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DEFINITION OF MISSION: HISTORY OF MISSION:

The term mission has been in use since the 1950’s. Historically, two German men, Gustav Warneck
various meanings are attached to the term over and JosefSchmidlinare generally regarded by
time. It is referred to as (a.) sending missionaries Protestant and catholic tradition respectively as the
to a designated territory, (b.) activities of the founders of Missiology as an academic discipline.
missionaries (c.) the location where the activities
Gustav Warneck (11834-1910): Warneckis
take place (d.) the non-Christian world or mission
considered by the Protestant tradition as the
field (e.) the residence of missionaries (f.) a series
founder of missiology as an academic discipline.
of special services intended to deepen or spread
founded the first scientific missionary journal
the Christian faith among those who have become
called Allegemeine Missions Zeitschrift in 1874. In
weak or nominal Christians. These shades of
1897, he was appointed to the chair of Missionary
meaning express the understanding of mission
science at the University of Halle Germany. He
from the religious perspective. Traditionally, the
wrote three volume work on Protestant Mission
term mission has been used in the theological
Theory as well a survey of the history of
sense to mean (a.) propagation of faith (b.)
Protestant missionary work. These publications
expansion of God’s reign (c.) conversion of non-
were influential in the birth of Missiology as a
believers (d.) founding of new churches. Untill the
discipline. He distinguished between a
16th century, the word mission was used
supernatural and a natural foundation for mission.
exclusively with reference to the Trinity, that is, of
As regards the supernatural foundation, mission is
the Father sending the Son and the Father and the
founded first on scripture especially the Great
Son sending the Holy Spirit. The Jesuits were the
Commission. Secondly, the monotheistic nature of
first to use the sense in a broader sense to refer to
Christianity is a ground for mission. The natural
the spread of Christianity among non-Catholics,
ground for mission include:(a) the absoluteness
including Protestants and nonbelievers. In this
and superiority of the Christian religion when
sense, the understanding of the term went hand in
compared with others; (b) the acceptability and
hand with the expansion of Catholic colonial
adaptability of Christianity to all peoples and
powers, Portugal and Spain, into what is now
conditions; (c) the superiorachievements of the
known as the Third World. The term mission
Christian mission on the “mission fields”; and (d)
presupposes a sender, a person/s sent by the
the fact that Christianity has, inpast and present,
sender, those to whom one is sent, and an
shown itself to be stronger than all other religions.
assignment. This authority to send is ascribed to
God who acts through the Church and who in turn Josef Schmidlin (1876-1944): Schmidlin is
exercises this authority through agents like considered the father of Catholic missiology. He
religious orders or Christian kings. was a Catholic Church Theologian. Schmidlin
began teaching Missiology in 1910 at the
The impure motives of mission include:
University of Munster. In 1914, he was appointed
imperialist motive, cultural motive, romantic
to the Chair of Catholic Missiology at the same
motive, and ecclesiastical colonization. Other
University. He was the first to occupy that
theologically but ambiguous motives of mission
position.
include: conversion, eschatology, church planting,
and philanthropy. These theologically inadequate MAXIMUM ILLUD
foundations for mission and ambiguous
missionary motives led to unsatisfactory This was Pope Benedict XV’s Apostolic Letter on
missionary practices. Western missionaries tend to the Propagation of the Faith Throughout the
reproduce in the mission fields, the structures of World. It was issued on November 30, 1919. In
the church in their home country. This is described the first paragraph of the document, the Pope
as ecclesiastical export trade. establishes the basis for the Church’s mission on

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Christ’s command to his apostles (Mk. 16:15). This document is the Vatican II decree on
This command remains valid as long as there the Missionary activity of the church. The mostly
should be men to be saved by the teaching pf truth. quoted statement of the document is that the
further, the main concern of missionary bishops is pilgrim church is of its very nature missionary,
to raise local clergy. This call for local clergy is since it draws its origin from the mission of the
one of the most important contributions of Son and the mission of the Holy Spirit, in
benedict XV to missionary evangelism. The accordance with the plan of God the Father. This
Pope’s call for native clergy was to supply for the statement is a much ecclesiological as it is
shortage of personnel following the First World missiological. It places mission at the very heart of
War. The Local clergy are not just short term the church. Being church means being in mission.
solutions. Their training is one of the goals of This is one of the major achievements of Vatican
mission. The native clergy is the best evangelizer II and a departure from previous ecclesiology that
of his own people. He is best qualified to introduce saw mission as one of the activities of the church.
the faith to his people. Also, he is the best It is a departure from missions to mission. The
safeguard against persecution, hence, the best hope council did not however completely jettison the
for the survival of the Church. The Pope calls for a old ecclesiology. Mission and missions are
change of approach as regards the poor number of interconnected.
local clergy in places that have long missionary
Ad Gentes places the church’s duty to evangelize
presence. Poor result in the mission field can be
both on internal necessity – deriving from the
due to the poor quality of personnel sent to the
missionary nature of the church, and explicit
missions. Thus, superiors of missionary
command (Mark 16:25). This creates a tension
congregations are advised to send their choice
between mission (particular missionary activities)
candidates on mission, those who stand foremost
and missions (pastoral care). The Holy Spirit was
for the innocence of their lives the fervor of their
already a work in the world before Christ was
piety and their zeal for souls. More so, the Pope
glorified. The true goal of missionary activity is
identified holiness of life as the first prerequisite
evangelization and the establishing of the church
of the missionary.
among peoples and groups in whom it had not
Regarding the training of the local clergy, the taken root. Missionaries should bear this in mind.
Pontiff posited that the local clergy should be Also, initial conversion is the goal of
given the same training as their European proclamation. This however must be free and
counterparts. Their study should involve every uncoerced, overtly or covertly. One wonders
department of knowledge, both sacred and profane whether the use of gifts by missionaries, as
disciplines. They are to be trained so as to occupy happened in Igbo land, to attract adherents
high administrative positions in the church. The amounts to subtle coercion. The document also
Pope also directed the Propaganda Fidei to asserted that right from the beginning, the
establish national and regional seminaries. The Christian community should be formed in such a
Pontifical College of Urban should teach way that, as far as possible it may provide its own
Missiology. Missionary training should include needs. this however has not been the experience of
languages. In this regard, the Pontificioinstitutio young missionary churches in Africa. The
Orientale was established to teach the Eastern missionary churches are established to be
liturgical languages. Finally, the Pontiff also warns dependent on external supports both in personnel
against the dangers of nationalism. The Maximum and financially. This forms the for the call for
Illud was the first important statement from the missionary moratorium that is, the suspension of
Holy See on the missions in the modern era. It is missionary activities, in Africa in the early 1970’s.
the charter of modern missionary movement. this was as a solution to the Peter-Pan syndrome of
the African church. Also, the church for instance
AD GENTES DIVINITUS:

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in Igbo Land has been trained to sustain itself While Paul normally refer to the local church by
through the Annual Church Collection. using ekklesia, the wider fellowship of churches is
always presupposed. Hence, by ekklesia Paul
Finally, the document enjoins missionaries to
means both the local and the universal church.
inculcate the spirit of ecumenism among their
Paul’s importance for the understanding of the
converts. This was to avoid rivalry and unhealthy
early Christian mission cannot be exaggerated.
competition. The document also celebrates the
Paul the theologian cannot be understood unless
existence of priestly vocations in new and young
he is seen as Paul the missionary.
churches. Seminarians are to be trained to
understand their own culture and its relationship to Paul’s missionary paradigms:
Christianity. The recovery of doctrine of particular
1. The church as new community: for Paul,
churches was one of the achievements of Vatican
baptism makes its recipient one in Christ
II. It also endorsed inculturation. Further,
Jesus such that there can no longer be any
missionaries should adapt themselves generously
form of segregation be it cultural,
to unfamiliar customs of peoples and to changing
religious, economic, social or otherwise.
circumstances. Finally, the council bequeaths the
Unity among the members of the church is
task of preaching the gospel to every part of the
not negotiable. Paul acknowledges that
world to the body of bishops. Hence, missionaries
there is and there can be differences
should be obedient to the bishops of their places of
among the faithful. He however cautions
mission. The Ad Gentes is an important document
the church against letting such legitimate
on mission. However, practicality remains one of
differences destroy the unity of mind and
its greatest shortcomings. Also, the document
heart that should exist among those who
presupposes that the present form of Church is the
are one in Christ Jesus.
only one valid for Catholics.
2. Mission to Jews: does Paul exclude the
MISSION IN SAINT PAUL: Jews as targets of any further missionary
outreach? Some scholars believe that that
Paul’s understanding of mission can be understood
is indeed the case. Some others disagree.
as membership of the eschatological community.
The church is not the new Israel in the
Paul’s understanding of mission is expressed in his
sense that it has replaced the old Israel.
seven authentic letters namely: Romans, 1&2
The church is rather an enlarged Israel. A
Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1
Gentile church is understandable only in
Thessalonians, and Philemon.
the context of its Jewish matrix. We can
Ekklesia in Paul: Paul founded his churches in say that Paul’s approach to the question of
the 50’s these communities assumed the name a continuing mission to the Jews is similar
ekklesia which the Septuagint used to translate the to that of Matthew and Luke, only that it is
Hebrew word Kahal. Ekklesia was used in the characterized by almost an unbearable and
Greek society to refer to the meeting of the yet creative tension.
freemen of the Greek city. According to Meeks, 3. Mission in the context of God’s imminent
ekklesia, as used by Paul could mean: Roman or triumph: Paul understood the Church’s
Greek household, voluntary association, Jewish mission in the context of Christ’s
synagogue, Philosophical/rhetorical schools. imminent return in glory. Now that this
While there are similarities between Paul’s use of has not materialized, some scholars seem
the term ekklesia and these contemporary to suggest that this aspect of Pauls’
meanings, Paul uses the term in a unique sense. missionary understanding is to be
Paul’s ekklesia, the community sense is quite dismissed. David Bosch and others
pronounced. So also the sense of solidarity or disagree. Paul’s apocalyptic eschatology is
togetherness. Individualism is to be avoided. still relevant today but it is to be

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interpreted in a way that transcends our “witnesses”; and it will beaccomplished in the
chronological speculations and power of the Holy Spirit. These elements
anticipations. There are already in the constitute the “fibers of Luke's missiontheology”
church and in the world signs of God’s running through both the gospel and Acts, binding
triumph over the forces of evil but the this two-volume work together
eschatological hope in his ultimate and
The principal manner in which Luke attempts to
indubitable triumph is essential for the
articulate his theology of mission is by writing
church’s mission on the world.
notonly one book, but two. Most scholars agree
4. Mission and the transformation of the
that the writing of the Book of Acts was not
society: Paul rejects the two extremes pure
anafterthought but that, from the outset, Luke
apocalyptic and enthusiasm. Both
intended to write two volumes (cfStanek 1985:17).
extremes engender non engagement with
Thisemerges clearly when we look at the overall
the world. The one because the world is a
structure of the two writings. Luke regards
lost cause and the other because it has
Jesus’mission as universal in intent but incomplete
already been overcome. Because of God’s
in execution (LaVerdiere and Thompson
sure victory in the end, Paul encourages
l976:595). Amission to Gentiles is mentioned
active engagement in the world in the here
explicitly only once in the gospel: in Luke 24:47,
and now. He however cautions against too
that is, in the finalpericope. The Gentile mission
much participation in the world.
would be the task of the church, not of the
5. Mission in weakness: there is in Paul a
historical Jesus (cf Hahn1965:129; Wilson
creative tension in the Christian life – a
1973:52f). The gospel takes us to the very
dialectical tension between weakness,
threshold of the Gentile mission; theBook of Acts
service, sorrow, and affliction on one hand
would tell that story in detail (compare Luke 24:47
and power and joy on the other (2Cor.
with Acts 1:8). This is certainly notjust a Lukan
12:9ff).
theological construct but a historical fact. It is
6. The aim of mission: Paul’s mission has a
striking, throughout Luke's gospel, howreserved
universal aim – the reconciliation of the
Jesus is in relation to Gentiles. Only once explicit
world, that is all humanity to God.
mention is made of a visit to non-Jewishcountry,
LUKE-ACTS: the theme of mission is central to to the land of the Gerasenes (8:26-39); for the rest
the Gospel of Luke. Jesus’ mission statement in Jesus apparently remains on Jewish soil(cf Bosch
Luke 14:21 forms the foundation for Jesus’ 1959:108).Luke also uses other strategies to reveal
mission and indeed that of the church.Luke the inner unity of his understanding of mission.
conceives of mission as practicing forgiveness and One of these is geography. In the gospel, Jesus’
solidarity with the poor.At least three fundamental ministry unfolds in three stages: Galilee (4:14-
concerns of Luke are expressed here: (1) the 9:50), hisjourney from Galilee to Jerusalem
centrality of the poor in Jesus’ ministry; (2) the (9:5119:40), and finally the events in Jerusalem
setting aside of vengeance; and (3) the (19:41 to the endof the gospel; it is striking that
Gentilemission. Further, Jesus’ words in the Great Luke does not mention any appearances of the
Commission (Lk. 26:46-49) reflect, in a nutshell, risen Christ in Galilee—everything is concentrated
Luke's entire understanding of the Christian in Jerusalem). In Acts, the church's missionary
mission: it is the fulfillment of scriptural promises; ministry likewiseevolves in three phases, indicated
it only becomes possible after the death and in 1:8, “You shall be my witnesses in Jerusalem
resurrection ofthe Messiah of Israel; its central and in all Judeaand Samaria and to the end of the
thrust is the message of repentance and earth.” The opening chapters of Acts relate the
forgiveness; it is intended for“all nations”; it is to birth and growth ofthe church in Jerusalem; the
begin “from Jerusalem”; it is to be executed by second part portrays the expansion of the church

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into Samaria and thecoastal plains until it reaches (Gaventa 1982:416). Tosome extent the
Antioch; the third section relates the missionary terms “apostle” and “witness” are
outreach in severaldirections, concluding with synonyms. It is the apostles who are told
Paul's arrival in Rome, at which point the book that theywill be Jesus’ witnesses (cf Acts
comes to a rather abruptend. 1:2, 8).
4. Luke's gospel and Acts are built on the
MISSIONARY PARADIGM IN LUKE/ACTS:
expectation of response. The martyria of
1. It was preeminently through the Spirit that the missionaries aims at repentance and
the risen Christ was present in the forgiveness (cf Lk 24:48; Acts 2:38),
community.The idea of being led by the which leads to salvation.
Spirit into mission is then, however, 5. For Luke, salvation actually had six
applied in a far morecomprehensive dimensions: economic, social, political,
manner to the ministry of the disciples. physical, psychological, and spiritual.
They will turn into Jesus’ witnesses as Luke seemed to pay special attention to
soon asthey are clothed with power from the first of these. We may thus detect a
on high (Lk 24:49; Acts 1:8). The same major element in Luke's missionary
Spirit in whose powerJesus went to paradigm in what he writes about the new
Galilee also thrusts the disciples into relationship between rich and poor.
mission. The Spirit becomes the catalyst, 6. Another dimension of Luke's missionary
theguiding and driving force of mission. paradigm has to do with his ecclesiology.
At every point the church's mission is both In Luke's view mission is, therefore, an
inspired and confirmed by manifestations “ecclesial” enterprise (cf Kremer
of the Spirit.The gift of the Spirit is the 1982:161). The apostles are the nucleus of
gift of becoming involved in mission, for witnesses who will provide continuity
mission is the directconsequence of the between the history of Jesus and that of
outpouring of the Spirit.Moreover, the thechurch; their distinctive role is that of
Spirit not only initiates mission, he also providing an authoritative link between
guides the missionaries about where Jesus and the church (Senior and
theyshould go and how they should Stuhlmueller 1983:266).
proceed. The missionaries are not to
MISSION IN THE MEDIEVAL ERA:
execute their own plans but haveto wait on
the Spirit to direct them. In the Lukan The Medieval era is generally held to be between
writings the Spirit of mission is also the 800/900 – 1500/1600 AD. it was the longest span
Spirit of power (Greek: dynamis). This among the eras. Some of the key dates and events
istrue of the mission of both Jesus (Lk of the period include: the Fall of the T’ang dynasty
4:14; Acts 10:38) and the apostles (Lk in 907 and the fall of Constantinople by the
24:49; Acts 1:8). TheSpirit is thus, further, Ottoman Turks in 1453. Also, the medieval era
not only the initiator and guide of mission, witnessed the rise of Islam. Further, the events in
but also the one who empowers tomission. the socio-religious and social context of this
2. Another specifically Lukan contribution to period influenced mission.
the understanding of mission in the first
SOCIO-RELIGIOUS CONTEXT: in 1095,
century was his correlation of the Jewish
Pope Urban II ordered a military crusade against
and Gentile missions.
Muslims in the Holy Land. The main purposes of
3. the witness terminology is crucial for the
the Crusade were to rescue the holy place in
understanding of Luke's paradigm
Palestine, to defend the Byzantine Christians from
formission. In Acts, “witness” becomes
Muslims, and to turn back the tide of Muslim
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conquest. These clear goals were also intermingled There was also the establishment of the Mendicant
with political ambitions of Western Europe. The Orders which sought to change the direction of the
Crusade could be said to be successful in the short church in terms of apostolic life. Also, the Lateran
run. It however was politically unsuccessful in the council was convoked in 1179. Further, the
long run. It had negative consequences. It led to Medieval period was marked by two schisms. The
the souring of the relationship between the East first major schism in 1054 was the mutual
and the West. In 1204, the crusaders sacked excommunication between the East and the West.
Constantinople, removed the Muslims, and The second schism occurred in the context of the
inaugurated a sixty-year Latin reign. This was crusade. The crusaders’ sacking of Constantinople
disdained by the Easterners. worsened the rift between the east and the West.
There was also an internal schism caused by rival
SOCIAL CONTEXT: in the social milieu, there
papacy – the Avignon papacy.
was a rapid economic and demographic growth
due to the rapid expansion of agriculture. The MODELS OF MISSION: the monks and nuns
period witnessed the beginning of universities and spread the faith during this period. Crusades were
growth in urban centers. understood as martyrdom and thus, had
evangelical connotation. Also, the mendicant
Further, the Renaissance that started in Italy in
orders carried out missionary activities.
1300 and lasted till 1600 impacted on mission
during the period. It saw great accomplishments in FRANCIS OF ASSISI: Francis was born in
scholarship and the arts. There was also growth in 1181/1182. He received a divine message in a
vernacular – French, Italian, English German, and vision ‘Francis repair my church.’ Jesus’
Spanish. The Bubonic plague was very significant missionary injunction to his disciples in Matthew
in Medieval history. The plague killed almost one- 10:5-6 spoke to Francis in very strong and
third of Europe’s population. This made people to personal manner. His intention was to imitate
turn to God. The church at this period was corrupt Christ in poverty and in teaching. In 1209/1210,
with power, wealth, clericalism, and militarianism. Francis’ Rule for the Order of Friars Minor was
The people suffered massive spiritual hunger. This approved by Pope Innocent III. Francis was the
culminated in the Evangelical awakening that first to conceive of mission to non-Christians.
happened between the 13th and the 14th centuries Francis advocated for a more peaceful mission
giving rise to new lay apostolic movements like approach. He went to Egypt and met the Sultan
the Waldesians, Humiliati, and the Franciscans. who received him well. His experience with Islam
The major concern of these movements was the influenced his new rule for mission. Missionary
gospel of poverty as against the sophisticated life methodology: (1.) Mission by presence and
of materialism in the church. Christian witness, (2.) open and explicit
proclamation of the Word of God (3.) suffering
INSTITUTIONAL CONTEXT: the medieval
pain or martyrdom.
period witnessed the Gregorian reform by Pope
Gregory VII. The reform effected better CLARE OF ASSISI (1194-1253): Clare’s
intellectual formation of priests as well as religious experience on Palm Sunday of 1212 had
celibacy. During this period, the clergy in general great impression on her. She conceived of mission
were under the influence of feudal lords and the from behind the convent walls. Clare founded the
crowns. Aside from the Gregorian reform, some 2nd Order of Franciscans (Poor Clares). In 1253,
other groups played some major roles at renewal Pope Innocent IV approved Clare’s rule. This was
in the church. These groups include: the Cluniac the first Rule for religious life written by a woman.
reform, Canon regular, the Cistercians, the The 3rd Order of Franciscans Women which was
Carthusians, and the Premostatensians. These lay officially recognized by the end of the 12 th century
movements were referred to as vita apostolica. ensured women’s active role in the Church’s life.

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The search for a more radical Christian life India by sea. In the area of scientific discoveries,
included a commitment to service, charity and Copernicus and Galileo were making ground
mission. Mission was usually lived in the context breaking discoveries that would change the way
of the local church. The inquisition started in Europeans looked at the universe.
1233.
RELIGIOUS CONTEXT: the modern period
MISSION IN THE MODERN ERA: was a moment of missionary enthusiasm and
optimism. A parallel religious renewal in Europe
The modern period lasted from c. 1500 to
was evident in the Protestant and Catholic
1900. Mission during this era was influenced by
Reformations. The Protestant reformation was led
events in the socio-political, religious and
by Luther, Calvin, Zwingli, etc. in the Catholic
institutional contexts.
circle, this era witnessed the Council of Trent
SOCIO-POLITICAL CONTEXT: politically, (1545-1563) which was aimed at reforming the
Europe during this period was concerned with church in the context of a general religious
reestablishing and securing its borders against renewal. The catholic reformation also included
Muslim domains. The key important events of this the renewal of older religious orders and
era were the Trans-Atlantic slave trade and the foundation of new ones such as the Jesuits, the
European discoveries and explorations. The Trans- Ursulines, the Vincentians, the Daughters of
Atlantic slave trade lasted for a period of 400 Charity, etc. These reforms sought to return the
years beginning from c.1450 till the early 19 th faithful to the ideals of the New Testament
century. This was led by the two colonial powers: Church. Further it was during this period that the
Portugal and Spain. These colonial powers traded term mission began to be used in its current sense.
on slaves from the Sub-Saharan African region Hitherto, mission is understood in the theological
and engaged them to work on their various sugar sense as the Father sending the Son and the Father
cane plantations. This horrific event affected the and the Son sending the Holy Spirit. With these
development of Christianity especially on both reforms mission had two related meanings: the
sides of the Atlantic. Over this period of 400 Jesuits used it in its generic sense to mean carrying
years, about twelve million slaves died during the out whatever task is assigned them by the Pope.
march from the hinterlands to the holding areas on Mission was also used to mean being sent by the
the coast while an approximate ten to twelve Church to non-Christians and non-Catholics alike.
million Africans were transported to the New This sense of mission was how Vincent de Paul
World. The magnitude of this enslavement and and the Vincentians used the term to describe their
forced movement of peoples makes it one of the efforts to re-evangelize Catholics.
worst tragedies in human history.
INSTITUTIONAL CONTEXT: while the
European explorations and scientific discoveries religious movements were stirring and challenging
were another significant events to mission during the hearts of Christians in Europe, the institutional
the modern era. The development and church was trying to regain its equilibrium form
improvement of compass aided the sea voyages. the scandals of the 14th century – rival popes.
Europe now had new lands and peoples to During the 15th and 16th century, the papacy and
discover and conquer. In 1492, Christopher bishops were preoccupied with wealth and
Columbus, an Italian explorer, crossed the Atlantic politics. With the two major navigational powers,
and discovered the Americas. Bartolomeu Dias Portugal and Spain, quarreling over newly
reached the Cape of Good Hope – the discovered lands, the pope drew a line from the
southernmost point of Africa in 1486. Also, Vasco North pole to the South pole, separating the two
Da Gama, a Portuguese explorer, crossed the Cape domains. He also created a system of patronatus–
of Good Hope and reached the West Coast of patronage. This gave the leadership of these
India, thus becoming the first European to reach nations the rights and responsibilities for

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missionary works. This theocratic arrangement emperor to stay there. Ricci died in 1610, having
linked the official goals of the conquest: to annex endeared himself to the Chinese. He was popularly
the conquered lands and to incorporate the called the wise man from the West. Ricci’s goal
baptized people into the Catholic Church. From was to make Christianity at home in Chines
1550, the papacy began to attempt to reclaim its culture. He placed great emphasis on the
rights and responsibilities over missionary works. intellectual, cultural, and political realms of the
This effort culminated in the foundation of Sacred Chinese society. He studied the Chinese practice
Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith in of ancestral veneration and judged it not to be a
1622. religious but cultural practice and thus, compatible
with Christianity. He reckoned that Christians
MISSIONARY MODELS:
could participate in most of these rights though
FRANCIS XAVIER (1506-1522): Francis was a with slight modification. This was for him an
Jesuit missionary. He was one of the most famous interim measure. The issue pf ancestral veneration
Roman Catholic missionaries. Francis is popularly will assume a central stage in the Rites
called the apostle of the Indies and of Japan. He Controversy.
was one of the founding members of the Society
ROBERT DE NOBILI (1577-1656): Robert de
of Jesus in 1534. He was ordained a priest in 1537
Nobili was an Italian Jesuit priest. He arrived
and in 1540, the Portuguese ambassador to the
Madurai in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu in 1606.
papal court petitioned Pope Paul III for Jesuits to
He discovered that being Christian in this area was
evangelize the East. In 1541, Francis left Lisbon
equated with being a foreigner. Robert believed
for India as both a representative of the Pope and
that being Indian was not incompatible with being
the King. He first worked among the pearl-fishing
Christiaan. He thus adapted himself to the Indian
Paravas on the south-eastern shore of India. He
society, mastering the local languages as well as
next went to Japan and was headed next for China
Sanskrit. He adopted the austere lifestyle of an
but died before he could reach it. Francis followed
India holy person, Sannyasi, wearing a garb, living
the missionary method of tabula rasa. He
on alms and devoting himself to meditation and
emphasized the importance of translation. He had
prayer. He became known as the spiritual master
a disdain for local churches though he became
of the true religion. Robert allowed the people to
more receptive to it later on in Japan.
continue in their cultures and traditional modes of
MATTEO RICCI (1522-1610): Matteo Ricci dressing. He accepted the ancient caste system
arrived China in 1583. Ricci was the most with its social discrimination. He only associated
prominent Jesuit missionary in China during this with the upper classes and the Brahmins. He
period. He was a brilliant scholar and he learned however did not completely ignore the lower
the Mandarin Chinese and studied the Confucian caste. He formed two groups of missionaries:
classics. He first styled himself as a Buddhist theBrahmanasannyasis for the upper class and the
monk (bonze) and later as a Chinese scholar Pandaraswamisfor the lower class. His missionary
(literati). Ricci married Confucianism with methods were attacked by many and were
Christianity. He was very knowledgeable about eventually condemned under the Rite Controversy.
sundials, clocks, map-making and mathematics. Robert wrote extensively in both Indian and
This helped him gain access to the imperial court. European languages.
In 1598,
Ricci and his companions were able to get to the
capital, Beijing but they did not stay long because
of the anti-foreign sentiments at that time. In 1601,
he and his three companions returned to the capital
and were able to secure the permission of the

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