Quiz No.

3 in ENGR 2323
John Glenn Matic BSABE 2-3

Chapter Five
Engineers are often concerned about evaluating the pressure and velocities at arbitrary locations
in a flow field. They may need the local velocity around a bridge pier to assess the possibility of
erosion or evaluate the lowest pressure points to determine whether local boiling may occur.
 Lagrangian approach - the fluid particle moves along the pathline, the pressure changes with velocity
according to Euler’s equation. If the flow is steady, the Bernoulli equation could be used between
the two points.
 Eulerian approach - develop a solution to the flow field that provides the flow properties at any point
in the field. It is often called the control volume approach because the effects of the surroundings
are replaced by forces due to pressure and shear stress acting on the surface of the control volume.

5.1 Rate of Flow

Discharge
 The discharge, Q, often called the volume flow rate, is the volume of fluid that passes through an
area per unit time. Typical units for discharge are ft3/s (cfs), ft3/min (cfm), gpm, m3/s, and L/s.
 The discharge or volume flow rate equation,
ΔV
=VA
Δt
Taking the limit as Δt → 0 gives,
ΔV
Q= lim =VA
∆t→0 ∆t

 The mean velocity is the discharge divided by the cross-sectional area,

Q
V́ =
A

Mass Flow Rate

 The mass flow rate, ṁ , is the mass of fluid passing through a cross-sectional area per unit time. The
common units for mass flow rate are kg/s, lbm/s, and slugs/s.
 The mass flow rate equation is,
˙ Δm
m=¿ lim ¿
∆ t →0 Δ t

˙∆V
m=¿ ρ lim =ρQ ¿
∆ t →0 ∆t

m=¿ ρ˙ AV ¿
 Quiz No.3 in ENGR 2323 Page 2

5.2 Control Volume Approach

System and Control Volume

 A system is a continuous mass of fluid that always contains the
same matter. The shape of the system may change with time, but
the mass is constant since it always consists of the same matter.
 A control volume is volume located in space and through which
matter can pass. The system can pass through the control volume.
The selection of the control volume position and shape is problem-
dependent. System, control surface, and
control volume in a flow field.

Intensive and Extensive Properties

 An extensive property is any property that depends on the amount of matter present. It includes
mass, m, momentum, mv (where v is velocity), and energy, E. Another example of an extensive
property is weight because the weight is mg.
 An intensive property is any property that is independent of the amount of matter present. Examples
of intensive properties include pressure and temperature. The intensive property for momentum is
velocity v, and for energy is E, the energy per unit mass. The intensive property for weight is g.

Property Transport Across the Control Surface

Reynolds Transport Theorem

5.3 Continuity Equation

 The continuity equation derives from the conservation of mass, which, in Lagrangian form, simply
states that the mass of the system is constant. While the Eulerian form is derived by applying the
Reynolds transport theorem.

General Form of the Continuity Equation

 The general form of the continuity equation is obtained by substituting the properties for mass into
the Reynolds transport theorem resulting in,
d msys d ❑ ❑
= ∫ ρ d V +∫ ρV ∙ dA
dt dt cv cs

However, dmsys/dt = 0, so the general, or integral, form of the continuity equation is,
❑ ❑
d
∫ ρ dV +∫ ρV ∙ dA=0
dt cv cs

If the mass crosses the control surface through a number of inlet and exit ports, the continuity equation
simplifies to,

Reference Book: Engineering Fluid Mechanics Ninth Edition by C.T. Crowe, D.E. Elger, B.C. Williams, & J.A. Roberson
 Quiz No.3 in ENGR 2323 Page 3

d
m + ∑ ṁ −∑ ṁ =0 , wheremcv is mass of fluid ∈the control volume
dt cv cs o cs i

Continuity Equation for Flow in a Pipe

 Mass enters through station 1 and exits through station 2. The
control volume is fixed to the pipe walls, and its volume is
constant. If the flow is steady, then mcv is constant so the mass flow
formulation of the continuity equation reduces to,
ṁ2=ṁ1
For flow with a uniform velocity and density distribution, the continuity equation for steady flow in a pipe is,
ρ2 V 2 A2 =ρ 1 V 1 A 1
If the flow is incompressible, then,
V 2 A 2=V 1 A 1
Q 2=Q1
Note: This equation is valid for both steady and unsteady incompressible flow.
 The venturimeter is a device commonly used in engineering applications. Both the Bernoulli equation
and the continuity equation can be applied to the venturimeter, which is used routinely in industry
to measure flow rates.

5.4 Cavitation
 Cavitation is the phenomenon that occurs when the fluid pressure is reduced to the local vapor
pressure and boiling occurs. Under such conditions vapor bubbles form in the liquid, grow, and then
collapse, producing shock waves, noise, and dynamic effects that lead to decreased equipment
performance and, frequently, equipment failure.
 Cavitation is responsible for the effectiveness of ultrasonic cleaning. Supercavitating torpedoes have
been developed in which a large bubble envelops the torpedo, significantly reducing the contact area
with the water and leading to significantly faster speeds. Cavitation plays a medical role in shock
wave lithotripsy for the destruction of kidney stones.
 Cavitation typically occurs at locations where the velocity is high. For low flow rates, there is a
relatively small drop in pressure at the restriction, so the water remains well above the vapor
pressure and boiling does not occur. However, as the flow rate increases, the pressure at the
restriction becomes progressively lower until a flow rate is reached where the pressure is equal to
the vapor pressure.
Note: The world’s largest and most technically advanced water tunnel for studying cavitation is
located in Memphis, Tennessee—the William P. Morgan Large Cavitation Tunnel. This facility is used to
test large-scale models of submarine systems and full-scale torpedoes as well as applications in the
maritime shipping industry.

5.5 Differential Form of the Continuity Equation



Reference Book: Engineering Fluid Mechanics Ninth Edition by C.T. Crowe, D.E. Elger, B.C. Williams, & J.A. Roberson
 Quiz No.3 in ENGR 2323 Page 4

Chapter Six
6.1 Momentum Equation: Derivation


6.2 Momentum Equation: Interpretation



Force Terms

Momentum Accumulation

Momentum Diagram
 The momentum diagram is created by sketching a control volume and then drawing a vector to
represent the momentum accumulation term and a vector to represent momentum flow at each
section where mass crosses the control surface.

Systematic Approach
 A systematic approach is recommended for using the momentum equation. One such approach is
summarized here.
 Select an appropriate control volume. Sketch the control volume and
Problem Setup coordinate axes. Select an inertial reference frame.
 Identify governing equations. This will include either the vector or
component form of the momentum equation.
 Sketch body force (usually only gravitational force) on the force
Force Analysis and diagram.
Diagram  Sketch surface forces on the force diagram; these are forces caused by
pressure distribution, shear stress distribution, and supports and
structures.
 Evaluate the momentum accumulation term. If the flow is steady and
other materials in the control volume are stationary, the momentum
accumulation is zero. Otherwise, the momentum accumulation term is
Momentum Analysis and evaluated by integration, and an appropriate vector is added to the
Diagram momentum diagram.
 Sketch momentum flow vectors on the momentum diagram. For
uniform velocity, each vector is ṁ v .

Reference Book: Engineering Fluid Mechanics Ninth Edition by C.T. Crowe, D.E. Elger, B.C. Williams, & J.A. Roberson
 Quiz No.3 in ENGR 2323 Page 5

6.3 Common Applications

Fluid Jets
 A fluid jet is created by a high-speed stream of fluid leaving a nozzle. Examples would include a
firehose or an ink jet in a printer. Provided that the jet is “free” (not confined by walls), the
pressure is constant across any cross section of the jet, and equal to the pressure of the surrounding
fluid.
 It is convenient to use gage pressures when calculating pressure forces so the exit pressure is zero
and so there is no surface force at the exit plane. Finally, it is typically assumed that fluid velocity is
uniform across the cross section of a jet.

Nozzles
 Nozzles are flow devices used to accelerate a fluid stream by reducing the cross-sectional area of the
flow. In many applications involving finding the force on a nozzle, the Bernoulli equation is used
along with the momentum equation.

Vanes
 A vane is a structural component, typically thin, that is used to turn a fluid jet or is turned by a fluid
jet. Examples include a blade in a turbine, a sail on a ship, and a thrust reverser on an aircraft
engine.
 In analyzing flow over a vane, it is common to neglect the pressure change due to elevation
difference. Since the pressure is constant (atmospheric pressure or surrounding pressure). Another
common assumption is that viscous forces are negligible compared to pressure forces. Thus, when a
vane is flat, the force needed to hold the vane stationary is normal to the vane.

Pipe Bends
 Calculating the force on pipe bends is important in engineering applications using large pipes to
design the support system. Because flow in a pipe is usually turbulent, it is common practice to
assume that velocity is nearly constant across each cross section of the pipe.
 Also, the force acting on a pipe cross section is given by pA, where p is the pressure at the centroid
of area and A is area.

Reference Book: Engineering Fluid Mechanics Ninth Edition by C.T. Crowe, D.E. Elger, B.C. Williams, & J.A. Roberson
 Quiz No.3 in ENGR 2323 Page 6

6.4 Additional Applications

Evaluation of Drag Force on Wind Tunnel Model

Force on a Sluice Gate

Moving Control Volumes

Water Hammer: Physical Description

Magnitude of Water Hammer Pressure and Speed of Pressure Wave

6.5 Moment-of-Momentum Equation



6.6 Navier-Stokes Equation



Chapter Seven
7.1 Energy, Work, and Power
 When matter has energy, the matter can be used to do work and a fluid can have several forms of
energy.
 Work is force acting through a distance when the force is parallel to the direction of motion.
work =force ×distance=torque × angular displacement
 A machine is any device that transmits or modifies energy, typically to perform or assist in a human
task.
 A turbine is a machine that is used to extract energy from a flowing fluid. Examples of turbines
include the horizontal-axis wind turbine, the gas turbine, the Kaplan turbine, the Francis turbine,
and the Pelton wheel.
 A pump is a machine that is used to provide energy to a flowing fluid. Examples of pumps include the
piston pump, the centrifugal pump, the diaphragm pump, and the gear pump.

Note: Work and energy both have the same primary dimensions, and the same units, and both
characterize an amount or quantity.
 Power, which expresses a rate of work or energy, is defined by,
quantity of work (¿ energy) ΔW
P= = lim =¿ Ẇ ¿
interval of time ∆ t → 0 Δt

 Common units for power are the watt (W), horsepower (hp), and the ft-lbf/s.

Reference Book: Engineering Fluid Mechanics Ninth Edition by C.T. Crowe, D.E. Elger, B.C. Williams, & J.A. Roberson
 Quiz No.3 in ENGR 2323 Page 7

 The relationships between power associated with linear motion and power associated with rotational
motion,
P=FV =Tω , where V is velocity∧ω is angular speed
 Common units are radians per sec (s–1), revolutions per min (rpm), and revolutions per sec (rps).

7.2 Energy Equation: General Form



Shaft and Flow Work

Final Steps in the Derivation of the Energy Equation

7.3 Energy Equation: Pipe Flow



Kinetic Energy Correction Factor

Derivation of a Simplified Form of the Energy Equation

7.4 Power Equation



7.5 Contrasting the Bernoulli Equation and the Energy Equation



7.6 Transitions


Abrupt Expansion
 An abrupt or sudden expansion in a pipe or duct is a change from a smaller section area to a larger
section area.

Forces on Transitions
 To find forces on transitions in pipes, apply the momentum equation in combination with the energy
equation, the flow rate equations, and head loss equations.

Reference Book: Engineering Fluid Mechanics Ninth Edition by C.T. Crowe, D.E. Elger, B.C. Williams, & J.A. Roberson
 Quiz No.3 in ENGR 2323 Page 8

7.7 Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines



Tips for Drawing HGLs and EGLs

1) In a lake or reservoir, the HGL and EGL will coincide with the liquid surface. Also, both
the HGL and EGL will indicate piezometric head.
2) A pump causes an abrupt rise in the EGL and HGL by adding energy to the flow.
3) For steady flow in a pipe of constant diameter and wall roughness, the slope of the EGL and
the HGL will be constant.
4) Locate the HGL below the EGL by a distance of the velocity head αV2/2g.
5) Height of the EGL decreases in the flow direction unless a pump is present.
6) A turbine causes an abrupt drop in the EGL and HGL by removing energy from the flow.
7) Power generated by a turbine can be increased by using a gradual expansion at the turbine
outlet.
8) When a pipe discharges into the atmosphere the HGL is coincident with the system because
at these points.
9) When a flow passage changes diameter, the distance between the EGL and the HGL will
change because velocity changes. In addition, the slope on the EGL will change because
the head loss per length will be larger in the conduit with the larger velocity.
10) If the HGL falls below the pipe, then is negative, indicating sub-atmospheric pressure and a
potential location of cavitation.

Reference Book: Engineering Fluid Mechanics Ninth Edition by C.T. Crowe, D.E. Elger, B.C. Williams, & J.A. Roberson