SET 2

A
SENTENCE : the sentence is by definition grammatically complete (a sentences consists of 1 or more clauses,
which consists of 1 or more phrases, which consists of 1 or more words, which consists of 1 or more
morphemes).

It can be defined from 2 points of view:

From the grammatical point of view it is the largest unit of grammatical organization within which parts of
speech (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, etc.) and grammatical categories (clauses, phrases and
words) are said to function. In writing, it is usually marked by final punctuation: a full stop, question mark,
exclamation mark, or semicolon. Moreover, the sentence is the highest unit of analysis.

From the phonological point of view it is a stretch of speech that can be uttered with a complete intonation tone
preceded and followed by silence.

CONSTITUENCY: is the relation between one unit and the unit of which it is a part.

 CONSTITUENTS: the smaller parts into which a unit can be divided.

An auxilary has a relation with the VP of which it is part.

IMMIDIATE CONSTITUENTS (IC’S): are those units into which another unit is immediately divisible. Eg: phrases
are immediate constituents of a sentence.

There units into which another one can be divided may be:

 UNITARY CONSTITUENT: it may be the only part into which another unit can be analysed.
Sentence:
S
NP
N

Children love candies

 MULTIPLE CONSTITUENCY: a unit is divided into two or more immediate constituents.

Sentence:
S
NP
Det N 11

The child loves candies

 CLASSIFICATION OF CLAUSE CONSTITUENTS FROM TWO POINTS OF VIEW:
FORM AND FUNCTION
When a phrase is in a choice relation to others it is important to distinguish two ways of classifying constituents:

1) Classification of a unit on the basis of its FORM (It refers to the internal structure of the constituents (NP,
AdvP, VP,etc) A formal classification takes accounts of how a unit is compused of smaller units, including,
in the case of words, bases and affixes):
Formal categories:
 VP: headed construction. It is the most complex unit: it is realized by at list one unit or by up to four auxiliary
verbs and a main verb in the appropriate form. It is considered one of the most important phrasal categories
for functional reasons since the verb element, realized by a VP, is the most central and indispensable part of
a clause.
IT FUNCTIONS AS VERB ELEMENT.
 NP: headed construction. It is one of the most important phrasal categories because of its multiplicity of
functions: it can function as any of the clause constituents that make up the clause. It consists of a head,
typically a noun, and elements which obligatorily or optionally determine the head, elements which
optionally modify the head and element that complement another element in the phrase.
IT FUNCTIONS AS SUBJECT, OBJECT, COMPLEMENT AND ADVERBIAL.
 AP: headed construction. It consists of an adjective as head, optionally preceded and followed by a
modifying element.
IT FUNCTIONS AS COMPLEMENT.
 AdvP: headed construction. It consists of an adverb as head, optionally preceded and followed by a
modifying element.
IT FUNCTIONS AS ADVERBIAL AND EXCEPTIONALLY SUBJECT.
 PP: non-headed construction. It consists of a preposition followed by a prepositional complement, which is a
NP.
IT FUNCTIONS AS SUBJECT, COMPLEMENT, AND ADVERBIAL.
2) Classification of a unit on the basis of its FUNCTION (a unit´s privilege of occurrence in terms of its
position, mobility, optionality, etc., in the unit of which it is a constituent). If two units have the same
privilege of occurrence, they be said to be functionally equivalent. Functional categories:
 SUBJECT
 VERB ELEMENT
 OBJECT
 COMPLEMENT
 ADVERBIAL
These categories define the elements of a structure in the higher unit. The advantage of distinguishing
categories is that generalizations of 2 kinds may be made:

1) Those about a unit’s status as a constituent of a higher unit.

2) Those about its internal structure in terms of lower units.

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CHAIN OR SYNTAGMATIC RELATIONSHIP: It’s an “and” relation. If X and Y are two linguistic
units/constituents such that X is followed by Y in a longer unit, then they are said to be in an “and” or
“syntagmatic” relation. Examples of this relation at different levels:

 SENTENCE LEVEL:
Verb element (X) + complement (Y)
VP (X) + AP (Y)
 PHRASE LEVEL:
NP Det (X) + N (Y): My books
VP Aux (X) + Verb (Y): have done
 MORPHOLOGICAL LEVEL:
Decision decis- (X) + -ion (Y)
Poorest poor (X) + -est (Y)

CHOICE OR PARADIGMATIC RELATIONSHIP: the other type of relation that linguistic units can
contract is called paradigmatic relationship. If X and Y are two linguistic units, such that Y can substitute for X,
then they are in a paradigmatic relationship. It allows commutability, i.e. the acceptable replacement in terms of
the structure of a sentence.
For example: the possessive determiner “Her”, or the demostrative “that”, can replace “the” in the unit “the gift”
to produce (yield) “her gift” and “that gift”. Then the determiners “the”, “her” and “that” are in a paradigmatic
relation.
The gift
Her
That

OPERATIONS TO IDENTIFY CLAUSE CONSTITUENTS/PHRASES

Not all parts of a sentence are necessary in order for the sentence to be complete and well-formed. There are
optional and obligatory parts of a sentence. Sequences of words that can function as constituents in the
structure of sentences are called PHRASES. It is intermediate between the sentence and the words, and it may
be optional as a whole in the structure of a sentence, but the words are necessary in the structure of the phrase.
However, not all phrases are omissible.

SYSTEMATIC WAYS OF DEMONSTRATING THAT A SEQUENCE OF WORDS IS A PHRASE:

1) BY APPLYING SUBSTITUTION: if we can replace a sequence of words with a SINLGE word without
changing the overall structure, then the sequence functions as a constituent of the sentence and is
therefore a phrase. Eg:
S V PP AdvP
Justin’s friends will study in the house tomorrow
They there then
Somebody here
somewhere

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 2) BY ASKING WH-QUESTIONS: asking questions about the units we are dealing with because the answers
to wh-questions are phrases. Eg:
SUBJECT: Who will study in the house tomorrow?
ADVERB: Where will Justin’s friends study tomorrow?
ADVERB2: When will Justin’s friends study in the house?
3) BY APPLYING MOVEMENT: if a sequence can be moved to another position, then such sequence is a
phrase. Eg:
Tomorrow Justin’s friends will study in the house
In the house Justin’s friends will study tomorrow

B
THE ADJECTIVE PHRASE
Adjective Phrases consist of an adjective as head, optionally preceded and followed by modifying elements.

(AdvP) Adj (AdvP) Premodifier + Head+ Postmodifier + Complementation

Premodification Head Postmodification

Complementation
The weather was Pleasant
Too Hot To be enjoyable
Incredibly Cold
Enough
NP VP AP PP

PREM H PSTMD

The party wasn’t increadibly pleasant enough for my mother.

SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS IN THE SENTENCE

1. MODIFIER IN THE NOUN PHRASE:
 A premodifying adjective, especially when it is the first item after the determiner, can itself be
premodified. When two or more adjectives occur attributively, the ordering of the adjectives is to a large
extent determined by their semantic properties. Adjectives are placed between the determiners and the
head of the noun phrase. NP

An enourmous garden was destroyed by the rain

Attributive
Four zones are determined:

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 i. Precentral: peripheral, non-gradable adjectives are placed here, in particular the intensifying
adjectives: certain, definite, sheer, complete, slight.
ii. Central: is the place of central adjectives: hungry, ugly, funny, stupid, silent, rich, empty.
iii. Postcentral: includes participles: retired, sleeping; and colour adjectives.
iv. Prehead: includes the ‘least adjectival and the most nominal’ items, such as denominal adjectives
denoting nationality, ethnic background, and denominal adjectives with the meaning ‘consisting of’,
‘involving’, ‘relating to’, e.g. experimental, statistical, political, statutory.

The following order can be expected:

i + ii i + iv ii + iv

i + iii ii + iii i + ii + iv

 Postposed adjectives: the indefinite prononouns like anybody, someone, the any-, some-, no- series and
what else, who next, etc., can be followed but not preceded by adjective modification. Adjectives need
generally to be permanent and hence eligible equally for attributive and predicative use (somebody
timid). Another case is when a head is nonrestrictively modified by a coordinated string of adjectives; it is
common to postpose them. The string can be detached from the noun phrase (a man, timid and hesitant
approached the official). A restrictively modified adjective can also be postposed if it is itself modified by
an adverb capable of being and adjunct (a man notoriously timid is unfit for this job), particularly
common where the modification is of a ‘temporary’ nature (the finest car available).
NP
Everyone present took a piece of cake
Postpositive
2. CLAUSE CONSTITUENT: the adjective phrase functions as complement in the clause. (predicatives)
AP
That company is so generous with people in need.
Predicative
ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTATION
 Some adjectives take OPTIONAL complementation: happy, busy, angry, clever, different, worried.
She is happy to be here.
It was been different compared to the previous years.
 Other adjectives form a lexical unit with a following preposition. The lexical bond is strongest with
adjectives for which the complementation is OBLIGATORY: god at, fond of, opposed to, averse to, conscious
of, proud of, based on, reliant on, liable to, due to, compatible with, prone to, subject to, susceptible to.
 Other adjectives take a clause as obligatory complementation:
 Glad: to-infinitive
That-nominal clause
 Liable: preposition to (often suffering from)
To-infinitive clause (have a tendency to)

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 Adjectives that express a degree of certainty: aware, certain, sure, confident (followed by a that-nominal
clause with the verb in indicative)
 Adjectives that express emotion: surprised, thankful, glad, pleased (followed by a that-nominal clause
with the verb in the indicative or with putative should, in non-assertive contexts or where adjectives have
negative or unfavourable association).

THE UNITS THAT CAN FUNCTION AS ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS ARE:

1. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES: adjectives form a lexical unit with a following preposition. The lexical bond is
strongest with adjectives for which the complementation is obligatory: god at, fond of, opposed to,
averse to, conscious of, proud of, based on, reliant on, liable to, due to, compatible with, prone to,
subject to, susceptible to. It is often possible for an adjective to take a choice of prepositions.
Happy, annoyed, reasonable, worried, About
angry
Alarmed, clever, good, hopeless, angry At
Grateful, sorry For
Different, distant, distinct From
Afraid, fond, full, tired Of
Dependent, keen, based, set On/upon
Close, due, grateful, similar, opposed To
Bored, friendly, happy, pleased, angry With

2. –ING CLAUSES: an adjective may take an –ing participle clause as its complementation. In some cases a
preposition optionally intervenes: I’m busy (with) getting the house redecorated. In other cases the
preposition is obligatory: we are used to having a car; she is not capable of looking after herself.
3. TO- INFINITIVE CLAUSE: we distinguish seven kinds of construction in which an adjective can be followed
by a to-infinitive clause.
i) Bob is splendid to wait
ii) Bob is slow to react
iii) Bob is sorry to hear that
iv) Bob is hesitant to agree with you
v) Bob is hard to convince
vi) The food is ready to eat
vii) It is important to be accurate

In types (i-iv) the S of the main clause is the S of the infinitive clause. Therefore, a direct object is allowed
in the infinitive clause if the verb is transitive.

For types (v-vii) the subject of the infinitive clause is unspecified, in which case is possible to insert a
subject preceded by for (the food is ready for the children to eat).

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 Type (i) permits a head noun between the adjective and the infinitive (bob must be a splendid craftsman
to have built this house. These adjectives are evaluative of human behaviour: careful, careless, crazy,
foolish, mad, nice, silly, wise, wrong.

Type (ii) sentence corresponds to one in which the adjective becomes an adverb and the infinitive
becomes the finite verb (Bob reacts slowly). It can correspond to a sentence where the adjective is
followed by in and an –ing participle (Bob is slow in reacting).

Type (iii) includes emotive adjectives (afraid, ashamed, disappointed, glad, happy, interested, relieved,
surprised, worried) and the infinitive clause expresses causation.

Type (iv) includes adjectives expressing volition or a modal meaning such as ability or possibility. Able,
anxious, certain, eager, inclined, keen, likely, ready, reluctant, sure, unable, willing.

Type (v) has a S identified with the unexpressed object of the infinitive clause. In the analogous
construction the adjective is the complement to an infinitive clause acting as subject (to convince Bob is
hard). Difficult, easy, impossible, nice.

Type (vi) has a S identified with the unexpressed object of the infinitive clause, but has no analogous
construction with infinitive clause as S. the infinitive clause can be omitted or substituted by a passive
infinitive clause without a change of meaning. Available, free, soft.

Type (vii) has the infinitive clause as extraposed subject. Fortunate, important, impossible, surprising,
wrong.

4. THAT- NOMINAL CLAUSE: that-clauses following an adjective may have an indicative verb, a subjunctive
verb, or putative should. Three types are distinguished.
a. The indicative is used with adjectives expressing degrees of certainty or confidence: aware, certain,
confident, sure. (We were confident that Karen was still alive).
b. The subjunctive or putative should is used with adjectives expressing volition: anxious, eager, willing.
(I am anxious that he be allowed to go).
c. The indicative or putative should is used with emotive adjectives: angry, annoyed, glad, pleased,
surprised. It is chosen when the that-clause is intended to refer to an event as an established fact. (I
am sorry that you have to leave so early; I am surprised that you should believe that lie).

The that-clause can be an extraposed subject. Three types are distinguished and the corresponding verb
choices:

a. It is true that she is a vegetarian. Certain, clear, likely, obvious, plain, possible, true, unlikely.
b. It is essential that the ban should be/is lifted tomorrow. Important, impossible, necessary.
c. It is strange that she is/should be so late. Curious, disappointing, fortunate, odd, sad, surprising,
unfortunate.
5. WH-NOMINAL CLAUSES: some adjectives take a wh-clause as a complementation, normally with an
indicative verb.

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 a. One type has an experiencer as a subject and may be followed by an optional preposition: I was
doubtful (as to) I should stay; He is careful (about) what he does with his money. Fussy (about),
unclear (about), uncertain (of), unsure (of).
b. In the second type the wh-clause is an extraposed subject: it was unclear what they would do; it was
not obvious how far they would go.

COMPLEMENTATION: is a term reserved for the function of a part of a phrase or clause which follows a
word and completes the specification of a meaning relationship which that word implies.

On a syntactic level it may be optional or obligatory (the meaning of a clause could be incomplete).

COMPLEMENTATION IN THE AP
Complementation is required to complete the meaning of the adjective. Certain adjectives require
complementation by a postmodifier. For example, the adjectives ‘subject’, ‘likely’, and ‘glad’ require not only a
subject (X) but some other element (Y): X is subject to Y, X is likely to Y, X is glad that Y. the meaning of the clause
will be incomplete unless the Y is specified. However, in other cases, the complementation is optional: the
children are ready (to eat).

C
MOOD: is a set of contrasts shown by the form of the verb to express opinion. It is a grammatical term that
denotes forms taken by a verb to show the work it’s doing and the manner in which an action is thought. There
are 3 moods.

1. INDICATIVE MOOD: the form of the verb used in declarative sentences and questions. It’s used to express
fact, opinion and make questions.
2. IMPERATIVE MOOD: the form of the verb used in Imperative sentences. Imperatives do not have tense or
perfect aspect but they may be used in the progressive aspect.
1. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD: the form of the verb used to express uncertainty, wishes, desires, etc. in contrast
to the indicative mood, the subjunctive usually refers to non-factual or hypothetical situations.
Traditionally, there are three subjunctive forms of the verb:
 Present subjunctive: form of all verbs other than ‘to be’ is identical with the simple present tense
indicative, except that the 3rd person singular form is the same as in all the other. ‘To be’ is ‘be’ for all
the persons. Uses:
a. Formulaic subjunctive: is used to express a wish or a prayer. It consists of the base form of the
verb, but is only used in clauses in certain set expressions. (God save the Queen; Heaven forgive
that; Heaven help us; Be that as it may…; suffice it to say (that))
b. Mandative subjunctive: has only the base form, the present and past tenses are indistinguishable.
It can be used with any verb in subordinate that-clauses when the main clause contains an
expression of recommendation, resolution, demand, and so on (verbs expressing a will or a wish
for the future). Used chiefly in very formal English. (it is our wish that he do as he pleases; she

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 urged that he write and accept the post; I propose that the Secretary’s resignation be accepted;
the King ordered that the man be released). It is often replaced by an equivalent should + infinitive
structure.
c. Occasionally it is used in adverbial clauses of concession or condition. (though the world condemn
him, I will still believe in him; this, if the new be true, is a very serious matter). It is often replaced
by an equivalent should + infinitive structure.
 Past subjunctive: is identical with the simple past indicative, except that the verb ‘to be’ takes were for
all the persons. Uses:
a. Were-subjunctive: is hypothetical in meaning and is used in conditional and concessive clauses,
implying a negative (if I were you, I should accept the offer; if he were really interested in buying
the property, he would have made an offer before; if it were to rain tomorrow, the match should
be postponed); and in subordinate clauses after some expressions (I wish he visited more often;
suppose the teacher caught us wasting time; I’d rather you told him the truth; he ran as if his life
depended on it).
 Past perfect subjunctive: is identical in form with the Past perfect indicative. Uses:
a. It is used to express hypothetical conditions in the past and the implication is that the condition
was not fulfilled. (if I had earned more money, I would have been able to travel with you).
b. It is used to express unreal past (it was a lovely day yesterday, I wish I had been at the seaside
then).

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