaries.

 Artery, Vein and Capillary Relationship

Arteries branch into arterial capillaries. Arterial capillaries connect with venous
capillaries. The venous capillaries will gather into vennules, then the venules will fuse to
form veins. There are three types of capillaries in the human body, namely continuous
capillaries, windowed capillaries and sinusoids. Continuous capillaries present in muscle
tissue allow blood to enter and exit at the junctions between the walls. Windowed

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 capillaries have multiple openings that allow more blood to enter and exit the
bloodstream. These capillaries are found in the kidneys, endocrine glands, and intestines.
Sinusoids are capillaries that can be enlarged, found in the bone marrow, lymph, and liver.
The hole is the size of a cell allows red blood cells to enter and exit the bloodstream.

3. Circulatory Mechanism

In order to perform its function properly, blood must always circulate at all times, as long as
living beings have life. The blood of living things always circulates in the veins. Once circulated,
the blood of living things passes through the heart so that the circulation of living things
including double blood circulation. The circulation of organism blood can be distinguished into
two, namely large blood circulation (Body) and small blood circulation (Lungs).

A. Small Blood Circulation

Small blood circulation carries blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart.
Blood from all over the body carrying carbon dioxide enters the heart through the right foyer.
From here, the blood is passed on to the right caster. From the right chamber, blood is pumped
into the lungs through the pulmonary artery. In the lungs, there will be an exchange of substances
in the capillaries pulmonalis and alveolus. Blood will leave the lungs towards the heart through
the pulmonary veins. This blood contains a lot of oxygen. Blood from the lungs enters the heart
through the left foyer.

Small blood circulation in living things can be summarized as follows.

Right foyer  Right chamber  Pulmonary artery  Pulmonalis capillaries Pulmonary veins
 Left porch.

B. Large Blood Circulation

Large blood circulation carries blood from the heart to the rest of the body and back to the
heart again. Blood from the lungs enters the heart in the left foyer, then is passed to the left
chamber. From the left chamber, blood will be pumped throughout the body through a large vein
or aorta. The aorta will branch into arteries that supply blood throughout the body, for example:

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 • Carotid arteries supply blood to the brain
• Coronary arteries supply blood to the heart
• Subclival arteries supply blood to the shoulders
• Mesenteric artery clog darh into the intestines
• Realist arteries supply keginjal blood

From all parts of the body will return to the heart through the back vessels in each of these
parts. Blood from the left back vessel, then fused to the kava vein and entered the heart through
the right foyer.

The circulation of large blood in living things can be summarized as follows:

Left foyer Left chamber  Aorta  Capillary artery  Full body  Venous  Kava Vein
 Right Porch.

The circulatory system of larger animals is generally composed of blood, which is

pumped by the heart muscle through an open circulatory system or a closed circulatory system

C. Fetal Circulation

Fetal and maternal blood passes through the placenta. Blood flows through the blood
vessels in the placenta ili through the intervila vessels. Blood is not mixed during the course of
this process because it is separated by a thin layer owned by the villi vessels. While in the
placenta, oxygen and blood nutrients are absorbed by exchanging the rest of the metabolism. The
blood that has been taken from the food juice, is flowed back to the baby through the umbilical
vein.

Fetal blood is carried to and from the placenta by umbilical arteries and veins. Most of
the blood entering the right atrium passes through the anferior vena cava through an estuary in
the atrial septum called the ovale foramen that directly enters the left atrium and then into the left
ventricle and aorta. Blood returning to the right atrium through the superior vena cava enters the
right ventricle and pulmonary body. In addition only a small part of the blood enters the lungs.
Most of this blood passes through the ductus arteriosus directly into the aorta. At birth, the ovale
foramen closes, so blood cannot come out of the right atrium to the left atrium, but is flowed into

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the pulmonary body and then the lungs. Ductus arteriuosus also closes after birth.

4. Lymphatic Circulation

The lymphatic tract system is closely related to the blood circulation system. Blood leaves
the heart through the arteries and is returned through the vein. As we know some of the fluids
that leave circulation are returned through the lymph that seeps in the tissue chambers.

Lymph circulation can function to restore fluids and proteins from tissues into the blood
circulation, transport leukocytes from the lymph nodes to the blood circulation, carry fat
emulsions from the intestines to the blood circulation, filter and destroy microorganisms from the
place of entry into the tissues to other parts of the body.

In lymph fluid there are several elements such as content that is very similar to tissue fluid
and blood plasma. The components of lymph fluid are water, organic raw materials: sodium,
calcium, potassium, magnesium, chloride, bicarbonate and phosphate. Protein : albumin,
globulin and fibrinogen. Slum material bernitrogen: uric acid, urea, creatin, ammonium and
creatinine. Carbohydrates : glucose, Fat : cholesterol and fat, Hormones, Gas: Oxygen, carbon
dioxide and nitrogen, blood cells: No erythrocytes. It has more large lymphocytes and smaller
lymphocytes when compared to other types of leukocytes.

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 Lymph nodes are lymph nodes. Serves to prevent infection, disease against disease seedlings
and can produce leukocytes. There are protrusions found in certain parts of the kiln called the
lymph nodes. Lymph nodes are located in the armpits, neck, groin, tonsils, tonsils and intestinal
jonjot.

Lymph is a dark purple gland located on the left side of the abdomen in the left
hypoogastrium area under the ninth, tenth and eleven ribs. The lymph is indexed to the fundus
and its outer surface touches the diaphragm. Lymph is composed of braided connective
structures. Between the braids are formed the contents of the lymph consisting of lymph tissue
and a large number of blood cells.

Lymph serves as a place of manufacture of leukocytes, a place of destruction of disease

germs, a place of dismantling erythrocytes, a place of blood hoarding in infancy with hepar is a
place of making erotrosit. Lymph fluid can flow through tissues in animals and humans. This

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collection of lymph fluid traffic lanes will form a lymph channel. Lymph ducts in the head, neck,
and abdominal organs form lymph ducts, namely:

• Torasicus ducts: Carry liquid objects into the left shoulder vein.
• Right lymph ductus: carry lymph fluid to the right shoulder vein.

Ductus torasicus begins as a recipe for khili or sisternakhili in front of lumbar vertebrae. It
then travels upwards through the abdomen and the thoracic diverges to the left of the vertebral
column, then merges with the large veins on the left bottom of the neck and pours its contents
into the veins.

Ductus torasicus collects lymph from all parts of the body, except from the part that transmits
its lymph to the right lymph ductus. The right lymph ductus is a much smaller channel and
collects the lymph from the right side of the head and neck, right arm and right chest, and pours
its contents into the vein located at the bottom right of the neck.

Lymph fluid flows into the lymph nodes that serve as protection from bacteria, foreign
bodies and dead leukocytes. The flow of lymph fluid through the lymph ducts always occurs due
to the contraction of skeletal muscles and the flow of lymph always goes in the same direction as
the presence of valves along the lymph canal such as those in the heart.

5. Blood Flow In Circulation

At each systolic 70mL of blood is pumped out of each ventricle. The amount of blood is
called the contents of a cup. The aorta and large arteries are elastic vessels and hold the contents
of a cup with a slight increase in pressure. During subsequent diastolic, there is no blood clot
from the heart and the pressure in the arteries decreases. Blood flows throbbing in the arteries
and when the arteries are cut off, blood pulsates out. Blood flow to the tissues is maintained by
the elastic recoil force of the arterial walls. By the time the blood reaches the capillaries, the
blood no longer flows pulsating; Steady blood flow in capillaries shows no systolic and diastolic
changes.

Blood returns to the heart through veins with a steady flow. When the vein is cut off, blood
comes out slowly from the end of the clipped vein, without pulsing. Approaching the heart, the
flow again pulsates because the particles cannot receive blood during systolic.

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 • Atrium function

Blood that returns to the heart during the cystolicparticle, flows through both atriums and
enters the ventricle. Blood that returns for one systolic, can not enter the ventricle because the
atriventricular valves are closed. Both atriums serve as blood reservoirs until the systolic end
when the atriventricular valves open. With these valves open, the ventricles are filled quickly by
the blood that was previously when the blood returned during diastolic. A tenth of a second
before the start of the diastolic, both ventricles have been filled 70 percent by blood, the atrium
budged and completed ventricular replenishment by adding 30 percent residual blood.

Autrium contractions are not essential for life, but heart function will be much more efficient
when the atrium contracts. Blood flows continuously through the lungs and tissues, but its flow
through the heart is intermittent.

During one heart cycle, blood flows through the tissue capillaries at a fixed speed, meaning
the flow does not pulsate. Pulmonary blood flow has no arteriola and thus the blood flow through
the blood changes during one heart cycle; greater at systolic time than diastolic time. So in the
lungs, blood is pulsing.

6. Disorders of the Circulatory System

• Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is a disease of the circulatory system in the form of hardening of blood

vessels. The disease is caused by a high-fat diet, which leaves fat deposits in the lining of blood
vessels. These fat piles come together and make the arteries harder and less flexible.
Atherosclerosis causes high blood pressure, which can damage the heart and kidneys, even
strokes.

• Heart Attack

Myocardial infraction (MI) is a technical term for heart attack disease. Heart attack is a
disease of the circulatory system that occurs when the blood supply is cut off from the heart.
Usually the blood supply is cut off from the heart due to blood clots. Symptoms of a person
having a heart attack include chest pain, shortness of breath, feeling weak, and the appearance of
a tremendous feeling of anxiety. The cause of the heart attack is coronary heart disease.

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 • Angina

Angina is a disease of the circulatory system characterized by severe and repeated discomfort
in the chest and pain. This condition is caused by a lack of blood supply or oxygen supply in the
heart muscle.This is a complication caused by narrowing of blood vessels. Angina is often
considered a warning sign of an impending heart attack.

• Cardiac Ischemia

Cardiac ischemia means the heart muscle does not get enough oxygen to function properly.
Ischemia in the heart is usually caused by narrowing or blockage of one or more coronary
arteries, which are arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle.A person with cardiac iskmeia
will usually experience pain such as angina and may feel as if they are having a heart attack.

• High Cholesterol

High cholesterol is usually caused by unhealthy lifestyles and unhealthy diets. Some people
can also be genetically at risk of high cholesterol.Everyone does need koletserol on their body,
but too much cholesterol can form a thick layer on the inside of the blood vessels and will block
the blood flow.

• Heart Failure

The next disease of the circulatory system, namely heart failure. Heart failure is caused by
the heart not pumping blood throughout the body properly. This condition will cause the sufferer
to fatigue, shortness of breath, and cough.Some people with heart failure find it difficult to do
things like walk, climb stairs, or carry things.

• High Blood Pressure

High blood pressure or hypertension is a disease of the vascular system caused by blood
pressure flowing through the blood vessels is too high. High blood pressure can lead to stroke,
vision loss, heart failure, heart attack. Kidney disease, and decreased sexual function.

• Stroke

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 Stroke can occur when one of the blood vessels leading to the brain is blocked by a blood
clot or even ruptures. This condition will stop blood flow and prevent oxygen from entering the
brain.This condition will later cause brain damage, paralysis, and even death. Therefore,
immediately get treatment for stroke so that there is no worse damage.

• Peripheral Artery Disease

Peripheral artery disease refers to narrowing of the arteries leading to the legs, abdomen,
arms, and head. This reduction in blood flow can damage cells and tissues in the limbs, organs,
and brain. The disease tends to occur in the elderly.

• Venous Thromboembolism (VTE)

Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is a blood clot that gets stuck in a blood vessel and blocks
blood flow. This is a serious condition that requires medical attention.

• Aortic Aneurysm

Aortic aneurysm is a disease of the circulatory system that affects arteries in the body. This
condition means the artery wall has weakened, making it possible to widen. Enlarged arteries can
rupture and become a condition that needs medical treatment.

There are several risk factors that cause a person to develop diseases of the circulatory
system. For example, such as lack of exercise, being overweight, smoking, overuse of alcohol,
stress, and a poor diet.Therefore, it is important to manage the condition so that high blood
pressure and diabetes can not affect the risk.

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 CHAPTER III
CLOSING

A. CONCLUSION
The circulatory system is an organ system that deals with the movement of blood in
blood vessels and also the movement of blood from one place to another.
The circulatory system consists of the blood, blood vessels, and heart. Blood consists
of blood plasma and blood cells, namely red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells
(leukocytes) and platelets, (thrombocytes).
The blood circulatory system is found in invertebrates and vertebrates. In the
Invertebrate, the circulatory system is only found in Annelids, Molluscs and Arthropods.
Whereas in vertebrates, all animals have a circulatory system.
The immune system or immune system is a protection system from external
biological influences carried out by special cells and organs in an organism so that it is not
susceptible to disease.
Arteries or arteries are muscular veins that carry blood away from the heart. This
function is in contrast to the function of the veins that carry blood to the heart.
Veins or veins are vessels that carry blood to the heart. The blood contains a lot of
carbon dioxide. The heart (Latin, cast) is a cavity, the cavity of a muscular organ that pumps
blood through the blood vessels by repeated rhythmic contractions. The term cardiac means
related to the heart, from the Greek word cardia for heart. The heart is one of the human
organs that plays a role in the circulatory system.

B. SUGGESTION

Based on the above conclusions, the author suggests that readers, especially
students, increase their understanding of the Human Circulatory System in order to
realize a good learning process, especially learning on campus.
We are aware that this paper still has many shortcomings, therefore we advise
readers to continue to explore supporting sources for future discussions.
With this we study the circulatory system in humans so that it can be understood
and easily accepted.
In this paper writing system, we as authors cannot admit that this paper is perfect.
Therefore, the author needs suggestions and criticism to be able to improve this work.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Campbell, N. A. 1993. Biology, Third Edition. Benjamin Cummings Publishing Company, Inc.
Redwood City.
Kimball, J.W. 1987. Biologi Umum Edisi 5 Jilid 2. Jakarta : Erlangga.

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