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I. Basic BJT Application & DC Biasing

1.1 The Transistor as an Amplifier

– Amplification is the process of linearly increasing the amplitude of an electrical
signal.
– A transistor can act as an amplifier directly using the gain, β.
– Keep in mind that when a transistor is biased in the active (linear) region, the BE
junction has a low resistance due to forward bias and the BC junction has a high
resistance due to reverse bias.
i) DC and AC quantities
– Amplifier circuits have both ac and dc quantities.
– Capital letters are used will be used for both ac and dc currents.
– Subscript will be capital for dc quantities.
– Subscript will be lowercase for ac quantities.

ii) Transistor amplification

– A transistor amplifies current because the collector current is equal to the base
current multiplied by the current gain, β.
– Base current (IB) is small compared to IC and IE.
– Thus, IC is almost equal to IE.
– Consider the following circuit.

– An ac voltage, Vin, is superimposed on the dc bias voltage VBB.

– DC bias voltage VCC is connected to the collector through the collector
resistance, RC.
– The ac input voltage produces an ac base current, which results in a much larger
ac collector current.
– The ac collector current produces an ac voltage across RC, thus producing an
amplified, but inverted, reproduction of the ac input voltage in the active region.

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– The forward biased base-emitter junction present low resistance to the ac wave.
– This internal ac emitter resistance is designated r’e.
Ie ≈ Ic = Vb/ r’e

– The ac collector voltage, Vc = IcRC.

– Since Ie ≈ Ic, the ac collector voltage is Vc ≈ IeRC.
– Vb can be considered the transistor ac input voltage where Vb = Vin – IbRB.
– Vc can be considered the transistor ac output voltage.
– The ratio of Vc to Vb is the ac voltage gain, Av, of the transistor circuit.
Av = Vc/Vb
– Substituting IeRC for Vc and Ie r’e for Vb yields
Av = Vc/Vb ≈ (IeRC)/(Ie r’e) = RC/ r’e
– Thus, amplification depends on the ratio of RC and r’e.
– RC is always considerably larger in value than r’e, thus the output voltage is
larger than the input voltage.

Example:
Determine the voltage gain and the ac output voltage for the following circuit if r’e =
50 Ω.

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1kOhm
Rc

Vcc
Rb

Vin

100 mV Vout
Vbb

Solution:
The voltage gain is
Av ≈ RC/r’e = 1 k Ω /50 Ω = 20
Thus the output voltage is
Vout = AvVb = (20)(100 mV) = 2 Vrms

1.2 The Transistor as a Switch

– One major application of a transistor is as an amplifier.
– The other major application is switching applications.
– In this case, it is operated alternately in cutoff and saturation.

– Analyze the following graph.

– In (a), the device is in the cutoff region because the base-emitter junction is not
forward biased.
– In this condition there is, ideally, an open between collector and emitter.
– In (b), the transistor is in the saturation region because the base-emitter junction and
the base-collector junction are forward-biased and the base current is made large
enough to reach its saturation point.
– In this condition there is, ideally, a short between collector and emitter.
– Actually, a drop of up to a few tenths of a volt normally occurs.

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i) Conditions in cutoff
– A transistor is in cutoff region when the BE junction is NOT forward biased.
– Neglecting leakage current, all currents are zero and VCE = VCC.
ii) Conditions in saturation
– When the BE junction is forward biased and there is enough base current to
produce a maximum collector current, transistor is saturated.
IC(sat) = (VCC – VCE(max))/RC
– Minimum value of base current needed to produce saturation is
IB(min) = IC(sat)/βDC
Example:
Consider the following circuit.
Vcc

Rc

Rb

Vin

The LED requires 30 mA to emit a sufficient level of light. Therefore the collector
current should be approximately 30 mA. For the following circuit values, determine the
amplitude of the square wave input voltage necessary to make sure that the transistor
saturates. Use double the minimum value of base current as a safety margin to ensure
saturation. VCC = 9 V, VCE(sat) = 0.3 V, RC = 270 Ω, RB =3.3 kΩ, and βDC = 50.

Solution:
When the square wave is at 0 V, the transistor is in cutoff and, since there is no collector
current, the LED does not emit light. When the square wave goes to its high level, the
transistor saturates. This forward-biases the LED, and the resulting collector current
through the LED causes is to emit light.

IC(sat) = (VCC – VCE(sat))/RC = (9 V – 0.3 V)/270Ω = 32.2 mA

IB(min) = IC(sat)/ βDC = 32.2 mA/50 = 644 µA

To ensure saturation, use twice the value of IB(min), that is, 1.29 mA. Then

IB = VR(B)/RB = (Vin – VBE)/RB = (Vin – 0.7)/3.3kΩ

Solving for the voltage amplitude of the square wave input, Vin, we get:
Vin – 0.7 = 2 IB(min)RB = (1.29 mA)(3.3 k kΩ)
Vin = (1.29 mA)(3.3 k kΩ) + 0.7 V = 4.96 V

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1.3 Introduction
– Transistors must be properly biased to work as amplifiers.
– DC biasing is used to establish a steady level of transistor current and voltage.
– That point of operation is called the dc point or quiescent point (Q-point).
– We have three possible states in a transistor:
i) Cutoff: Emitter and collector diodes are OFF.
ii) Active: Emitter diode is ON, collector diode is OFF.
iii) Saturation: Emitter and collector diodes are OFF.
– When we want to amplify a signal, we should operate in the active region.
– In general we want to amplify voltage rather than current.
– For example, the heads on a tape player (or VCR) pick up the magnetic traces on a
tape and provide a small voltage output.
– Speakers used to convert the electrical signal to an ac acoustic (sound) signal need
large voltages!
– The stereo amplifier, with tape head input and speaker output, provides the voltage
amplification necessary
– That is, the output voltage from amplifier is greater than the input voltage to
amplifier.
– Amplification is an example of linear applications.
– Amplifiers are the most common linear devices.
– In general, we need to amplify AC signals (time varying signals).
– However, proper operation depends on its DC bias voltages and currents.
– We will not deal with cutoff and saturation.

1.4 DC Operating Point

– A dc operating point must be set so that signal variations at the input terminal are
amplified and accurately reproduced at the output terminal.
– The operating point is given by IC and VCE.
– It is referred to as Q-point (quiescent point).

A) DC Bias
– If an amplifier is not properly biased, it will go either into cutoff or saturation.
– For example, the inverting amplifier:

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– Consider the following circuit:

– Adjusting VBB to get a IB = 200 µA we get:

IC = βDCIB = (100)(200 µA) = 20 mA
VCE = VCC - ICRC = 10 – (20 mA)(220 Ω) = 5.6 V

– If we adjust VBB so that IB = 300 µA we get:

IC = βDCIB = (100)(300 µA) = 30 mA
VCE = VCC - ICRC = 10 – (30 mA)(220 Ω) = 3.4 V

– If we adjust VBB so that IB = 400 µA we get:

IC = βDCIB = (100)(400 µA) = 40 mA
VCE = VCC - ICRC = 10 – (40 mA)(220 Ω) = 1.2 V

– We get three different Q points, one for each case:

– Note that when IB increases, IC increases and VCE decreases.

– When IB decreases, IC decreases and VCE decreases.
– Thus, adjusting VBB shifts the operating point of the transistor along a sloping
line.
– This line is called the dc load line.

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– The dc load line intersects the VCE axis at 10 V. At this point VCE = VCC.
– At this point we are entering cutoff (since IB = IC = 0 in the ideal case).
– The dc load line intersects the IC axis at 45.5 mA ideally.
– At this point we are entering the saturation state (IC is maximum, VCE = 0 and IC =
VCC/RC).
– Applying KVL around the collector loop we get:
VCC – ICRC – VCE = 0
IC = -(1/RC) VCE + VCC/RC
– Which indicates that the slope is -(1/RC) and the VCC/RC is the ordinate intercept.

Linear Operation
– All points along the dc load line, between saturation and cutoff form the linear
region of operation.
– This means that as long as we operate in this region, the output voltage is a linear
reproduction of the input.
– Look at the following example.
– A sinusoidal wave, Vin, is superimposed to the base voltage.
– Vin causes a ±100 µA variation in the base current (IB) with respect to the Q-point
value of 300 µA.
– This causes the collector current to vary 10 mA above and below its Q-point value
of 30 mA.
– In result, the collector-to-emitter voltage varies 2.2 V above and below its Q-point
value of 3.4 V.
– Note that VCEQ, ICQ, and IBQ are the dc Q-point values with no input sinusoidal
voltage applied.

Waveform distortion
– If we operate to close to cutoff or too close to saturation, waveform distortion may
occur.
– The top or the bottom of the output wave will appear clipped.
– When the positive peak is clipped, transistor is being driven into cutoff.
– If the negative peak is clipped, transistor is going into saturation.

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Example:
Determine the Q-point in the following circuit. Assume βDC = 200. Find the
maximum peak value of the base current for linear operation.

Solution:
The Q-point is defined by IC and VCE. We find these values as follows:
IB = (VBB – VBE)/RB = (10 V – 0.7 V)/47 kΩ = 198 µA
IC = βDCIB = (200)(198 µA)= 39.6 mA
VCE = VCC – ICRC = 20 V – 13.07V = 6.93 V

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Thus the Q-point is at IC = 39.6 mA and VCE = 6.93 V. Since IC(cutoff) = 0, we need to
know IC(sat) to determine how much variation in collector current can occur and still
maintain linear operation.
IC(sat)=VCC/RC = 20 V/330 Ω = 60.6 mA

The dc load line looks as follows:

Thus, before saturation is reached, IC can increase, ideally, by

IC(sat) – ICQ = 60.6 mA – 39.6 mA = 21 mA

And it can decrease by 39.6 mA before cutoff (IC = 0) is reached. The limiting value
is, then, 21 mA. Thus we can see that we are closer to saturation than to cutoff.

The maximum peak variation of the base current is:

Ib(peak) = Ic(peak)/βDC = 21 mA/200 = 105 µA

1.5 Voltage-divider Bias

– This is the most widely used method for biasing a transistor for linear operation.
– It uses a single voltage source and a voltage divider circuit.
– Unlike other methods, this method results in a β (almost) independent circuit.
– That is, βDC and VBE do not affect the stability of the Q-point.
– Considering the following circuit, we can see that the there are two paths between
point A and ground: through R2 and through the BE junction.

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– If IB is much smaller than current through R2, we can view the circuit just as a voltage
divider consisting of R1 and R2.
– If IB is NOT small enough to neglect, compared to I2, then the dc input resistance,
RIN(base) must be considered.

Input resistance at the transistor base

– Consider the following circuit.

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– The resistance looking into the base of the transistor is

RIN(base) = VIN/IIN

– Applying KVL and assuming VBE << IERE we get

VIN = VBE + IERE
VIN ≈ IERE

– And since IE ≈ IC = βDCIB VIN becomes

VIN ≈ βDCIBRE

– The input current is the base current, IIN = IB. Substituting we get
RIN(base) = VIN/IIN = βDCIBRE/IB = βDCRE

– Thus, the resistance seen by looking into the base of the transistor is the gain, βDC,
times the emitter resistance, RE.

Analysis of a Voltage-Divider Bias Circuit

– Consider the following circuit.

– As shown before, RIN(base) = βDCRE. The resistance from base to ground is R2||RIN(base)
= R2|| βDCRE.
– The voltage at the base is, then,
VB = (R2||βDCRE)/(R1 + (R2||βDCRE))VCC

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– Assuming βDCRE >> R2 (at least ten times):

VB ≈ R2/ (R1 + R2) VCC

– Knowing the base voltage, we can find the emitter voltage: VE = VB – VBE.
– Ohm’s law gives us the emitter current: IE = VE/RE and the rest of the values:
IC ≈ IE
VC = VCC - ICRC
VCE = VC - VE
– We can also express VCE in terms of IC by using KVL:
VCC – ICRC – IERE – VCE = 0
VCE ≈ VCC – ICRC – ICRE
VCE ≈ VCC – IC(RC + RE)

Example:

Determine VCE and IC in the voltage-divider biased transistor circuit shown below.
Assume βDC = 100.

Solution:
Determine the dc input resistance at the base:
RIN(base) = βDCRE = (100)(560 Ω) = 56 kΩ

Since RIN(base) = 10R2, we may neglect RIN(base). Thus,

VB ≈ R2/(R1 + R2) VCC = (5.6 kΩ)/(15.6 kΩ) 10 V = 3.59 V
So,
VE = VB – VBE = 3.59 V – 0.7 V = 2.89 V
and
IE = VE/RE = 2.89 V/ 560 Ω = 5.16 mA

Thus,
IC ≈ 5.16 mA
and
VCE ≈ VCC – IC(RC + RE) = 10V–5.16mA(1.56kΩ) = 1.95 V

Since VCE>0, the transistor is NOT in saturation.

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Stability of Voltage-Divider Bias

– It was said before that the voltage-divider bias is NOT dependent on βDC.
– To prove this, let’s find a Thevenin equivalent for the circuit shown below.

– The Thevenin voltage and resistance are:

VTH = R2/(R1 + R2)VCC

RTH = R1R2/(R1 + R2)

– Apply KVL around the equivalent base-emitter loop:

VTH – VR(th) – VBE – V R(E) = 0

VTH = IBRTH + VBE + IERE

– But IB=IE/βDC,
VTH = IE(RE + RTH/βDC) + VBE
– Solve for IE:
IE = (VTH – VBE)/(RE + RTH/βDC)

– As usual, assume RE>> RTH/βDC, then

IE = (VTH – VBE)/RE

– Note that the expression for IE is independent of βDC. Thus, varying βDC’s will not
affect IE.
– Thus, IC will also be unaffected by βDC.
– Remember that for this type of biasing (voltage-divider) we must make sure RE is at
least ten times RTH/βDC.
– This is not an unreasonable assumption, since βDC is generally large.

Voltage-Divider Biased PNP Transistor

– Although we have used npn transistors for most of this discussion. There is basically
no difference in its operation with exception to biasing polarities. Analysis for each
part of the circuit is no different than npn transistors.

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1.6 Other Bias Methods

– We will briefly study other biasing methods.
i) Base Bias.
– Looking at the figure below, we can see that
VCC – VR(B) – VBE = 0

– Or
VCC – IBRB – VBE = 0
– Which results in:
IB = (VCC – VBE)/RB

IC = βDC(VCC – VBE)/RB

– Apply KCL at collector to get:

VCC – ICRC - VCE = 0
VCE = VCC – ICRC

– Note that IC is dependent on βDC.

– Any variation in βDC will result in a variation in IC.
– This makes this bias method very unstable!!

Example:
Determine how much the Q-point (IC, VCE) in the circuit below will change over a
temperature range where βDC increases from 85 to 100 and VBE decreases from 0.7 V
to 0.6 V (both changes happen at the same time).

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Solution:
Before the temperature rises, we have βDC = 85 and VBE = 0.7 V. Thus
IC(1) = βDC(VCC – VBE)/RB = 85(12 V – 0.7 V)/100 kΩ
= 9.61 mA
VCE(1) = VCC – ICRC = 12 V – (9.61mA)(560 Ω) = 6.62 V

After the temperature rise, we have βDC = 100 and VBE = 0.6 V. Thus
IC(2) = βDC(VCC – VBE)/RB = 100(12 V – 0.6 V)/100 kΩ
= 11.4 mA
VCE(2) = VCC – ICRC = 12 V – (11.4 mA)(560 Ω) = 5.62 V

The percent change in IC and VCE after the temperature change is:
%∆ IC = (IC(2) – IC(1))/IC(1) 100% = 18.6%
%∆ VCE = (VCE(2) – VCE(1))/VCE(1) 100% = -15.1%

This shows that the Q-point is very dependent on βDC. Thus, the bias arrangement
becomes very unstable.

Base bias is very rarely used if linear operation is required (amplification). However,
it may be used in switching applications.

ii) Emitter bias.

– Uses both a positive and a negative power supply voltage.

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– KVL yields:
VEE + VR(B) + VBE + VR(E) = 0
VEE + IBRB + VBE + IERE = 0
-VEE = IBRB + VBE + IERE

– But IC ≈ IE and IC = βDCIB, thus IB = IE/βDC. This results in

IE(RB/βDC + RE) + VBE = -VEE
– Solving for IE
IE = (-VEE – VBE)/(RE + RB/βDC)
– or
IC ≈ (-VEE – VBE)/(RE + RB/βDC)

Q-point stability
– Assuming RE >> RB/βDC and VEE >> VBE, we end up with
IC ≈ –VEE/RE
– Which shows that the collector (and the emitter) current are essentially
independent of βDC and VBE.

Example:
Determine the variation in Q-points in the following circuit if βDC changes from 85 to
100 and VBE from 0.7 V to 0.6 V.

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Solution:
For the lower temperature (βDC = 85 and VBE = 0.7 V):
IC(1) ≈ IE = (-VEE – VBE)/(RE - RB/βDC) = 1.73 mA
VC = VCC – ICRC = 11.9 V
VE = VEE + IERE = -2.7 V
Thus VCE(1) = VC – VE = 11.9 V – (–2.7 V) = 14.6 V

For the higher temperature case (βDC = 100 and VBE = 0.6 V):
IC(2) ≈ IE = (-VEE – VBE)/(RE - RB/βDC) = 1.85 mA
VC = VCC – ICRC = 11.3 V
VE = VEE + IERE = -1.5 V
Thus VCE(2) = VC – VE = 11.3 V – (–1.5 V) = 12.8 V

The percent change in IC and VCE is:

%∆ IC = (IC(2) – IC(1))/IC(1) 100% = 6.94%
%∆ VCE = (VCE(2) – VCE(1))/VCE(1) 100% = -12.3%

iii) Collector-feedback bias.

– The base resistor is connected to the collector rather than to VCC (as in the base bias
arrangement).
– Collector voltage provides the bias for the base-emitter junction.
– The negative feedback creates an offsetting effect that tends to keep the Q-point
stable.
– If IC increases, it drops more voltage across RC, thus causing VC to decrease.
– When VC decreases, there is a decrease in voltage across RB, which decreases IB.
– The decrease in IB produces less IC which, in turn, drops less voltage across RC and
thus offsets the decrease in VC.

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– We can find IB by:

IB = (VC – VBE)RB
– Assume IC>>IB. Thus
VC ≈ VCC - ICRC

IC/βDC = (VCC - ICRC – VBE)/RB

– Solving for IC
IC = (VCC – VBE)/(RC + RB/βDC)

VCE = VCC - ICRC

Q-point Stability
– By making VCC >> VBE and RC >> RB/βDC, we are eliminating the VBE and the βDC
dependency.

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Summary of Transistor Bias Circuits

Biasing Emitter bias Voltage-Divider Bias Collector-feedback bias Base Bias
Circuit
Schematic
Diagram

Circuit A split(dual polarity) The voltage divider in The base resistor is Base resistor connected
power supply and the the base circuit. connected between the to power, emitter to
Recognition base resistor connected base and collector ground.
to ground. terminals of the
transistor.
Advantages β-independent output β-independent (like- A simple circuit that is Simple to construct.
values. emitter bias), but does relatively β independent.
not require a dual-
polarity power supply.
Disadvantage Requires the use of a None (as compared to Poor ac characteristics. Q-point dependent
dual-polarity power other biasing circuits) in on βdc.
s supply. terms of dc operation.
Applications Used primarily to set the Used primarily to bias Linear amplifiers Switching applications.
dc biasing for linear linear amplifiers.
amplifiers.

Chapter Summary
– To operate as amplifier, the BE junction must be forward-biased and BC junction must be
reverse-biased (forward-reverse bias).
– IB is very small compared to IC and IE.
– The dc current gain is βDC = IC/IB.
– When a BJT is forward-reverse biased, the voltage gain depends on the internal emitter
resistance and the external collector resistance.
– A transistor can be operated as a switch in cutoff and saturation.
– In cutoff, both pn junctions are reverse-biased. Thus no IC. Therefore, there is an open
between collector and emitter.
– In saturation, both pn junctions are forward-biased and the collector current is maximum.
Behaves like a closed switch between collector and emitter.
– The purpose of biasing a circuit is to establish a proper, stable dc-operating point (Q-
point).
– The Q-point is defined by the values for IC and VCE.
– A dc load line passes through the Q-point on a transistor’s collector curves intersecting
the vertical axis at approximately IC(sat) and the horizontal axis at VCE(cutoff).
– The linear (active) region of a transistor lies along the load line, below saturation, and
above cutoff.
– The dc input resistance at the base of a BJT is approximately βDCRE.
– Voltage divider provides good Q-point stability with single polarity supply voltage.
– Voltage divider biasing is the most popular bias circuit.
– Base bias circuit arrangement has poor stability because its Q-point varies widely with
βDC.

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– Emitter bias generally provides good Q-point stability, but requires both positive and
negative supply voltages.
– Collector-feedback bias provides good stability using negative feedback from collector to
base.

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