Question Bank With Answers: BE 8253 - Basic Electrical, Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering
Question Bank With Answers: BE 8253 - Basic Electrical, Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering
KCL (Kirchoff’s Current Law) states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node
(or a closed boundary) is zero. (or)The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the
currents leaving the node.
4. An Electric iron is rated 1000W, 240V. Find the current drawn & resistance of the heating element.
P=V2/R ; R= 2402/1000 = 57.6Ω and I= V/R =240/57.6 = 4.166 A
5. Define i) charge ii) electric current iii) power iv) network & v) circuit.
i) Charge: Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter consists, measured in
coulombs(C ).
ii) Electric current is the time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes(A). i = dq/dt
A direct current (DC) is a current that remains constant with time.
An alternating current (AC) is a current that varies sinusoidally with time
iii) Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in watts(w). p = dw/dt p- Power
in watts(w); w- energy in joules (J); t - time in seconds (S); (or) p = v i , v - Voltage in volts(V); i - current
in amperes(A);
iv) Network: The inter connection of two or more simple circuit elements forms an electrical network .
v) Circuit : If the network contains at least one closed path, it is an electric circuit.
7. Write down the expression of equivalent resistance for ‘n’ – number of resistors in series connection.
For ‘n’ resistors connected in series, the equivalent resistance is given by,
Req=R1+R2+R3+………..+Rn
8. Write down the expression of equivalent resistance for ‘n’- number of resistors in parallel connection.
For ‘n’ resistors connected in parallel, the equivalent resistance is given by,
1 1 1 1 1
.........
Re q R1 R 2 R3 Rn
12. Write the Mesh equation for the circuit shown in figure.
2I1-12I2=0
PART B
1. Determine current in 5ohm resistor by any one method.
Soltuion.
Matrix-method for Mesh analysis can be used. Mark three loops as shown, in Fig. Resistance-matrix
should be evaluated for current in 5-ohm resistor. Only, i3 is to be found.
2. Determine the voltages 1 and 2 of the network in Fig. by nodal analysis.
Consider the two battery circuits of Fig. separately. Current in the 20 V battery circuit ABCD is 20 (6 + 5 + 9)
= 1A. Similarly, current in the 40 V battery circuit EFGH is = 40/(5 + 8 + 7) = 2A. Voltage drops over
different resistors can be found by using Ohm’s law.
i.e. voltage of point C with respect to point E, we will start from point E and go to C via points H and B. We
will find the algebraic sum of the voltage drops met on the way from point E to C. Sign convention of the
voltage drops and battery e.m.fs. would be the same as discussed in Art. 2.3. For finding VCE
The positive sign shows that point A is at a positive potential of 30 V with respect to point G.
4. State and explain Kirchhoff’s laws. Determine the current supplied by the battery in the circuit shown in
Fig.
5. Use nodal analysis to determine the voltage across 5 ohm resistance and the current in the 12 V source.
6. State Thevenin’s theorem and give a proof. Apply this theorem to calculate the current through the 4
resistor of the circuit of Fig.
Solution.
As shown in Fig. 2.130 (b), 4ohm resistance has been removed thereby open-circuiting the terminals A and B.
We will now find VAB and RAB which will give us Vth and Rrespectively. The potential drop across 5 resistor
can be found with the help of voltage-divider rule. Its value is = 15 5/(5 + 10) = 5 Vth
For finding VAB, we will go from point B to point A in the clockwise direction and find the algebraic sum of the voltages
met on the way.
7. For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.135 (a), calculate the current in the 10 ohm resistance. Use Thevenin’s
theorem only.
Solution. When the 10 resistance is removed, the circuit becomes as shown in Fig. 2.135 (b).
8. State Norton’s theorem and find current using Norton’s theorem through a load of 8 in the circuit
shown in Fig. 2.191(a)
Solution.
In Fig. 2.191 (b), load impedance has replaced by a short-circuit. ISC = IN = 200/2 = 100 A
9. In the network shown in Fig. 2.231 (a), find the value of R such that maximum possible power will be
transferred to RLL. Find also the value of the maximum power and the power supplied by source under these
conditions.
10. In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.232 (a) obtain the condition from maximum power transfer to the load RL. Hence
determine the maximum power transferred.
Solution
11. Use Superposition theorem to find the voltage V in the network shown in Fig
Solution. When the voltage source is killed, the circuit becomes as shown in the Fig. 15.27 (b) Using current-divider
rule,
_________________________________________________________________________
Unit II (AC CIRCUITS)
PART A
1. Define Impedance.
Impedance is defined as the opposition of circuit to flow of alternating current. It is denoted by Z and its unit
is ohms.
2. Define Resonance.
Resonance is defined as a phenomenon in which applied voltage and resulting current are in-phase. In other
words, an AC circuit is said to be in resonance if it exhibits unity power factor condition, that means applied
voltage and resulting current are in phase.
3. What is a Resonant frequency?
The frequency at which resonance occurs is called resonant frequency. i.e. X L=XC.
4. What is the series resonance?
The inductive reactance increases as the frequency increases (XL=ωl) but the capacitive reactances decreases
with frequency(XC=1/ωc). Thus inductive and capacitive reactances have opposite properties. So, for any LC
combination there must be one frequency at which Xl=Xc. This case of equal and opposite reactance is
called series resonance.
5. What is a parallel resonance?
The parallel circuit is said to be in resonance, when the power factor is unity. This is true when the imaginary
part of the total admittance is zero.
6. Determine the power factor of a RLC series circuit with R=5ohm, XL=8ohm and XC=12ohm.
(JUNE,’12)
Part B
1. An alternating voltage is given by V=230sin314t.Calculate i)frequency,ii)maximum value,iii)average
value,iv)RMS value.(N/D-2016)
Solution:
Frequency F = 1 /T =43.5 Hz
Maximum value Vm =Vrms/2 = 230 /2 =115 V
Average value:35.6V
RMS value = Avg value / form factor =35.6 / 1.11 = 32.07 V
It is also known as the effective or virtual value of the alternating current, the former term being used more extensively.
For computing the r.m.s. value of symmetrical sinusoidal alternating currents, either mid-ordinate method or analytical
method may be used, although for symmetrical but non sinusoidal waves, the midordinate method would be found more
convenient
A simple experimental arrangement for measuring the equivalent d.c. value of a sinusoidal current is shown in Fig.11.15.
The two circuits have identical resistances but one is connected to battery and the other to a sinusoidal generator. Watt
meters are used to measure heat power in each circuit. The voltage applied to each circuit is so adjusted that heat power
production in each circuit is the same. In that case, the direct current will equal Im/ 2 which is called r.m.s. value of the
sinusoidal current.
5. Calculate the r.m.s. value, the form factor and peak factor of a periodic voltage having the following
values for equal time intervals changing suddenly from one value to the next : 0, 5, 10, 20, 50, 60, 50, 20, 10,
5, 0, -5,-10 V etc. What would be the r.m.s value of sine wave having the same peak value ?
Obviously, it is not sinusoidal but it is symmetrical. Hence, though r.m.s value may be full one cycle, the average value
has necessarily to be considered for half-cycle only, otherwise the symmetrical negative and positive half-cycles will
cancel each
other out.
6. In a series circuit containing pure resistance and a pure inductance, the current and the voltage are
expressed as :
(a) What is the impedance of the circuit ? (b) What is the value of the resistance ? (c) What is the inductance
in henrys ? (d) What is the average power drawn by the circuit ? (e) What is the power factor ?
7. Write a note on electrical safety
Before starting any installation work, first and foremost thing is the concern of safety of the personnel. Electricity is
dangerous, direct or indirect contact of electrical equipment or wires with the power turned ON can result serious injuries
or sometimes even causes to death. Follow the below steps to maintain the safety at the workplace.
1. Always use safety equipment like goggles, gloves, shoes, etc. and avoid the direct contact with live or energized
circuits.
2. Have the skills and techniques to distinguish the exposed live parts of the electrical equipment.
3. Disconnect the source supply while installing or connecting wires.
4. The power supplied to the installation must be controlled on the main switchboard which should consist of circuit
breaker.
5. Conductive tools and materials must be kept at a safe distance from live parts of the circuit or equipment.
6. Use non-conductive hand tools for which they are rated to perform electrical work. If they are used for voltage (or
current) rating other than rated, the insulation strength of the tool breakdown and causes electric shock.
Wiring a Lamp and a Switch: The diagram shows a very simple configuration which can be used for powering a lamp,
and the switching arrangement is also provided in the form of a switch. This provides the basic connecting data and the
same may be used for wiring up other electrical appliances also (for example a fan).
Wiring a Lamp and a Fan in Parallel: Again the configuration employed is similar to the above and is just repeated for
the fan. The input phase and the return path neutral are common for both the electrical gadgets or rather for all appliances
that may be further included. Note that the fan speed regulator is also a load (mostly resistive) which should be connected
in series with the fan and the switch. By adjusting the regulator knob we actually resist the flow of current into the fan
thereby checking or varying its speed as desired.
Wiring up a Plug Socket: The wiring is no different from the above ones. Here the load points are just replaced with the
socket terminals, or in simple words it’s an outlet for receiving the phase and the neutral potentials through a series switch
placed in line with the phase.
Wiring up Heavier Loads: External loads like irons (presses), geysers, mixers, etc. normally have a plug and requires a
socket to be plugged into, so sockets wired in the above manner can be used for powering these loads. However the
socket/switch assembly and the wires used must all be appropriately rated. The recommended standards are a 3/18 (3
strands of 18 SWG each) for wires and 15 Amps for switch/socket. For smaller loads the specifications may be reduced to
1/18 and 5 Amps respectively.
Please note that although the above electrical house wiring layouts may look easy, there are a couple of things that needs
to be taken care of. Firstly, for all configurations the switch must always come in line with the phase and before the load.
Secondly the socket’s right side outlet should provide (or be connected) with the phase which again comes only after
passing through the switch. Lastly but not the least, every house wiring system should incorporate a sound earthing line
for providing the user total safety from residual or leaking body currents from a particular appliance.
The above argument can be understood through the following straight line diagram, see carefully the current path, after
commencing from the phase source, it enters the switch, then the load and completes the cycle by ultimately getting back
to the neutral point. The third path (earth) though inactive during most occasions, sometimes becomes an important
parameter with old and over-used appliances for grounding any residual currents that may be leaking out from the bodies
of these appliances.
The state electricity board provides the electric supply up to the outside the consumer’s premises. The consumer has to
take the connection from that point to the main switchboard at home.
From the main switchboard, various types of electrical loads such as fans, lights, room coolers, and refrigerators are
connected through the wires.There are different types of wirings used for connecting the loads to the mains which can be
used for house electrical wiring as well as industrial electrical wiring. Some of these are discussed below.
Cleat Wiring
In this, porcelain, wood or plastic cleats are fixed to walls or ceilings at regular
intervals, i.e., 0.6 m between each cleat. PVC insulated cables are taken through
the holes of each cleat and hence cleat support and holds wire.
This is an inexpensive method of wiring and is used for temporary installations. Therefore, it is not suitable for home
electrical wiring and also it is an outdated method.
In this cable is run through a wood casing having grooves. The wood casing is prepared in such a way that it is
of a required fixed length with parallel grooves that accommodates the cables. The wooden casing is fixed to
the walls or ceiling with screws.
After placing the cables inside the grooves of casing, a wooden cap with grooves is placed on it to cover the
cables. This is also a cheap wiring system, but there is a high risk of fire in case of short circuits.
Batten Wiring
In this, insulated wires are run through the straight teak wooden battens. The wooden battens are fixed on the
ceilings or walls by plugs and screws. The cables are fitted onto the battens by using tinned brass link clips.
These clips are fixed to the battens with rust-resistant nails. This wiring installation is simple and cheap as
compared to other electrical wiring systems also takes less time to install. These are mainly used for indoor
installations.
Conduit Wiring
In this wiring, PVC cables are taken through either PVC conduit pipes or through steel conduit pipes. This
conduit wiring can be either surface conduit wiring or concealed conduit wiring.
If the conduit pipes are run on surface of the walls and ceilings, it is called a surface conduit wiring. If the
conduits are run inside the surface of the walls and ceilings and are covered with plastering, it is called as
concealed conduit wiring.
Surface conduit wiring is used in industries to connect the heavy motors. On the other hand, concealed wiring is
the most popular and common method of wiring the residential buildings. The conduit wiring is the safest
method of wiring and also looks beautiful (concealed conduit wiring).
10. What are the various types of drawing used for electrical wiring? Explain in detail.
Types of Drawings
Electrical drawings plays an important role in electrical installation works that they convey information
about connection of various devices and equipments with mains. The information on drawings provides
the complete design or plan of electrical installation and also helps to assemble the various equipments.
Some of the electrical wiring diagrams are discussed below. Before knowing about these diagrams, first
one must aware and have idea about various symbols used while preparing drawing and also for
understanding the wiring connections. Check out various electrical wiring symbols .
i) Block Diagram
It is a functional drawing which shows and describes the main operating principles of the equipment or
devices. It consists of principle functions or parts represented by blocks and are connected through lines
that show the relationship between the blocks.
This diagram is usually drawn before implementing a circuit diagram. It will not give any detailed
information about the system and also leaves the information about smaller components. And hence,
most technicians have limited interest about this diagram.
It is a simplified notation of an electrical system, also called as one-line diagram or single line diagram.
It is similar to the block diagram except that various electrical elements such as transformers, switches,
lights, fans, circuit breakers, and motors are represented by standard schematic symbols.
It consists of symbols to represent the components and lines to represent the wires or conductors which
connects the components together.
The line diagram is actually derived from the block diagram. It doesn’t give any layout of the parts and
their detail wiring information of the components.
However, one can do wiring by following the information given in this diagram. These diagrams are
usually intended to illustrate the working of an electric circuit.
The electrical wiring diagram is a pictorial representation of the circuit which shows the wiring between
the parts or elements or equipments.
It gives detailed information about wiring such that one can get an idea of making connection between
the devices. It includes relative position, arrangement of the devices and also terminals on the devices.
It shows power supplies and earth connections, control and signal functions (with simplified shapes),
termination of unused contacts and leads, interconnection via plugs, blocks, sockets, terminal posts,
lead-through, etc.
1. The type of conductor can be single solid wire or stranded wire conductor (which is made up of a
number of thin stands). Single solid wires are not flexible and are used where rigid connections are
required such as power switching contractors. Mostly stranded conductors are preferred for electrical
installations.
2. The specifications of the wire depend on the several factors like number of strands in the conductor,
insulation type, cross section area of the wire, diameter of the strands, etc.
3. Choose the wires depends on the color code mentioned by various standards such as red for phase wire,
black for neutral, green for earth and so on. Click here to know briefly about the electrical wiring colors
of the wires or cables.
4. Various basic electrical tools are required to do the installation work and some of these tools include
cutter, strippers, testers, pliers, etc. These tools are explained in our earlier article so please check those
electrical tools by clicking here.
5. Choose the components such as electrical boxes, switches, receptacles, etc. based on their size and
rating.
Start wiring the components together by following the wiring diagrams once components, tools and
cables are selected, followed by considering the safety to personnel as well as equipment.
Wiring Schedule
It is a list of cables or wires used in the installation with its reference number, length, type and the
amount of insulation stripping required for soldering the cable. It gives the raceways of the wire and also
starting and termination points.
In some complex equipment, wiring table gives the interconnection of the equipments (such as motors
and heaters) with starting and finishing reference points. It also includes the wire identification
markings, wire colors, size and so on.
Parts List
Although it is not a drawing, parts list is an integral part of drawing which defines the various symbols
and parts used in other drawings such as wiring diagram, line diagram, and block diagram.
It gives the information of circuit component types with related to their reference numbers. This list is
useful for identifying, locate and cross refer the actual component labeled or given in other electrical
drawings in order to ensure the choice of appropriate parts before doing the electrical wiring.
Wiring Preparation
As we are discussing the sequence of steps in wiring like understanding the safety, knowing types of
wiring systems, understanding the difference among various electrical drawings and symbols, the next
step of electrical wiring process is the preparation of wires or cables and electrical tools.
We know that electrical circuit is a closed path through which electricity flows from phase or hot wire to
the device or apparatus and then back the source though neutral wire.
Along the way, the electricity path may consist of fixtures, switches, receptacles, junction boxes, etc. So
the wiring may be routed through these elements before actually making connections with apparatus or
device.
Majorly, the wiring is divided into two types, namely parallel wiring and series wiring depending on the
way the devices are powered or connected to the supply.
i ) Parallel wiring
In parallel wiring, several devices on the installation are powered on a single circuit. It is the most
accepted wiring in homes and industries, in which devices are connected in parallel with the supply
source as shown in figure.
In this, both phase (or hot) and neutral cables are routed through the electrical boxes (junction boxes)
from which individual receptacles, fixtures, and devices are branched.
ii) Series wiring
The series wiring is the rarely used wiring in which hot wire is routed through the several devices and then
last device terminal is connected to the neutral wire. It is like an old Christmas lights or serial lights wiring
in which one light burnout leads to the shutdown of the entire network.
________________________________________________________________________________________
Unit III (ELECTRICAL MACHINES)
PART-A
DC Shunt Motor
DC Series Motor
DC Compound Motor
The voltage regulation of the transformer is the percentage change in the output voltage from no-load to
full-load.
3.Sketch the O.C.C of dc shunt generator.(M/J-2016)
This is the minimum external load resistance which is required to excite the shunt wound generator
Commutator:
The commutator converts the alternating emf into unidirectional or direct emf.
Brushes:
The brushes collect the current from the commutator
14. Write any two differences between single phase and three phase transformers.
i. Single phase transformer has two windings. Three phase transformer has six windings. ii. Single phase
supply is directly connected across the single primary winding where as the 3-phase transformer
windings are connected in star or delta according to the design.
15. Distinguish between induction motor and synchronous motor? (A/M 2015)
A three phase Synchronous motor is a doubly excited machine, whereas an induction motor is a single excited
machine.
The armature winding of the Synchronous motor is energized from an AC source and its field winding from a
DC source. The stator winding of Induction Motor is energized from an AC source.
Synchronous Motor always runs at synchronous speed, and the speed of the motor is independent of load, but
an induction motor always runs less than the synchronous speed. If the load increased the speed of the
induction motor decreases.
The induction motor has self-starting torque whereas the synchronous motor is not self starting. It has to be run
up to synchronous speed by any means before it can be synchronized to AC supply .
16. What is the working principle of Synchronous generator?
The principle of operation of synchronous generator is electromagnetic induction. If there exits a relative motion
between the flux and conductors, then an emf is induced in the conductors.
17. Write the EMF equation of an alternator? (N/D-2016)
E = 4.44 x f Φ Tph volts
This is the basic e.m.f. equation for an induced e.m.f. per phase for full pitch, concentrated type of winding.
Where Tph = Number of turns per phase
Tph = Zph /2
Total flux cut in one revolution is Φ x P
Time taken for one revolution is 60/Ns seconds.
... eavg per conductor = ΦP / (60/Ns)
= Φ (PNs/60) ............. (1)
But f = PNs/6120
... PNs/60= 2f
23. What type of single phase induction motor would you use for the following
applications? (i) Ceiling fan (ii) Wet grinder
Ceiling fan – capacitor start and run motor Wet
Grinder – capacitor start motor
PART-B
1. With a neat circuit diagram Explain the construction and principle of operation of DC Motor.
(N/D-2016,N/D-2015,M/J-2017)
DC MOTOR – INTRODUCTION:
A machine that converts dc power into mechanical energy is known as dc motor. Its operation is based
on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences
a mechanical force. The direction of the force is given by Fleming’s left hand rule.
WORKING OF DC MOTOR:
There are different kinds of D.C. motors, but they all work on the same principles.When a permanent
magnet is positioned around a loop of wire that is hooked up to a D.C.power source, we have the basics of a
D.C. motor. In order to make the loop of wire spin, we have to connect a battery or DC power supply between
its ends, and support it so it can spin about its axis.
To allow the rotor to turn without twisting the wires, the ends of the wire loop are connected to a set of
contacts called the commutator, which rubs against a set of conductors called the brushes. The brushes make
electrical contact with the commutator as it spins, and are connected to the positive and negative leads of the
power source, allowing electricity to flow through the loop. The electricity flowing through the loop creates a
magnetic field that interacts with the magnetic field of the permanent magnet to make the loop spin
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION:
It is based on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it
experiences a mechanical force whose direction is given by Fleming's Left- hand rule and whose magnitude is
given by
Force, F = B I l newton
Where,
The force, current and the magnetic field are all in different directions. If an Electric current flows through two
copper wires that are between the poles of a magnet, an upward force will move one wire up and a downward
force will move the other wire down.
Single phase motors are very widely used in home, offices, workshops etc. as power delivered to most of the
houses and offices is single phase. In addition to this, single phase motors are reliable, cheap in cost, simple in
construction and easy to repair.
1. Single phase induction motor (Split phase, Capacitor and shaded pole etc)
2. Single phase synchronous motor
3. Repulsion motor etc.
Construction of a single phase induction motor is similar to the construction of three phase induction
motor having squirrel cage rotor, except that the stator is wound for single phase supply. Stator is also
provided with a 'starting winding' which is used only for starting purpose. This can be understood from
the schematic of single phase induction motor at the left.
This induced current in the rotor will also produce alternating flux. Even after both alternating fluxes are
set up, the motor fails to start (the reason is explained below). However, if the rotor is given a initial start by
external force in either direction, then motor accelerates to its final speed and keeps running with its rated
speed. This behavior of a single phase motor can be explained by double-field revolving theory.
3. Describe various types self excited of DC generator with their circuit layout.(M/J-2016)
DC generators are classified based on their method of excitation. So on this basis there are two types of DC
generators:-
Self excited DC generator can again be classified as 1) DC Series generator 2) DC Shunt generator and 3) DC
Compound generator.
1. Separately excited DC generator
As you can guess from the name itself , this dc generator has a field magnet winding which is excited
using a separate voltage source (like battery). You can see the representation in the below image. The output
voltage depends on the speed of rotation of armature and field current. The higher the speed of rotation and
current – the higher the output e.m.f
These are generators in which the field winding is excited by the output of the generator itself. As
described before – there are three types of self excited dc generators – they are 1) Series 2) Shunt and 3)
Compound.
A series DC generator is shown below in fig (a) – in which the armature winding is connected in series with
the field winding so that the field current flows through the load as well as the field winding.Field winding is a
low resistance,thick wire of few turns. Series generators are also rarely used!
A shunt DC generator is shown in figure (b), in which the field winding is wired parallel to armature winding
so that the voltage across both are same. The field winding has high resistance and more number of turns so that
only a part of armature current passes through field winding and the rest passes through load.
A compound generator is shown in figure below. It has two field findings namely Rsh and Rse. They are
basically shunt winding (Rsh) and series winding (Rse). Compound generator is of two types – 1) Short shunt
and 2) Long shunt
Short shunt:- Here the shunt field winding is wired parallel to armature and series field winding is connected in
series to the load. It is shown in fig (1)
Long shunt:- Here the shunt field winding is parallel to both armature and series field winding (Rse is wired in
series to the armature). It is shown in figure (2)
Therefore the curve drawn between torque Vs armature current is a straight line transitory through the
origin which is shown in fig. The shaft torque(Tsh) is a smaller amount than armature torque and is shown in
the fig by a dotted line. From this curve it is proved that to start a heavy load very large current is requisite.
Hence the shunt DC motor should not be started at full load.
This curve is drawn between the speed of the motor and armature current with various amps as shown in the fig.
From the curve it is understood that the speed reduces when the load torque increases.
With the above three characteristic it is clearly understood that when the shunt motor runs from no load to full
load there is slight change in speed. Thus, it is essentially a constant speed motor. Since the armature torque is
directly proportional to the armature current, the starting torque is not high
5. Explain the tests on a single phase transformer and develop an equivalent from the above tests.
(M/J-2016)
The HV side of the transformer is kept open. Now with the help of variac, applied voltage gets slowly increased
until the voltmeter gives reading equal to the rated voltage of the LV side. After reaching at rated LV side
voltage, all three instruments reading (Voltmeter, Ammeter and Wattmeter readings) are recorded.
The ammeter reading gives the no load current Ie. As no load current Ie is quite small compared to
rated current of the transformer, the voltage drops due to this current that can be taken as negligible.
Since, voltmeter reading V1 can be considered equal to secondary induced voltage of the transformer, the input
power during test is indicated by watt-meter reading. As the transformer is open circuited, there is no output,
hence the input power here consists of core losses in transformer and copper loss in transformer during no load
condition. But as said earlier, the no load current in the transformer is quite small compared to full load current,
so copper loss due to the small no load current can be neglected. Hence, the wattmeter reading can be taken as
equal to core losses in transformer. Let us consider wattmeter reading is Po.
The connection diagram for short circuit test on transformer is shown in the figure. A voltmeter,
wattmeter, and an ammeter are connected in HV side of the transformer as shown. The voltage at rated
frequency is applied to that HV side with the help of a variac of variable ratio auto transformer.
The LV side of the transformer is short circuited. Now with the help of variac applied voltage is slowly
increased until the ammeter gives reading equal to the rated current of the HV side. After reaching at rated
current of HV side, all three instruments reading (Voltmeter, Ammeter and Watt-meter readings) are recorded.
The ammeter reading gives the primary equivalent of full load current I L. As the voltage applied for full load
current in short circuit test on transformer is quite small compared to the rated primary voltage of the
transformer, the core losses in transformer can be taken as negligible here.
Let’s say, voltmeter reading is Vsc. The input power during test is indicated by watt-meter reading. As the
transformer is short circuited, there is no output; hence the input power here consists of copper losses in
transformer. Since, the applied voltage Vsc is short circuit voltage in the transformer and hence it is quite small
compared to rated voltage, so core loss due to the small applied voltage can be neglected. Hence the wattmeter
reading can be taken as equal to copper losses in transformer. Let us consider wattmeter reading is Psc.
These values are referred to the HV side of transformer as because the test is conduced on HV side of
transformer. These values could easily be referred to LV side by dividing these values with square of
transformation ratio.
Therefore it is seen that the short circuit test on transformer is used to determine copper loss in
transformer at full load and parameters of approximate equivalent circuit of transformer
TRANSFORMER – INTRODUCTION
A TRANSFORMER is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another by
electromagnetic induction (transformer action). The electrical energy is always transferred without a change in
frequency, but may involve changes in magnitudes of voltage and current. Because a transformer works on the
principle of electromagnetic induction, it must be used with an input source voltage that varies in amplitude.
There are many types of power that fit this description; for ease of explanation and understanding, transformer
action will be explained using an ac voltage as the input source.
BASIC OPERATION OF A TRANSFORMER:
Its most basic form a transformer consists of: A primary
Coil or winding.
A secondary coil or winding.
A core that supports the coils or windings
The primary winding is connected to a 60 hertz ac voltage source. The magnetic field (flux) builds up (expands)
and collapses (contracts) about the primary winding. The expanding and contracting magnetic field around the
primary winding cuts the secondary winding and induces an alternating voltage into the winding. This voltage
causes alternating current to flow through the load. The voltage may be stepped up or down depending on the
design of the primary and secondary windings.
BASIC WORKING PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER
A transformer can be defined as a static device which helps in the transformation of electric power in one circuit
to electric power of the same frequency in another circuit. The voltage can be raised or lowered in a circuit, but
with a proportional increase or decrease in the current ratings.
The main principle of operation of a transformer is mutual inductance between two circuits which is linked by a
common magnetic flux. A basic transformer consists of two coils that are electrically separate and inductive, but
are magnetically linked through a path of reluctance. The working principle of the transformer can be
understood from the figure below
As shown above the transformer has primary and secondary windings. The core laminations are joined
in the form of strips in between the strips you can see that there are some narrow gaps right through the cross-
section of the core. These staggered joints are said to be ‘imbricated’. Both the coils have high mutual
inductance
Faraday’s laws of Electromagnetic Induction as
e=M*dI/dt
TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION:
Two coils of wire (called windings) are wound on some type of core material. In some cases the coils of
wire are wound on a cylindrical or rectangular cardboard form. In effect, the core material is air and the
transformer is called an air-core transformer. Transformers used at low frequencies, such as 60 hertz and 400
hertz, require a core of low- reluctance magnetic material, usually iron. This type of transformer is called an
iron-core transformer. Most power transformers are of the iron-core type.
The principle parts of a transformer and their functions are:
The core, which provides a path for the magnetic lines of flux.
The primary winding, which receives energy from the ac source.
The secondary winding, which receives energy from the primary winding and delivers it
to the load.
The enclosure, which protects the above components from dirt, moisture
CORE
There are two main shapes of cores used in laminated-steel-core transformers. One is the
HOLLOWCORE, so named because the core is shaped with a hollow square through the center. This shape of
core. Notice that the core is made up of many laminations of steel it shows how the transformer windings are
wrapped around both sides of the core.
WINDINGS
As stated above, the transformer consists of two coils called WINDINGS which are wrapped around a
core. The transformer operates when a source of ac voltage is connected to one of the windings and a load
device is connected to the other. The winding that is connected to the source is called the PRIMARY
WINDING. The winding that is connected to the load is called the secondary winding. The primary is wound in
layers directly on a rectangular cardboard form.
7. Explain the different types of dc motor with neat sketch.(N/D-2016)
DC MOTOR TYPES
Shunt Wound
Series Wound
Compound wound
1.Shunt Motor
In shunt wound motor the field winding is connected in parallel with armature. The current through the
shunt field winding is not the same as the armature current. Shunt field windings are designed to produce the
necessary m.m.f. by means of a relatively large number of turns of wire having high resistance. Therefore, shunt
field current is relatively small compared with the armature current
2.Series Motor:
In series wound motor the field winding is connected in series with the armature. Therefore, series field winding
carries the armature current. Since the current passing through a series field winding is the same as the armature
current, series field windings must be designed with much fewer turns than shunt field windings for the same
mmf. Therefore, a series field winding has a relatively small number of turns of thick wire and, therefore, will
possess a low resistance.
3.Compound Wound Motor:Compound wound motor has two field windings; one connected in parallel with
the armature and the other in series with it. There are two types of compound motor connections
1. Short-shunt connection
2. Long shunt connection
When the shunt field winding is directly connected across the armature terminals it is called short-shunt
connection.
When the shunt winding is so connected that it shunts the series combination of armature and series field it is
called long-shunt connection.
8. Explain the working principle of various types of single phase induction motor with neat circuit
diagram.(M/J-2016)
The single phase induction motors are made self starting by providing an additional flux by some additional
means. Now depending upon these additional means the single phase induction motors are classified as:
1.Split Phase Induction Motor In addition to the main winding or running winding, the stator of single
phase induction motor carries another winding called auxiliary winding or starting winding. A centrifugal
switch is connected in series with auxiliary winding. The purpose of this switch is to disconnect the
auxiliary winding from the main circuit when the motor attains a speed up to 75 to 80% of the synchronous
speed.
We know that the running winding is inductive in nature. Our aim is to create the phase difference
between the two winding and this is possible if the starting winding carries high resistance.
2.Capacitor Start IM and Capacitor Start Capacitor Run IM
The working principle and construction of Capacitor start inductor motors and capacitor start capacitor
run induction motors are almost the same. We already know that single phase induction motor is not self starting
because the magnetic field produced is not rotating type. In order to produce rotating magnetic field there must
be some phase difference. In case of split phase induction motor we use resistance for creating phase difference
but here we use capacitor for this purpose. We are familiar with this fact that the current flowing through the
capacitor leads the voltage. So, in capacitor start inductor motor and capacitor start capacitor run
induction motor
The stator of the shaded pole single phase induction motor has salient or projected poles. These poles are
shaded by copper band or ring which is inductive in nature. The poles are divided into two unequal halves. The
smaller portion carries the copper band and is called as shaded portion of the pole.
ACTION: When a single phase supply is given to the stator of shaded pole induction motor an alternating flux
is produced. This change of flux induces emf in the shaded coil. Since this shaded portion is short circuited, the
current is produced in it in such a direction to oppose the main flux. The flux in shaded pole lags behind the flux
in the unshaded pole.
The phase difference between these two fluxes produces resultant rotating flux.
We know that the stator winding current is alternating in nature and so is the flux produced by the stator current.
In order to clearly understand the working of shaded pole induction motor consider three regions-
1. When the flux changes its value from zero to nearly maximum positive value.
2. When the flux remains almost constant at its maximum value.
3. When the flux decreases from maximum positive value to zero.
9. Write shorts notes on the types of dc machines.(N/D-2015)
TYPES OF DC MACHINES:
i) DC generator
ii)DC motor
i) DC generator
An electrical generator is a rotating machine which usually converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy for doing work. The energy changing is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction. According
to Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction, Whenever a conductor is feel motion in a magnetic field, emf
induced dynamically in the conductor. When an external load is connected to the conductor this induced
emfmake a current flow in the load.
Thus the mechanical energy which is given in the form of movement to the conductor is converted into
electrical energy.
Dc generators can be classified as per their methods of field excitation. There are two types of dc generators
on the basis of excitation.
If the field winding is excited by a separate dc supply from the external source, then the generator is called
separately excited dc generators.
If the field winding energy is supplied from the armature of the generator it self, then it is called self excited dc
generators. Self excited dc generators are further classified as
Series generator:-
In series generator field winding is connected series to the armatureit self.
The voltage generated in series field generator is E(generated)=V(terminal voltage)+I(a)*R(a)+I(se)*R(se)
+V(brush).
Power generated is E(g)*I(a).
Shunt generator:
In shunt generator field winding is connected across the armature or parallel to the armature.
The generated emf in shunt field generator is E(generated)=V(terminal voltage)+I(a)*R(a).
Power generated is E(g)*I(a).
Power delivered to the source is V*I(a).
Compound generator
The compound generator consists of both shunt field and series field winding on its structure. One winding is
series and other is in parallel with the armature of the generator.
ii)DC Motor:
electric motors are everywhere around us. Almost all the electro-mechanical movements we see around us are
caused either by a AC or a DC motor. Here we will be exploring DC motors. This is a device that converts DC
electrical energy to a mechanical energy.
Principle of DC Motor
This DC or direct current motor works on the principal, when a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, it experiences a torque and has a tendency to move.
This is known as motoring action. If the direction of current in the wire is reversed, the direction of
rotation also reverses. When magnetic field and electric field interact they produce a mechanical force, and
based on that the working principle of DC motor is established.
The direction of rotation of a this motor is given by Fleming’s left hand rule, which states that if the index
finger, middle finger and thumb of your left hand are extended mutually perpendicular to each other and if the
index finger represents the direction of magnetic field, middle finger indicates the direction of current, then the
thumb represents the direction in which force is experienced by the shaft of the DC motor.
Structurally and construction wise a direct current motor is exactly similar to a DC generator, but electrically it
is just the opposite. Here we unlike a generator we supply electrical energy to the input port and derive
mechanical energy from the output port. We can represent it by the block diagram shown below.
Here in a DC motor, the supply voltage E and current I is given to the electrical port or the input port and we
derive the mechanical output i.e. torque T and speed ω from the mechanical port or output port.
The input and output port variables of the direct current motor are related by the parameter K.
So from the picture above we can well understand that motor is just the opposite phenomena of a DC generator,
and we can derive both motoring and generating operation from the same machine by simply reversing the
ports.
Detailed Description of a DC Motor
The direct current motor is represented by the circle in the center, on which is mounted the brushes,
where we connect the external terminals, from where supply voltage is given. On the mechanical terminal we
have a shaft coming out of the Motor, and connected to the armature, and the armature-shaft is coupled to the
mechanical load. On the supply terminals we represent the armature resistance Ra in series.
10.With a neat circuit diagram Explain the construction and principle of operation of DC Generator.
(N/D-2015)
DC Generator:
A dc generator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into direct current electricity. This
energy conversion is based on the principle of production of dynamically induced emf. This article outlines
basic construction and working of a DC generator.
Construction of a DC generator:
A DC generator can be used as a DC motor without any constructional changes and vice versa is also possible.
Thus, a DC generator or a DC motor can be broadly termed as a DC machine. These basic constructional details
are also valid for the construction of a DC motor. Hence, let's call this point as construction of a DC machine
instead of just 'construction of a dc generator'.
The above figure shows the constructional details of a simple 4-pole DC machine. A DC machine consists two
basic parts; stator and rotor. Basic constructional parts of a DC machine are described below.
1. Yoke: The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke. It is made up of cast iron or steel. It not only
provides mechanical strength to the whole assembly but also carries the magnetic flux produced by the
field winding.
2. Poles and pole shoes: Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or welding. They carry field
winding and pole shoes are fastened to them. Pole shoes serve two purposes; (i) they support field coils
and (ii) spread out the flux in air gap uniformly.
3. Field winding: They are usually made of copper. Field coils are former wound and placed on each pole
and are connected in series. They are wound in such a way that, when energized, they form alternate
North and South poles.
4. Armature core: Armature core is the rotor of the machine. It is cylindrical in shape with slots to carry
armature winding. The armature is built up of thin laminated circular steel disks for reducing eddy
current losses. It may be provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for cooling purposes. Armature is
keyed to the shaft.
5. Armature winding: It is usually a former wound copper coil which rests in armature slots. The
armature conductors are insulated from each other and also from the armature core. Armature winding
can be wound by one of the two methods; lap winding or wave winding. Double layer lap or wave
windings are generally used. A double layer winding means that each armature slot will carry two
different coils.
6. Commutator and brushes: Physical connection to the armature winding is made through a
commutator-brush arrangement. The function of a commutator, in a dc generator, is to collect the current
generated in armature conductors. Whereas, in case of a dc motor, commutator helps in providing
current to the armature conductors. A commutator consists of a set of copper segments which are
insulated from each other. The number of segments is equal to the number of armature coils. Each
segment is connected to an armature coil and the commutator is keyed to the shaft. Brushes are usually
made from carbon or graphite. They rest on commutator segments and slide on the segments when the
commutator rotates keeping the physical contact to collect or supply the current.
according to Fleming’s right hand rule, the direction of induced current changes whenever the direction of
motion of the conductor changes. Let’s consider an armature rotating clockwise and a conductor at the left is
moving upward. When the armature completes a half rotation, the direction of motion of that particular
conductor will be reversed to downward.
Hence, the direction of current in every armature conductor will be alternating. If you look at the above figure,
you will know how the direction of the induced current is alternating in an armature conductor. But with a split
ring commutator, connections of the armature conductors also gets reversed when the current reversal occurs.
And therefore, we get unidirectional current at the terminals.
11. Describe the construction of an induction motor with neat diagrams. (M/J 2016)
Explain the construction of three phase induction motor with neat diagram? (A/M 2017)
Construction of Induction Motor
The three phase induction motor is a preferable type of motor. It is mostly used in industrial drives
because it is very reasonable and vigorous, economical and reliable. It is also called asynchronous motor because
it does not run at a synchronous speed. The induction motor requires very little maintenance and also it has high
overloading capacity.
Construction of Stator
Construction of Rotor
A three phase Induction motor mainly consists of two parts called as the Stator and the Rotor. The
stator is the stationary part of the induction motor, and the rotor is the rotating part. The construction of the stator
is similar to the three-phase synchronous motor, and the construction of rotor is different for the different
machine. The construction of the induction motor is explained below in detail.
Construction of Stator
The stator is built up of high-grade alloy steel laminations to reduce eddy current losses. It has three main
parts, namely outer frame, the stator core and a stator winding.
Outer frame
Stator Core
The stator core is built of high-grade silicon steel stampings. Its main function is to carry the alternating
magnetic field which produces hysteresis and eddy current losses. The stampings are fixed to the stator frame. Each
stamping are insulated from the other with a thin varnish layer. The thickness of the stamping usually varies from 0.3
to 0.5 mm. Slots are punched on the inner side of the stampings as shown in the figure below.
Stator windings
The core of the stator carries three phase windings which are usually supplied from a three-phase supply
system. The six terminals of the windings (two of each phase) are connected in the terminal box of the machine. The
stator of the motor is wound for a definite number of poles, depending on the speed of the motor. If the number of
poles is greater, the speed of the motor will be less and if the number of poles is less than the speed will be high.
As the relationship between the speed and the pole of the motor is given as
Construction of Rotor
The rotor is also built of thin laminations of the same material as the stator. The laminated cylindrical core is
mounted directly on the shaft. These laminations are slotted on the outer side to receive the conductors. There are two
types of rotor.
A squirrel cage rotor consists of a laminated cylindrical core. The circular slots at the outer periphery are semi-
closed. Each slot contains uninsulated bar conductor of aluminium or copper. At the end of the rotor the conductors the
short-circuited by a heavy ring of copper or aluminium. The diagram of the cage rotor is shown below.
The rotor slots are usually not parallel to the shaft but are skewed. The skewing of the rotor conductors has the
following advantages given below.
It reduces humming and provide smooth and noise free operation.
It results in a uniform torque curve for different positions of the rotor.
The locking tendency of the rotor is reduced. As the teeth of the rotor and the stator attract each other and lock.
It increases the rotor resistance due to the increased length of the rotor bar conductors.
Advantages of Squirrel Cage Rotor
The following advantages of the cage rotor are given below.
The cage rotor is cheaper, and the construction is robust.
The absence of the brushes reduces the risk of sparking.
Its Maintenance is less.
The power factor is higher
The efficiency of the cage rotor is higher.
The Phase wound rotor is also called as Slip Ring Rotor. It consists of a cylindrical core which is laminated.
The outer periphery of the rotor has a semi-closed slot which carries a 3 phase insulated windings. The rotor windings
are connected in star.
The slip ring induction motor is shown in the figure below.
The slip rings are mounted on the shaft with brushes resting on them. The brushes are connected to the variable
resistor. The function of the slip rings and the brushes is to provide a means of connecting external resistors in the rotor
circuit. The resistor enables the variation of each rotor phase resistance to serve the following purposes given below.
It increases the starting torque and decreases the starting current.
It is used to control the speed of the motor.
In this type also, the rotor is skewed. A mild steel shaft is passed through the center of the rotor and is fixed to it. The
purpose of the shaft is to transfer mechanical power.
Advantages of Phase Wound Rotor
Following are the advantages of the Phase Wound Rotor.
High starting torque and low starting current.
For controlling the speed of the motor, an external resistance can be added in the circuit.
12. Derive the EMF equation for the alternator? (A/M 2017)
EMF Equation of a Synchronous Generator
The generator which runs at a synchronous speed is known as the synchronous generator. The synchronous
generator converts the mechanical power into electrical energy for the grid.The Derivation of EMF Equation of a
synchronous generator is given below.
Let,
P be the number of poles
ϕ is Flux per pole in Webers
N is the speed in revolution per minute (r.p.m)
f be the frequency in Hertz
Zph is the number of conductors connected in series per phase
Tph is the number of turns connected in series per phase
Kc is the coil span factor
Kd is the distribution factor
Flux cut by each conductor during one revolution is given as Pϕ Weber. Time taken to complete one revolution is
given by 60/N sec
Average EMF induced per conductor will be given by the equation shown below
Average EMF induced per phase will be given by the equation shown below
The average EMF equation is derived with the following assumptions given below.
Coils have got the full pitch.
All the conductors are concentrated in one stator slot.
Root mean square (R.M.S) value of the EMF induced per phase is given by the equation shown below.
Eph = Average value x form factor
Therefore,
If the coil span factor Kc and the distribution factor Kd , are taken into consideration than the Actual EMF induced per
phase is given as
Equation (1) shown above is the EMF equation of the Synchronous Generator.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
UNIT IV ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS
PART-A
1. Differentiate between zener breakdown and avalanche breakdown. (AUC DEC ‘11)
Zener breakdown occurs in a reverse biased junction which gives a constant output voltage.
Avalanche breakdown does not provide a constant output voltage. This constant voltage
from a zener diode can be used as a reference voltage for many regulators.
The maximum reverse-bias potential that can be applied before entering the Zener region is
called the peak inverse voltage (referred to simply as the PIV rating) or the peak reverse voltage
(denoted by PRV rating). Peak inverse voltage is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that
a diode can be subjected to operate in a reverse region so that the diode does not get
damaged due to this reverse voltage
3.How do the transition region width and contact potential across a PN junction vary
with the applied bias voltage? (AUC DEC’07)
The width of the PN junction is widenened for a reverse biased junction and narrows for a
forward biased junction.
An ideal diode is one which offers zero resistance when forward biased and infinite resistance
when reverse biased.
It is maximum time taken by the device to switch from ON to OFF stage. 15. List the
1. Recovery Time
Zener diode find wide commercial and industrial applications. Some of their
common applications are:
As voltage regulators.
As peak clippers or voltage limiters.
For meter protection against damage from accidental application of
excessive voltage.
As a fixed reference voltage in a network for biasing and comparison
purposes and for calibrating voltmeters.
9.Define inverting amplifier.
Inverting amplifier is one in which the output is exactly 1800 out of phase with respect to
input(i.e. if you apply a positive voltage, output will be negative). Output is an inverted(in terms
of phase) amplified version of input.
10.Define Non-inverting amplifier.
Non Inverting amplifier is one in which the output is in phase with respect to input(i.e. if you
apply a positive voltage, output will be positive ). Output is an Non inverted(in terms of phase)
amplified version of input.
PART-B
this region. Since the diode is a two-terminal device, the application of a voltage across
its terminals leaves three possibilities: no bias (VD = 0 V), forward bias (VD
If an external potential of V volts is applied across the p-n junction such that the
positive terminal is connected to the n-type material and the negative terminal is
connected to the p-type material as shown in the below figure. The number of
uncovered positive ions in the depletion region of the n-type material will increase
due to the large number of free electrons drawn to the positive potential of the
applied voltage. For similar reasons, the number of uncovered negative ions will
increase in the p-type material. The net effect, therefore, is a widening of the
depletion region. This widening of the depletion region will establish too great a
barrier for the majority carriers to overcome, effectively reducing the majority
carrier flow to zero as shown in the below figure.
Reverse-biased p-n junction.
The number of minority carriers, however, that find themselves entering the depletion region
will not change, resulting in minority-carrier flow vectors of the same magnitude with no
applied voltage the current that exists under reverse-bias conditions is called the reverse
saturation current and is represented by I o
2. With a neat diagram explain the working of a PN junction diode in forward bias and
reverse bias and show the effect of temperature on its V-I characteristics.
values of Io for silicon are much lower than that of germanium for similar power and
current levels. The result is that even at high temperatures the levels of Io for silicon
diodes do not reach the same high levels obtained for germanium—a very important
reason that silicon devices enjoy a significantly higher level of development and
utilization in design. Fundamentally, the open-circuit equivalent in the reverse bias
region is better realized at any temperature with silicon than with germanium. The
increasing levels of Io with temperature account for the lower levels of threshold
voltage. Simply increase the level of Io in and not rise in diode current. Of course, the
level of TK also will be increase, but the increasing level of Io will overpower the
smaller percent change in TK. As the temperature increases the forward
characteristics are actually becoming more ideal.
Op Amps Applications
Audio amplifiers
Instrumentation amplifiers
Power amplifiers
Analog computers
multipliers
Terminals on an Op Amp
Voltage Gain
-Vcc/V- -30V to 0V N/
Component Datasheets
Many manufacturers have made these freely available on the internet
Example: LM 324 Operational Amplifier
in a BJT is due to bidirectional diffusion of charge carriers across a junction between two
regions
of different charge concentrations. An NPN transistor can be considered as two diodes with a
shared anode. In typical operation, the base-emitter junction is forward biased and the base–
collector junction is reverse biased. In an NPN transistor, for example, when a positive
voltage is applied to the base–emitter junction, the equilibrium between thermally generated
carriers and
the repelling electric field of the depletion region becomes unbalanced, allowing thermally
excited electrons to inject into the base region. These electrons wander (or "diffuse") through
the base from the region of high concentration near the emitter towards the region of low
concentration near the collector. The electrons in the base are called minority carriers
because the base is doped p-type which would make holes the majority carrier in the base.
To minimize the percentage of carriers that recombine before reaching the collector–base
junction, the transistor's base region must be thin enough that carriers can diffuse across it in
much less time than the semiconductor's minority carrier lifetime. In particular, the thickness
of the base must be much less than the diffusion length of the electrons. The collector–base
junction is reverse-biased, and so little electron injection occurs from the collector to the base,
but electrons that diffuse through the base towards the collector are swept into the collector
by the electric field in the depletion region of the collector–base junction. The thin shared
base and asymmetric collector–emitter doping is what differentiates a bipolar transistor from
two separate and oppositely biased diodes connected in series.
The proportion of electrons able to cross the base and reach the collector is a measure of the
BJT efficiency. The heavy doping of the emitter region and light doping of the base region
cause many more electrons to be injected from the emitter into the base than holes to be
injected from the base into the emitter. The common-emitter current gain is represented by
βF or hfe; it is approximately the ratio of the DC collector current to the DC base current in
forward-active
region. It is typically greater than 100 for small-signal transistors but can be smaller in
transistors designed for high-power applications. Another important parameter is the
common-base current gain, αF. The common-base current gain is approximately the gain of
current from emitter to collector in the forward-active region. This ratio usually has a value
close to unity; between 0.98 and 0.998. Alpha and beta are more precisely related by the
following identities (NPN
transistor):
A BJT consists of three differently doped semiconductor regions, the emitter region, the
base region and the collector region. These regions are, respectively, p type, n type and p
type in a PNP, and n type, p type and n type in a NPN transistor. Each semiconductor region
is connected to a terminal, appropriately labeled: emitter (E), base (B) and collector (C).
The base is physically located between the emitter and the collector and is made from lightly
doped, high resistivity material. The collector surrounds the emitter region, making it almost
impossible for the electrons injected into the base region to escape being collected, thus
making the resulting value of α very close to unity, and so, giving the transistor a large β. A
cross section view of a BJT indicates that the collector–base junction has a much larger area
than the emitter– base junction.
Small changes in the voltage applied across the base–emitter terminals causes the current that
flows between the emitter and the collector to change significantly. This effect can be used to
amplify the input voltage or current. BJTs can be thought of as voltage-controlled current
source, but are more simply characterized as current-controlled current sources, or current
amplifiers,
NPN is one of the two types of bipolar transistors, in which the letters "N" (negative) and "P"
(positive) refer to the majority charge carriers inside the different regions of the transistor.
Most bipolar transistors used today are NPN, because electron mobility is higher than hole
mobility in semiconductors, allowing greater currents and faster operation. NPN transistors
consist of a layer of P-doped semiconductor (the "base") between two N-doped layers. A
small current entering the base in common-emitter mode is amplified in the collector output.
In other terms, an NPN transistor is "on" when its base is pulled high relative to the emitter.
The arrow in the NPN transistor symbol is on the emitter leg and points in the direction of the
conventional current flow when the device is in forward active mode.
PNP
The other type of BJT is the PNP with the letters "P" and "N" referring to the majority
charge carriers inside the different regions of the transistor.
The symbol of a PNP Bipolar Junction Transistor.
PNP transistors consist of a layer of N-doped semiconductor between two layers of P-doped
material. A small current leaving the base in common-emitter mode is amplified in the
collector output. In other terms, a PNP transistor is "on" when its base is pulled low relative
to the emitter. The arrow in the PNP transistor symbol is on the emitter leg and points in the
direction of the conventional current flow when the device is in forward active mode.
Regions of operation
E <B>C Saturation
E >B<C Cut-off
Bipolar transistors have five distinct regions of operation, defined by BJT junction
biases. The modes of operation can be described in terms of the applied voltages (this
description
applies to NPN tranistors; polarities are reversed for PNP transistors):
Forward active: base higher than emitter, collector higher than base (in this mode the
The construction and circuit symbols for both the NPN and PNP bipolar transistor are shown
above with the arrow in the circuit symbol always showing the direction of conventional current
flow between the base terminal and its emitter terminal, with the direction of the arrow pointing
from the positive P-type region to the negative N-type region, exactly the same as for the
standard diode symbol.
As its name suggests, in the Common Base or Grounded Base configuration, the BASE
connection is common to both the input signal and the output signal with the input signal
being applied between the base and the emitter terminals. The corresponding output signal
is taken from between the base and the collector terminals as shown with the base terminal
grounded or connected to a fixed reference voltage point. The input current flowing into the
emitter is quite large as its the sum of both the base current and collector current
respectively therefore, the collector current output is less than the emitter current input
resulting in a Current Gain for this type of circuit of less than "1", or in other words it
"Attenuates" the signal.
This type of amplifier configuration is a non-inverting voltage amplifier circuit, in that the
signal voltages Vin and Vout. This type of arrangement is not very common due to its
unusually high voltage gain characteristics. Its Output characteristics represent that of a
forward biased diode while the Input characteristics represent that of an illuminated photo-
diode. Also this type of configuration has a high ratio of Output to Input resistance or more
importantly
6. BJT Characterstics Explain?
To become familiar with the theory of operation of bipolar junction transistors (BJT) and to
examine the V-I characteristics of BJT's
The transistor type (NPN or PNP) can be determined using a multimeter. The test checks the
polarity of the base-emitter and base-collector junctions. This test is to be performed at the
beginning of the lab session. For the BJT, there are three regions of operation;
1. Active region: In this region, the base emitter junction is forward biased and the base-
collector junction is reverse biased. This region is the normal transistor operation mode
for amplification, and is characterized by the transistor current gain value, beta.
2. Cut-off region: In this region, both base-emitter and base-collector junctions are reverse
biased and the transistor acts like an open switch. (IC = 0)
3. Saturation region: In this region, both base emitter and base-collector junctions are
forward biased and the transistor acts like a closed switch. (VCE = 0)
In the active region of the transistor, a figure of merit has been defined to quantify the capability
of the transistor to amplify the input signal. This parameter is defined as the ratio between IC to
IB and typically called the β factor. Similarly an α factor is defined as the ratio between IC to IE.
Thus;
β = IC / IB and α = IC / IE
It can be easily shown that β = α /(1 - α) and α = β /(β + 1). As a rule of thumb, the larger the
value of β, the higher the gain obtainable from the transistor, i.e. the better the transistor. Typical
values for β ranges from about 80 to 300 or higher.
7. Explain in detail about inverting amplifier.
Definition
Inverting amplifier is one in which the output is exactly 1800 out of phase with respect to
input(i.e. if you apply a positive voltage, output will be negative). Output is an inverted(in terms
of phase) amplified version of input.
Circuit operation
(0-Vi)/Ri+(0-Vo)/Rf = 0
Gain
Definition
Non Inverting amplifier is one in which the output is in phase with respect to input(i.e. if you
apply a positive voltage, output will be positive ). Output is an Non inverted(in terms of phase)
amplified version of input.
Circuit operation
(Vi-Vo)/R2+(Vo-0)/R1 = 0
Gain
Connecting digital circuitry to sensor devices is simple if the sensor devices are inherently digital
themselves. Switches, relays, and encoders are easily interfaced with gate circuits due to the
on/off nature of their signals. However, when analog devices are involved, interfacing becomes
much more complex. What is needed is a way to electronically translate analog signals into
digital (binary) quantities, and vice versa. An analog-to-digital converter, or ADC, performs the
former task while a digital-to-analog converter, or DAC, performs the latter.
An ADC inputs an analog electrical signal such as voltage or current and outputs a binary
number. In block diagram form, it can be represented as such:
A DAC, on the other hand, inputs a binary number and outputs an analog voltage or current
signal. In block diagram form, it looks like this:
UNIT-5 MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION
1.Mention 2 disadvantages of capacitive transducer? (May-11)
Output impedance of capacitive transducer is very high. So its measuring
circuit becomes very complicated.
The capacitance of capacitive transducer change with change in temperature
or account of Presence of small external matter.
Example: dust particles, moisture.
2.Write the function of transducer (May-11)
It converts one type of energy into another.
3..Define inverse transducer with example (May-10)
An inverse transducer is defined as device which converts an electrical quantity into a
non electrical quantity.
It is a precision actuator which has an electrical input and a low power non electrical
output.
4.Mention any 4 types of analog to digital convertor? (May-10)
Flash type of convertor
Staircase convertor
Tracking convertor
Successive approximation type
5.What is the need of sample and hold circuit in A/D convertor? (Dec-10)
Sample and hold circuits are the devices that store analog information and reduce the
aperture time of an A/D convertor
A sample hold is a simply a voltage memory device in which an input voltage is
acquired and then stored on a high quality capacitor.
PART-B
ØTheinputquantityformostinstrumentationsystemsisnonelectrical.Inordertouseelectricalmethod
sandtechniquesformeasurement,thenonelectricalquantityisconvertedintoaproportionalelect
ricalsignalbyadevicecalledtransducer.
ØAnotherdefinitionstatesthattransducerisadevicewhichwhenactuatedbyenergyinonesystem,sup
pliesenergyinthe sameformorinanother formtoasecond system.
ØWhentransducergivesoutputinelectricalformitisknownaselectricaltrans
ducer.Actually,electricaltransducerconsistsoftwopartswhichareveryc
loselyrelatedtoEachother.
ØThesetwopartsaresensingordetectingelementandtransductionelement.Thesensingordetectingel
ementiscommonlyknownassensor.
Ø
DefinitionstatesthatsensorisadevicethatproducesameasurableresponsetoaCha
ngeina physicalcondition.
Ø Thetransductionelementtransformstheoutputofthesensortoanelectricaloutput,as
shownintheFig.
Classification ofElectricalTransducers
Transducersmaybeclassifiedaccording totheirstructure,methodofenergy
conversionandapplication.Thuswecansaythattransducersareclassified
Asactiveand passive transducer
Accordingtotransductionprinciple
Asanaloganddigitaltransducer
Asprimaryand secondarytransducer
Astransducerandinverse transducer
ActiveandPassiveT
ransducerActive
Transducers
Ø Active transducersareself-generatingtypeoftransducers.
Ø These transducers developanelectricalparameter(i.e.voltage or current)whichis
proportionaltothequantityundermeasurement.
Ø Thesetransducers donotrequireanyexternalsourceorpowerfortheiroperation.
Ø Theycanbesubdividedintothefollowingcommonlyused types
Passive Transducers
Ø Passivetransducersdonotgenerateanyelectricalsignalbythemselves.
Ø Toobtainanelectricalsignal fromsuchtransducers,anexternalsourceofpoweris essential.
Ø Passive transducers
dependuponthechangeinanelectricalparameter(R,L,orC).
Ø Theyarealsoknownasexternallypowerdriventransducers.
Ø Theycan besubdividedintothe followingcommonlyusedtypes.
According to TransductionPrinciple
Thetransducerscan beclassifiedaccordingto principleusedin transduction.
Capacitivetransduction
Electromagnetictransduction
Inductive transduction
Piezoelectrictransduction
Photovoltaictransduction
Photoconductivetransduction
Analog and DigitalTransducers
The transducers can beclassifiedonthe basisofthe
outputwhichmaybeacontinuousfunctionoftimeortheoutputmaybeindiscretes
teps.
AnalogTransducers
Primary orSecondary
Ø Sometransducers consistof mechanical devicealongwiththeelectricaldevice.
Ø Insuchtransducersmechanical deviceacts
asaprimarytransducerandconvertsphysicalquantityintomechanical signal.
Ø Theelectricaldevicethenconverts mechanicalsignal produced
byprimarytransducerintoanelectricalsignal.
Ø Therefore,electricaldeviceactsasasecondarytransducer.
Ø Foranexample,inpressuremeasurementBourdonstubeacts as
aprimarytransducerwhichconverts a pressureintodisplacementandLVDTacts as
asecondarytransducer whichconvertsthis
displacementintoanequivalentelectricalsignal.
Pressure Measurement
1. Nature of measurement
2. Loading effect
3. Environmental considerations
4. Measuring system
5. Cost &Availability
The first step in the selection procedure is to clearly define the nature of quantity under
measurement (measurand) and know the range of magnitudes and frequencies that the
measurand is expected to exhibit. Next step will be to examine the available transducer
principles for measurement of desired quantity. The type of transducer selected must be
compatible with the type and range of the quantity to be measured and the output device.
In case one or more transducer principles are capable of generating a satisfactory signal,
decision is to be taken whether to employ a commercially available transducer or build a
suitable transducer. If the transducers are available in the market at a suitable price, the
choice will probably be to purchase one of them, otherwise own transducer will have to be
designed, built and calibrated.
ResistanceTransducers
Temperature Sensors
Temperatureisone ofthefundamentalparametersindicatingthephysicalconditionof
matter,i.e.expressingitsdegree ofhotnessorcoldness.Wheneverabodyisheat’variouseffectsare
observed.Theyinclude
Changeinthephysicalorchemical state,(freezing,melting,boilingetc.)
Changeinphysicaldimensions,
Changesinelectricalproperties,mainlythechangeinresistance,
Generationofan emfatthejunctionoftwodissimilarmetals.
Oneoftheseeffectscanbeemployedfortemperaturemeasurementpurposes.Electricalmet
hodsarethemostconvenientandaccuratemethodsoftemperaturemeasurement.Thesemethods
arebasedonchangeinresistancewithtemperatureandgenerationofthermale.m.f.Thechangeinr
esistancewithtemperaturemaybepositiveornegative.Accordingtothatthereare twotypes
ResistanceThermometers —Positivetemperaturecoefficient
Thermistors—Negative temperaturecoefficient
Constructionof ResistanceThermometers
Ø The wireresistancethermometer usuallyconsistsofacoilwound
onamicaorceramicformer, asshowninthe Fig.
Ø
Thecoiliswoundinbifilarformsoastomakeitnoinductive.Suchcoilsareavailableindifferentsizes
andwithdifferentresistancevaluesrangingfrom10ohms to25,000ohms.
ResistanceThermometers
1. Themeasurementis accurate.
2. Indicators,recorderscanbe directlyoperated.
3. The temperature sensorcanbeeasilyinstalledandreplaced.
4. Measurementofdifferentialtemperatureispossible.
5. Resistancethermometerscanwork overawide rangeoftemperaturefrom
-20’Cto+650°C.
6. Theyare suitableforremote indication.
7. Theyaresmallerinsize
8. They have stabilityoverlongperiodsoftime.
5. Draw and explain capacitive transducer in detail. Also mention its applications.
Capacitive sensor is of non-contact type sensor and is primarily used to measure the linear
displacements from few millimeters to hundreds of millimeters. It comprises of three
plates, with the upper pair forming one capacitor and the lower pair another. The linear
displacement might take in two forms:
one of the plates is moved by the displacement so that the plate
separation changes
area of overlap changes due to the displacement.
The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given by,
C = εr εo A / d
where εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric between the plates, εo permittivity of free
space, A area of overlap between two plates and d the plate separation.
As the central plate moves near to top plate or bottom one due to the movement of the
element/workpiece of which displacement is to be measured, separation in between the
plate changes. This can be given as,
C1 = (εr εo A) / (d + x)
C2 = (εr εo A) / (d – x)
When C1 and C2 are connected to a Wheatstone’s bridge, then the resulting out-of-balance
voltage would be in proportional to displacement x.
APPLICATIONS
Feed hopper level monitoring
Small vessel pump control
Grease level monitoring
Level control of liquids
Metrology applications
DigitalStorageOscilloscope
BlockDiagram
Theblock diagram ofdigitalstorage oscilloscopeis shownintheFig.
Ø The input signalisappliedto the amplifierand attenuatorsection.
Ø The oscilloscope uses sametype ofamplifier and attenuatorcircuitry asused in
theconventionaloscilloscopes.
Ø Theattenuatedsignalisthen appliedtothe verticalamplifier.
Ø To digitizetheanalogsignal,analogtodigital(A/D) converteris used.
ØTheoutputof the verticalamplifierisappliedtothe
A/Dconvertersection.
Ø ThesuccessiveapproximationtypeofA/Dconverterismostoftenly
usedinthedigitalstorageoscilloscopes.
Ø Thesampling rateandmemorysizeare selecteddependingupontheduration
&thewaveformto be recorded.
Ø Once theinput
signalissampled,theA/Dconverterdigitizesit.Ø Thesignal
isthen capturedin the memory.
Ø
Onceitisstoredinthememory,manymanipulationsarepossibleasmemorycanbereadoutwit
houtbeingerased.
Ø Thedigitalstorageoscilloscopehasthree modes:
1. Rollmode
2. Storemode
3. Hold or savemode.
Advantages
i) Itiseasierto operate and has more capability.ii) The
storage timeisinfinite.
iii) Thedisplayflexibilityisavailable.Thenumberoftracesthatcanbestoredandrecalleddep
ends on thesizeofthememory.
iv) The cursor measurementispossible.
v) The characterscanbe displayed onscreenalong withthe waveformwhich
can
indicatewaveforminformation such as minimum, maximum,frequency,amplitude
etc.
vi) TheX-Y plots,B-Hcurve,P-Vdiagramscanbe displayed.
vii) The pretriggerviewingfeature allows todisplaythewaveformbeforetriggerpulse.
viii) Keepingthe recordsispossible bytransmittingthedatato computersystemwherethe
furtherprocessingispossible
ix) Signalprocessingispossiblewhichincludestranslatingtherawdataintofinishedinformati
on
e.g.computingparametersof acaptured signallike r.m.s.value, energystored etc.
Current Transformers
What is current Transformer (CT)
• A current transformer is a transformer, which produces in its secondary winding low current,
which is proportional to the high current flowing in its primary winding.
• The secondary current is usually much smaller in magnitude than the primary current.
• The design of CT depends on which type of instrument is connected to its secondary winding.
Measuring instrument OR Protective instrument.
-Measuring instrument CT is expected to give accurate results up to a maximum of 125% of its
normal full-load rated current.
-Protective instrument CT is expected to be accurate for up to 20 times of its normal full-load rated
current (about 2000% of its full-load rated current!!..??).
• Based on the type of equipment for which the Ct is used for, its saturation point will vary. At the
same time it is expected to be linear in the entire working range.
Construction of C.T.:
• C.T. has a primary coil of one or more turns made of thick wire connected in series with the line
whose current is to be measured.
• The secondary consists of a large number of turns made of fine wire and is connected across an
ammeter or a relay’s terminals.
Function of CT:
• The principal function of a CT is to produce a proportional current at a level of magnitude, which
is suitable for the operation of low-range measuring or protective devices such as indicating or
recording instruments and relays.
• The primary and secondary currents are expressed as a ratio such as 100/5 or 1000/5 .
With a 100/5 ratio CT, 100A flowing in the primary winding will result in 5A flowing in the
secondary winding, provided that the correct rated burden is connected to the secondary winding