Arch Sex Behav (2012) 41:231–236

DOI 10.1007/s10508-011-9882-6

ORIGINAL PAPER

Is Pedophilia a Sexual Orientation?

Michael C. Seto

Published online: 5 January 2012

Ó Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011

Abstract In this article, I address the question of whether For science, the answer influences research questions about
pedophilia in men can be construed as a male sexual orientation, etiology and development of sexual age interests. Sexual
and the implications for thinking of it in this way for scientific gender orientation (heterosexual or non-heterosexual prefer-
research, clinical practice, and public policy. I begin by defining ences) is typically experienced as something one begins to
pedophilia and sexual orientation, and then compare pedophilia discover about oneself in early puberty, rather than something
(as a potential sexual orientation with regard to age) to sexual one acquires as a result of developmental or environmental
orientations with regard to gender (heterosexuality, bisexuality, processes. An increasing body of research has revealed that
and homosexuality), on the bases of age of onset, correlations prenatal factors (e.g., as indicated by the fraternal birth order
with sexual and romantic behavior, and stability over time. I effect and greater non-right-handedness) influence sexual gen-
conclude with comments about the potential social and legal der orientation and has identified neuroanatomical and other
implications of conceptualizing pedophilia as a type of sexual biological correlates (Mustanski, Chivers, & Bailey, 2002; Wilson
orientation in males. & Rahman, 2005). Recent research suggests some interesting
similarities, and differences, in the neurobiological correlates
Keywords Pedophilia
Paraphilia
Sexual preferences
of pedophilia (see Cantor, submitted). For clinical practice, the
Sexual orientation answer shapes our hypotheses and approaches about assessment,
prognosis,andtreatment.Sexual genderorientationisoftenviewed
as innate; it can be assessed through self-report, reaction time, and
Introduction genital response; and reorientation therapies have not worked for
homosexual men, suggesting interventions may be able to change
Why does the question—whether pedophilia is a sexual orien- sexual arousal patterns or even behavior without changing the
tation—matter? Answering the question of whether pedophilia underlying preferences (Drescher & Zucker, 2006). Finally, for
in men is a sexual age orientation (or sexual orientation with public policy, perhaps most controversially, the answer may affect
regard to age) has implications for science, clinical practice, and societal perceptions and may have implications for criminal and
public policy. I will focus my comments on men, because most civil law. Anti-discrimination laws and policies refer to sexual
known pedophiles are male, and I will rely on research involving orientation, but with the implicit understanding that one is referring
male participants. Pedophilia appears to be rare among women, to sexual gender orientation. But what might happen if the defi-
and sex differences in sexual response and behavior suggest nition of sexual orientation were to expand to include sexual age
pedophilia may manifest differently in women (Chivers, Seto, preferences such as pedophilia?
& Blanchard, 2007; Diamond, 2008; Seto, 2008).

Definitions

M. C. Seto (&)
Before addressing the evidence regarding pedophilia as a sexual
Integrated Forensic Program, Royal Ottawa Health Care Group,
1804 Highway 2 East, Brockville, ON K6V 5W7, Canada orientation, it is important to define terms. First, pedophilia can
e-mail: [email protected] be defined as a sexual attraction to prepubescent children, as

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indicated by persistent and recurrent sexual thoughts, fantasies, other men, for example, but to be most sexually aroused and
urges, arousal, or behavior (‘‘or’’ because the diagnosis can be pursue sexual activities with women. Though a homosexual
made on the basis of thoughts and urges alone, for example).1 man might engage in heterosexual relationships and even marry
The prevalence of pedophilia (based on diagnosis, objective a woman because of prejudice and sociolegal restrictions against
testing, or self-report) in samples of child pornography offend- same-sex relationships, the above view of sexual orientation would
ers or sexual offenders with child victims is much higher (50– nonetheless predict that much of his sexuality would still involve
65%) than it could possibly be in the general population (Seto, men (e.g., having sexual fantasies about men, viewing pornogra-
2008; Seto, Cantor, & Blanchard, 2006). Though large-scale epi- phy depicting males, extra-marital liaisons with men) (see Beck-
demiological data are not available, Seto (2008) reviewed a range stead, submitted).
of studies and suggested that non-representative samples point to
an upper-limit prevalence of 5% in men. For example, anonymous
surveyshavefoundthat3–4%ofcollege-agedmenadmittohaving Aspects of Sexual Orientation
had sexual contact with a prepubescent girl (Ahlers et al., 2011;
Smith, 1994); Fromuth, Burkhart and Jones (1991) specified that In the following section, I very briefly comment on sexual gen-
the respondent was 16 or older when the sexual contact occurred, der orientation with regard to age of onset, correlations with sexual
ruling out peer contacts. As another example, Briere and Runtz and romantic behavior, and stability over time, to establish a basis
(1989) found that 5% masturbated to sexual fantasies about chil- for comparison with pedophilia as a potential sexual age orien-
dren (age unspecified). Not all of these men were pedophiles, tation.
however, because the researchers did not ask questions about
persistence or intensity. Age of Onset
Second, male sexual orientation can be defined as the direc-
tion(s) of a male person’s sexual thoughts, fantasies, urges, Awareness of one’s sexual gender orientation typically emerges
arousal, and behavior; the Oxford English Dictionary (2011) before the onset of puberty and can be described as a process of
defines orientation as‘‘the relative position or direction of some- discovery, with an awareness of sexual interest in males or
thing.’’People are most familiar withthe ideaofsexual orientation females preceding sexual behavior or self-identification (McClin-
as it applies to gender: Heterosexual individuals are primarily tock & Herdt, 1996; Remafedi, Resnick, Blum, & Harris, 1992;
oriented towards opposite-sex persons, homosexual individuals Savin-Williams & Diamond, 2000).
are primarily oriented towards same-sex persons, and bisexual
individuals are attracted to both men and women. Other labels Sexual and Romantic Behavior
have also been used to self-identify (e.g.,‘‘queer,’’‘‘gay’’); these
self-identity labels overlap with male homosexual and hetero- Among men, there is a large difference in the sexual histories
sexual orientations, but they are not the same constructs. and romantic partner choices of self-identified heterosexual and
I purposefully used the conjunction ‘‘and’’ in the definition homosexual men. In particular, homosexual men are much more
of sexual orientation because these different expressions of likely to have had same-sex partners, especially when less con-
sexual interest are usually coherent in men. It is highly unusual strained by social and legal obstacles; the orientation difference
for a man to have sexual thoughts, fantasies, and urges about between heterosexual and homosexual men is smaller for female
partners (Chandra, Mosher, Copen, & Sionean, 2011).
1
Clinical definitions usually require distress or impairment if pedophilia
Stability over Time
is to be considered a mental disorder (e.g., the DSM-IV-TR) (American
Psychiatric Association, 2000), but not ICD-10, which considers the
sexual attraction to prepubescent children to be sufficient (World Health Male sexual gender orientation is usually viewed as stable over
Organization, 1997). I will not enter the debate about whether pedophilia time and situations, though it is not required as part of the def-
should, or should not, be classified as a mental disorder, in this commentary.
inition (and does not appear to correct for female sexual gender
Interested readers are directed to the December 2002 issue in the Archives of
Sexual Behavior for commentaries on this debate (e.g., Seto, 2002, where I orientation) (see Diamond, 2008). Efforts to change male sexual
argue pedophilia should be a mental disorder). For my purposes, the sexual gender orientation have consistently failed; though temporary
attraction part of the definition is the key consideration in operationalizing changes in sexual arousal can occur through behavioral condi-
pedophilia. There has been recent debate about the existence of hebephilia,
tioning techniques, probably by increasing voluntary control
a sexual age orientation for pubescent children, that is, children who are
beginning to show signs of physical maturity such as breast budding in girls over sexual arousal (though see Conrade & Wincze, 1976),
or changes in the scrotum and penis for boys (Blanchard, 2010; Franklin, there is no convincing evidence that sexual thoughts, fantasies,
2009; Seto, 2010). There is no word coined yet for individuals who are urges, arousal, and behavior change in the long-term (though
attracted to both mature and immature persons. DSM-IV-TR refers to such
there is ongoing debate about ‘‘reorientation’’ or ‘‘conversion’’
individuals as nonexclusive pedophiles, but one could also call them non-
exclusive teleiophiles (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). The Greek therapies to change homosexual to heterosexual orientation; see
root for age is aion, so one word that could apply is bi-aionic. Beckstead, submitted; Drescher & Zucker, 2006). Focusing on

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heterosexuality, there is no evidence that heterosexual individ- the degree to which someone prefers the company of children,
uals change their orientation over time, such that a man with an enjoys child-oriented activities, and feels his emotional and inti-
extensive history of sexual interactions involving women and a macy needs can be met by children (Wilson, 1999). Some pe-
long-term marriage subsequently becomes sexually (or roman- dophiles not only seek sexual contacts with children, but seek
tically) attracted to another man. romantic relationships with them. For example, Li (1991) inter-
viewed 27 pedophiles and found that many characterized their
contacts with children as part of loving relationships. Wilson
Is Pedophilia a Sexual Orientation? and Cox (1983) interviewed 77 members of the Paedophile
Information Exchange in the United Kingdom, and found that
By the above definition of sexual orientation—and most com- more respondents characterized their relationships with chil-
mon definitions of sexual orientation—pedophilia can be viewed dren as affectionate, loving, intimate, and‘‘close’’(n = 25) than
as a sexual age orientation based on the more limited evidence as genitally-oriented (n = 18). Some respondents claimed their
available regarding its age of onset, associations with sexual and relationships with children were platonic, suggesting that sex-
romantic behavior, and stability over time. Though there are ual attraction was not the primary motivation. Other individ-
clearly differences in some respects, there are also striking uals might not have sexual contacts with children, but will
similarities in the research literature on pedophilia. view nude or sexually explicit depictions of children (Neutze,
Seto, Schaefer, Mundt, & Beier, 2011; Riegel, 2004; Seto
Age of Onset et al., 2006). There is little other research exploring the emo-
tional aspects of adult–child contacts, from the adult’s per-
Self-report is less straightforward than for heterosexual (or even spective.
homosexual, in contemporary research in North American and
Western European countries) respondents given the stigma Stability over Time
associated with pedophilia, but some individuals acknowledge
an early onset of sexual interest in children that precedes sexual Pedophilia is viewed by many researchers and clinicians as
behavior involving children or self-identification as a pedophile. having a lifelong course. For some individuals, at least, it is dis-
For example, some studies of identified offenders find that a covered in early adolescence and sexual interest in children can be
substantial minority admitted an onset of sexual interest in detected in adolescence (Seto, Lalumière, & Blanchard, 2000;
children before adulthood (Abel et al., 1987; Freund & Kuban, Seto, Murphy, Page, & Ennis, 2003); once identified, pedophilia
1993; Marshall, Barbaree, & Eccles, 1991). Dandescu and can predict detected sexual behavior involving children up to
Wolfe (2003) found that two-thirds of their sample of sex offend- 40 years later (Hanson, Steffy, & Gauthier, 1993). Changes in
ers with child victims reported that they had ‘‘deviant sexual sexual arousal to children can be made using behavioral condi-
fantasies’’ before committing their first offense. One-quarter of tioning techniques, but follow-up studies have not shown evi-
Bernard’s (1985) small sample of self-identified pedophiles dence that this change generalizes outside the laboratory or
were aware of their sexual interest in children before the age of persists over the longer-term.
15. Memoirs and case reports also indicate an early age of onset Some investigators have suggested there is evidence that
(Li, 1991). As with non-heterosexual gender orientations, some pedophilic preferences can change (see Marshall, 2008). For
individuals choose to reveal their pedophilic orientation to example, Marshall (1997) examined pre-post treatment changes
family and close friends, but this is likely an even more difficult in sexual arousal to children in a group of 12 offenders who had
process because of the much greater stigma associated with shown greater sexual arousal to children than to adults when
sexual attraction or involvement with children. There is little initially assessed, had multiple child victims, and who had been
empirical information, however, about the self-identities, dis- diagnosed by a forensic psychiatrist as having pedophilia. He
closures, and quality of life of pedophilic individuals. found that this selected group of pedophilic offenders showed
lower sexual arousal to children than to adults when assessed
Sexual and Romantic Behavior after treatment, even though treatment focused on intimacy,
relationship skills and self-esteem, rather than modification of
Pedophilia is associated with sexual behavior involving chil- sexual arousal patterns. There are not sufficient longitudinal
dren. Some studies have found that some pedophilic sexual data, however, to draw strong conclusions about long-term
offenders (in particular, those who select unrelated boys) score change at this time. Follow-up research has found that pre-
higher on measures of emotional congruence with children than treatment assessments of sexual arousal are a better predictor of
other sexual offenders (Underhill, Wakeling, Mann, & Webster, sexual recidivism than post-treatment assessments, suggesting
2008; Wilson, 1999). Finkelhor (1984) defined emotional con- that any treatment-related changes in sexual arousal patterns
gruence with children as the extent to which sex with a child dissipate over time (Harris, Quinsey, & Rice, 1991). Viewing
fulfilled emotional needs. Emotional congruence can also include pedophilia as a sexual orientation would suggest that treatment

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is more likely to be effective if it focuses on self-regulation skills female

(in order to effectively manage pedophilic urges, thoughts, etc.)
than on trying to change sexual preferences (Beckstead, sub- Heterosexual Teleiophile
mitted; Drescher & Zucker, 2006).

Modular Preferences: Gender and Age Orientations infant senior

The strongest test of sexual orientation is whom a person would

choose in a hypothetical situation where they could freely have Homosexual Pedophile

sex, without negative consequences, when presented with the

alternate choices: man or woman, adult or child. Teleiophilic
individuals (to use a term coined by Blanchard) would choose
physically mature persons and pedophilic individuals would male
choose prepubescent children. Androphilic (homosexual telei-
Fig. 1 Male modular person preferences system. Asexual persons
ophilic) men would choose other men and gynephilic (hetero-
(espousing no particular sexual attraction to others) could be placed at
sexual teleiophilic) men would choose women.2 the origin of this two-axis system. Other axes could be added to represent
Sexual age and gender orientation can be viewed as disso- other person characteristics that may be of interest, including body shape
ciable in men (see Fig. 1; Blanchard, 2010; also, Quinsey & and size, but gender and age are two of the most fundamental person
characteristics
Lalumière, 1995, described a male sexual preference system that
would contain different mental modules attending to different
gender and age cues). Whether someone is sexually attracted to negatively sanctioned in a variety of ways, but social changes
children or to adults is partially independent of whether he is have occurred, including the legal rights of marriage or civil unions
sexually attracted to males or females. These dimensions are not in Canada and several other countries, recognition of same-sex
completely orthogonal because pedophilic individuals distin- partner benefits, and the inclusion of sexual gender orientation
guish less between boys and girls than teleiophiles distinguish in anti-discrimination policies and laws. In my opinion, these are
between men and women, possibly reflecting the fact that boys signs of progress: I am generally opposed to discrimination, and
and girls differ less in terms of body size and shape than do men I believe that mutually consenting sex between adults should not
and women. Secondary sexual development (breasts, axillary be subject to legal or other discrimination. Pedophilia, on the
and pubic hair, size and shape of external genitalia) also provides other hand, involves sex between an adult and a child who is not
more cues about gender when examining adults. legally able to consent. There are substantial asymmetries in
cognitive ability, psychosexual development, and autonomy
that are not usually present in sexual interactions between con-
Final Comment senting adults. I would still consider it no particular concern of
mine if adult pedophiles advocated for the freedom to have sex
I have focused on the scientific and clinical implications of with other adult pedophiles. They do not, however, and I think
conceptualizing pedophilia as a sexual orientation in this brief there is often a self-serving motive in adult statements sup-
article. But what about the legal and social implications? In par- portive of adult–child sex.3
ticular, what impact might there be in conceptualizing pedophilia Given the anxiety and fear elicited by pedophiles in con-
as a sexual age orientation, based on empirical evidence, akin to temporary societies, it is highly unlikely that citizens would
sexual gender orientation such as heterosexuality or homosex- support the expansion of legal and civil rights to other sexual
uality? For example, there are anti-discrimination laws or poli- orientations. Nonetheless, this challenging and complex dis-
cies that specifically mention‘‘sexual orientation’’as grounds for cussion needs to take place. Accepting that pedophilia is a sexual
redress. The makers of these laws and policies surely had sexual orientation akin to heterosexuality or homosexuality, rather than a
gender orientation in mind, not sexual age orientation. preference that is chosen or somehow learned, may influence the
It is important to emphasize here that I am not equating these direction of this discussion. Pedophilia is unlikely ever to be
gender and age orientations. Homosexuality continues to be accepted, given its behavioral manifestations involve the sexual
exploitation of children, but can it be tolerated when it is not
2
The order of these adjectives describing sexual preferences could easily
accompanied by criminal actions? This may seem far-fetched
be reversed; for example, a man attracted to prepubescent girls could be
correctly described as either a‘‘gynephilic pedophile’’or a‘‘pedophilic gy-
3
nephile’’(I thank one of the anonymous reviewers for this point). An impor- I realize that adults have more opportunities to speak and be heard, at
tant empirical question is whether sexual gender preferences or sexual age least by other adults, but I have never heard (directly or indirectly) a child
preferences have primacy. speak on behalf of his or her right to have sex with an adult.

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given the current prevailing views of pedophilia and sexual Blanchard, R. (2010). The DSM diagnostic criteria for pedophilia. Archives
offending against children (see Jenkins, 1998), but there are of Sexual Behavior, 39, 304–316.
Briere, J., & Runtz, M. (1989). University males’ sexual interest in children:
examples of Dutch and other European pedophile groups that Predicting potential indices of ‘‘pedophilia’’ in a non-forensic sample.
were at least tolerated in the 1970s and 1980s (e.g., Des Sables, Child Abuse and Neglect, 13, 65–75.
1976; O’Carroll, 1980; Pieterse, 1982; Rouweler-Wuts, 1976; see Cantor, J. M. (submitted). Is homosexuality a paraphilia? The evidence for
also online forums such as Girlchat and Boychat). and against. Archives of Sexual Behavior.
Chandra, A., Mosher, W. D., Copen, C., & Sionean, C. (2011). Sexual
Our efforts to respond to pedophilia and the associated social behavior, sexual attraction, and sexual identity in the United States:
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Chivers, M. L., Seto, M. C., & Blanchard, R. (2007). Gender and sexual
treatment of pedophiles (see Seto, 2008). Currently, treatment orientation differences in sexual response to the sexual activities versus
and support services are mostly available to individuals who the gender of actors in sexual films. Journal of Personality and Social
have been charged or convicted of sexual offenses against chil- Psychology, 93, 1108–1121.
dren. Few resources are available to help-seeking pedophiles. A Conrade, S. R., & Wincze, J. P. (1976). Orgasmic reconditioning: A con-
trolled study of its effects upon the sexual arousal and behavior of adult
notable exception is the Dunkelfeld Project in Germany, which male homosexuals. Behavior Therapy, 7, 155–166.
used mass media campaigns to advertise clinical services for Dandescu, A., & Wolfe, R. (2003). Considerations on fantasy use by child
help-seeking, self-identified pedophiles and hebephiles (Beier molesters and exhibitionists. Sexual Abuse: Journal of Research and
et al., 2009). Many of these individuals had not been detected by Treatment, 15, 297–305.
Des Sables, L. (1976). Résultats d’une enquête auprès d’un groupe de ped-
authorities for their pedohebephilic behavior, yet many (not all) érastes. Arcadie, 276, 650–657.
had accessed child pornography or had sexual contacts with Diamond, L. M. (2008). Sexual fluidity: Understanding women’s love and
children (Neutze et al., 2011). Other organizations such as B4U- desire. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
ACT and Stop It Now! Also provide referral and other services Drescher, J., & Zucker, K. J. (Eds.). (2006). Ex-gay research: Analyzing the
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Acknowledgments A version of this article was presented at the Uni- Freund, K., & Kuban, M. (1993). Toward a testable developmental model of
versity of Lethbridge Workshop,‘‘The Puzzle of Sexual Orientation: What pedophilia: The development of erotic age preference. Child Abuse and
Is It and How Does It Work?’’, held in Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada, June Neglect, 17, 315–324.
2010. It does not represent the positions of the Royal Ottawa Health Care Fromuth, M. E., Burkhart, B. R., & Jones, C. W. (1991). Hidden child
Group or of any of the universities with which I’m affiliated. I would like to molestation: An investigation of adolescent perpetrators in a nonclinical
thank James Cantor, Meredith Chivers, Grant Harris, and Vern Quinsey for sample. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 6, 376–384.
their helpful comments on earlier versions of this article. Hanson, R. K., Steffy, R. A., & Gauthier, R. (1993). Long-term recidivism of
child molesters. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61,
646–652.
Harris, G. T., Quinsey, V. L., & Rice, M. E. (1991). Sexual recidivism
among child molesters released from a maximum security psychiatric
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