1

2
1. Define the following terms: -

a. First ionization energy:-

The first ionization energy is the heat energy required to remove 1 mole of
electrons from a mole of gaseous atoms to form a mole of uni positive gaseous
ions.
M(g) – e M+(g) ∆ H(+ve)

b. Second ionization energy:-

The heat energy required removing 1 mole of electrons from a mole of uni
positive gaseous ions to form a mole of di positive gaseous ions.

M+(g) – e M+2(g) ∆ H(+ve)

c. First electron affinity:-

The energy released when 1 mole of gaseous atoms gains one mole of electrons
to form a mole of uni-negative gaseous ions. Always exothermic.

X(g) + e X- (g) ∆ H(-ve)

d. Second electron affinity:-

The energy absorbed when 1 mole of uni negative gaseous ions gains 1 mole of
electrons to form 1 mole of di negative anions. Always endothermic.

X-(g) + e X-2(g) ∆ H(+ve)

e. Lattice enthalpy H latt

Lattice energy is the heat energy given out when one mole of an ionic solid is
formed from its gaseous ions. The enthalpy change is always exothermic.

Na+(g) + Cl- (g) NaCl(s)

Mg2+(g) + 2Cl- MgCl2(s)

3
 a) State the factors that affect the value of the lattice energies

a. Sum of the ionic radii of the anion & cation.

b. Charges of the ions.

b) Explain how the size of the ion effect the lattice energy

The lattice energy depends on distance between nuclei of cation & anion. The lattice
energy is inversely proportional to the sum of the ionic radii.

When the sizes of the ions are smaller, the lattice energy will be larger.

E.g. LiF > LiCl > LiBr > LiI

c) Explain the effect of charge on the ion on lattice energies

Lattice energy is directly proportional to charge (L.E α charge). Therefore greater the
charge on the ions, larger the lattice energy.

E.g : Al2O3 > MgO > CaCl2 > NaCl

d) MgO solid has the same crystal structure as NaCl solid, the lattice enthalpy of NaCl is –771 kJ mol-
1 & that of MgO is –3889 kJ mol-1. Account for this difference.

2. Describe the stages involved in the formation of a solid ionic crystal from its elements, hence
the calculation of lattice energy

atomization ionization

Solid metal element gaseous atoms gaseous metal cation

atomization electron affinity +
Non-metal element gaseous element gaseous non metal anion

Solid ionic lattice

4
 The Born-Haber cycle

3. Explain what is Born-Haber cycle & its importance

The enthalpy cycle, which is used to determine the experimental lattice enthalpy of
a compound, is called the born-Haber cycle.

It is important because the experimental lattice energy of a compound cannot be

determined by a direct single step. Instead it is found by an indirect route based on
Hess’s law.

4. Construct a Born-Haber cycle for Sodium Chloride, hence calculate the lattice enthalpy using
Hess’s law
Given that:

Standard enthalpy of atomization of Na +108.4 kJ mol-1

First ionization energy of Na +500 kJ mol-1
Standard enthalpy of atomization of Cl +121 kJ mol-1
First electron affinity of Cl - 364 kJ mol-1
Standard enthalpy of formation of NaCl - 411 kJ mol-1

5
5. Construct a Born-Haber cycle for MgCl2; hence use the data below to calculate the First electron
affinity of Chlorine.

kJ mol-1
Enthalpy Change
Atomization of Mg +150
First ionization energy of Mg +736
Second ionization energy of Mg +1450
Formation of MgCl2 -642
Atomization of Chlorine +121
Lattice enthalpy of MgCl2 -2493

6
6. Construct a Born-Haber cycle for MgO.

7. The equation for the heat of formation of Alumina is given as: -

2Al(s) + 3/2O2(g) Al2O3(s)

kJ mol-1
Enthalpy Change
Formation of Al2O3 -1675.7
Atomization of Al +324.3
First ionization energy of Al +578
Second ionization energy of Al +1817
Third ionization energy of Al +2745
Atomization of Oxygen +249.2
First electron affinity of Oxygen -141.1
Second electron affinity Oxygen +790.8
7
8.
a) What does the values of lattice energies tells us? Thus what can we conclude from these values?

The grater negative the value, the greater is the energetic stability of the lattice with
respect to it being broken up in to separate ions. Also the degree of ionic character can be
checked by the calculation.

8
 b) Explain why the values of lattice energies calculated from Born-Haber cycle may differ from those
calculated from purely ionic model

A calculation based on purely ionic model assumes that crystal is made up of perfectly
spherical ions & when the geometry is determined from x-ray diffraction method. The
distance between the ions will be known thus the lattice energy is calculated using an
equation.

But in the calculation of more co-valent & less ionic molecules (AgI). The equation gives a
lesser value than the Born-Haber cycle because the molecule is more co-valent (highly
polarizable) therefore the lattice energy is less.

c) Explain why the experimental & theoretical lattice enthalpies differ?

The lattice enthalpy of a compound obtained using Born-Haber cycle is the actual
experimental lattice energy of a compound.

When the degree of co-valency of crystal greater the difference between experimental &
theoretical values will be grater. Such large difference occur when the cation has higher
polarizing power & the anion has high polarisability resulting more covalent character.

E.g.: Experimental L.E Theoretical L.E

The difference
AgF -943 -925 is greater as
Ag Cl -890 -833 the covalent
Ag Br -877 -808 character
Ag I -867 -774 increases.

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 Entropy
1. State with examples why feasibility of a chemical reaction cannot be determined only by
enthalpy changes

In exothermic reactions the enthalpy of the reactants are higher than the products.
Therefore the reaction is feasible at room temperature. Often assumed that
endothermic reactions will not take place at room temperature due to energy of the
products are greater than the reactants thus reactants are more stable also due to
the activation energy barrier.
By the study of solubilities & the enthalpy of solution of many salts it can be shown
that endothermic reactions also occur at room temperature & some exothermic
reactions do not.

Eg:- I) Enthalpy of solution of NH4NO3 is endothermic, yet it is highly soluble in water.

II) Enthalpy of solution of CaCO3 is exothermic, yet it is insoluble in water.

Therefore other than the enthalpies there is another factor, which influences the
relative stability of a system.
When a highly ordered solid dissolves in H2O the solid disperse throughout the liquid.
The same happens with energy. The answer for the above lies in the simple concept
that energy & matter tend to spread out or disperse. When the solid disperse in a
liquid the solid particles get disordered. The greater the degree of disorder or
randomness of a system the greater the stability.

2. Describe the term ‘entropy’ (S)

Entropy is a measure of the disorder or randomness of a system. It is also the

scientific term for disorder. When the molecules are ordered then the entropy is
low & when the molecules are disordered the entropy is high.

The grater the disorder (entropy) the greater the stability. Thus the total free
energy of a system is the sum of the enthalpy & the entropy. Hence spontaneous
changes result in increased entropy. (Second law of Thermodynamics)

3. Explain how entropy of a substance change with the change in the physical state.

Particles in a solid are more ordered (or less disordered) than liquid or gas. Whereas
particles in a liquid is more ordered than a gas. Therefore the entropy of gas is
greater than liquid, which is greater than solid.
S solid < S liquid < S gas

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4. State & explain the effect of temperature on entropy.

Entropy of a perfect crystalline substance at zero Kelvin / -2730C (absolute zero) is

zero. As the temperature increases the entropy of a substance increases. During
the phase change as the solid is heated there is a large jump in entropy.

As the solid is heated entropy increases until its melting point. At this point there is
a large jump in entropy. Then followed by steady increase as the liquid is heated
until it is reached to the boiling point. At this point there is another large jump in
entropy. Thus followed by a gradual increase in entropy as the gas is heated.

Entropy
(S)

Temperature/K

5. Explain the dependence on standard entropy of a substance on complexity of the

substance.

Standard entropy is the entropy at 298K (250C) & 1 atm pressure & is symbolized by Sθ
The standard entropy increases as the complexity of a substance increase.

Eg: Entropy of CaCO3 is greater than CaO as CaCO3 is more complex molecule than CaO
The entropy of P4O10 is greater than P4
The entropy of C2H6 is greater than CH4

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6. Discuss how the total entropy change ( S total ) of a reaction is found.

In an exothermic reaction the reactants gives out energy to the surroundings as a result
the energy of the surroundings increases by exactly the same amount. In an endothermic
reaction the reactants gain energy from the surroundings thus surroundings lose an equal
amount of energy.

The total energy change therefore should include the entropy change of the chemicals
( Ssystem) & also the entropy change of the surroundings ( S surr)Therefore the total
entropy change is expressed as :-

S total = S system + S surroundings

7. Modify the above relationship to calculate the entropy change for a reaction.

The entropy change of the system can be calculated from the below formula. The ‘n’
represents the Stoichiometric numbers in the chemical equation.

Sθ system = Σ nSθ(products) - Σ nSθ(reactants)

The above equation is similar to the equation which is used to calculate the enthalpy
change of reactions ( H)
H = Σ nH(products) - Σ nH(reactants)

The units of S is JK-1 mol-1

(Note that S has joules in its units where as H has kJ)

 If the disorder increases then the S will be positive. If the disorder decrease
then the S will be negative.

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8. Describe how a reaction, which has a negative entropy change, can be feasible thus
how to predict whether the entropy of the system is positive or negative by looking
at the equation.

If the disorder of the reactants is replaced by the order of the products then the
reaction has negative entropy.

Eg:- P4(s) + 5O2(g) P4O10 (S)

(solid) + (gas) (solid)

As the disorder of the gas is replaced by the order of the solid the extent of the disorder
decreases. Therefore S system is negative.

If the disorder increases then Ssys is positive.

Eg :- CaCO3(S) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

(solid) (solution) (solution) (gas)

However the feasibility of a reaction cannot be predicted only by the entropy of the
system. The entropy of the surroundings also must be taken into account. Therefore a
reaction with negative Ssys can also be feasible when Ssurr is considered. The reaction
will only be feasible when the total entropy change ( S total) is positive.

9. State & explain the sign for the entropy of the surroundings for exothermic &
endothermic reactions.

Heat energy is transferred to the surroundings in an exothermic reaction. Therefore the

entropy change of the surrounding increases (positive). Likewise heat energy is absorbed
from the surroundings in an endothermic reaction. Therefore the entropy changes of the
surroundings decrease (negative).

 Sθsurr is positive for all exothermic reactions.

 Sθsurr is negative for all endothermic reactions.

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10. State the equation, which demonstrate the relationship between the enthalpy
change, Temperature & the entropy of the surroundings.

The entropy change of the surroundings is the negative of the enthalpy change of the
system & is also inversely proportional to the temperature of the surroundings.

Sθsurr = - H
T

The H is given in kJ mol-1 whereas T is given in Kelvin (K). The unit of S θsurr should be
given in J K-1 mol-1 not kJ K-1 mol-1. Therefore the answer has to be multiplied by 1000. You
should always indicate the sign whether positive / negative for S.

If the surrounding is already hot (higher temperature) then the molecules already has a
higher entropy thus the entropy change will be less. Also if the surrounding is cold the
entropy change is greater.

11. Outline how to predict the feasibility of a reaction from the total entropy change.

If the total entropy change is positive the reaction is thermodynamically feasible

(Thermodynamics is the study of the energy changes that occur in bulk matter)

Sθ total = Sθ system + Sθ surroundings

This means even the entropy change of the system is negative & if the entropy change
of the surroundings is more positive the overall reaction is feasible as total entropy
change is positive.

Sθ system Sθ surroundings Feasible

Positive Positive (exothermic) Always feasible

Negative Negative (endothermic) Never feasible
Negative Positive (exothermic) If H /T is > Sθ system feasible
Positive Negative (endothermic) If Sθ system > H/T feasible

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Therefore the reaction can occur as long as S θ total is positive even if one of the other
entropy change is negative. Hence the feasibility of a reaction depends on the balance
between Sθsys & Sθsurr & at higher temperatures the magnitude of S θsurr decreases &
its contribution to S total is less.

 If Stotal is positive the change is said to be Thermodynamically spontaneous.

Thus the change will take place. Suppose if S total is negative the forward
reaction will not be feasible but the reverse reaction will be Thermodynamically
spontaneous.

 Altering the temperature can alter the value of the total entropy change. As for
exothermic reactions an increase temperature will cause Ssurr to become less
positive hence will make Stotal less positive. Thus a negative Ssurr becomes less
negative.

12. Use the below data table to answer the questions that follow.*
(*The contents of this question are not copyright by Chembase, copyright owner George Facer- A2 Chemistry)

a) Calculate the standard entropy change for the reaction between Phosphorous & Oxygen
to produce P4O10

P4(s) +5O2(g) P4O10(S) H -2984 kJmol-1

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b) Calculate the entropy change of the surroundings when 1mol of Phosphorus burns in air.

c) Calculate the total entropy change for the combustion of Phosphorus. The entropy
change of the system is –960 JK-1 mol-1 & the entropy change of the surroundings is
+10,000 JK-1mol-1

d) Calculate the value of Ssurr at 250C & at 1000C for a reaction with H = -123kJ
mol-1

e) Comment on the feasibility of the following reactions occurring at a temperature of

298K

i) C2H5OH(l) + PCl5(s) C2H5Cl(g) + HCl(g) + POCl3(l)

H = -107kJmol-1 ; Ssystem = +368JK-1 mol-1

ii) 2C(s) + 2H2(g) CH2=CH2(g)

H = +52.2kJmol-1 ; Ssystem = -184 JK-1 mol-1

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 iii) H2(g) + ½ O2(g) H2O(l)

H = -286 kJmol-1 ; Ssystem = -45 JK-1 mol-1

iv) CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)

H = +178 kJmol-1 ; Ssystem = +164 JK-1 mol-1

13. Discuss the difference between the concepts of thermodynamic stability & kinetic inertness
in terms of total enthalpy change.

In an exothermic reaction the reactants are higher in energy than the products.
Therefore reactants are thermodynamically unstable with respect to products. Thus
Stotal is positive means that the reactants are thermodynamically unstable relative
to products.

Likewise negative Stotal means that the reactants are thermodynamically stable with
respect to products. As the reactants are low in enthalpy & it absorb heat from the
surroundings.

Kinetic Stability is based on the activation energy. A large activation energy means
that the reactants are stable with respect to products & a small activation energy
means that the reactants are kinetically unstable with respect to products.

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 Solubility

1. Explain the entropy change that occurs when a gas is dissolved.

Dissolving a gas results in the system to be more ordered. Hence dissolving a gas always
results in a negative Ssystem. This means heat is given out thus gas dissolves
exothermically & surroundings becomes more disordered.

X(g) X(aq)

When temperature is increased the above Equilibria will be shifted to left. Therefore
gases are less soluble in hot water than in cold water.

2. Similarly explain the entropy change when a solid is dissolved.

When solid is dissolved the particles of solid moves in to the solvent to form a solution.
Thus the system becomes more disordered, but dissolving solids does not always result in
positive Ssystem.

The entropy of the solute becomes more positive as it turns from highly ordered solid to a
more random solution. Simultaneously the solvent may turn to be more ordered due to the
forces of attraction between the solute & the solvent. This usually happens when
compounds with high charge density dissolve in water.

The enthalpy of solution ( Hsol) can be either negative or positive. If it is negative then
the heat is given out thus the entropy of the surroundings become more positive. If it is
positive the entropy decreases.

X(s) X(g)

If the Hsol is exothermic the above Equilibria is driven to left thus the substance becomes
less soluble. If the Hsol is endothermic the Equilibria will shift to right thus the solution
will be more soluble.

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3. Explain the concept of solubility in terms of forces between solvent & solute
particles.

In order for a substance to be soluble, the solute particles should be separated & each
particle should be surrounded by solvent particles.

Therefore the forces between the solute & solvent must be stronger inorder to overcome
the solvent-solvent & solute-solute forces.

4. Define the term hydration & hydration energy.

When an ionic substance is dissolved in water the cation will be surrounded by the partial
negative ‘O’ atom of water & the anions will be surrounded by the partial positive ‘H’ of
water. This process is called as hydration & the energy released during this process is
known as hydration energy.

5. Define enthalpy of solution & enthalpy of hydration.

The Enthalpy of solution Hsol is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of the solid is
dissolved in excess solvent resulting an infinitely dilute solution. ( Infinitely dilute solution
is a solution where further dilution does not cause any heat change)

NaCl(s) + aq Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

The enthalpy of Hydration Hhyd of an ion is the enthalpy change when 1 mol of gaseous
ions are dissolved in excess solvent resulting an infinitely dilute solution.

Na+(g) + Cl-(g) + aq Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

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6. With the help of a Hess law cycle derive the relationship between lattice enthalpy, enthalpy
of solution & hydration.

From the above equation it can be said that:-

 When the lattice energy become more exothermic, the enthalpy of solution
becomes more endothermic.
 Also when either hydration enthalpy become more exothermic the enthalpy of
solution become more exothermic.
 Therefore the sign of the enthalpy of solution depends on the difference on
magnitude between lattice energy & the sum of the hydration energy.

7. Comment on the magnitude of lattice energy & hydration energy for exothermic &
endothermic solvation.

For exothermic solvation the magnitude of the sum of the hydration energy will be greater
than the lattice energy. Similarly for endothermic solvation the magnitude of the lattice
energy will be greater than the sum of the hydration enthalpies.

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8.
a) Use the given data to calculate the enthalpy of solution of KI (Lattice enthalpy of KI –629
kJmol-1, Enthalpy of hydration of K+ -322 kJmol-1 , Enthalpy of hydration of l- -364 kJmol-1)

b) Use the given data to calculate the enthalpy of solution of MgCl2(Lattice enthalpy of MgCl2
-2500 kJmol-1, Enthalpy of hydration of Mg2+ -1920 kJmol-1 , Enthalpy of hydration of Cl- -
364 kJmol-1)

9. State & explain the factors that affect the values of enthalpy of hydration & the lattice
energy of an ionic compound.

 The magnitude of the lattice energy;

a) Is directly proportional to the product of the charges on the ions. Larger the
product of the charges on the cation & anion greater the lattice energy

b) Is inversely proportional to the sum of the radii of the cation & the anion.
Greater the sum smaller the magnitude of the lattice energy.

c) The extent of co-valency. The grater the extent of covalency the grater the
magnitude of the lattice energy.

 The magnitude of the lattice energy decreases down the group as the size of the
cation &anion increase.
 Also the magnitude of the lattice energy increases as the charge on either or
both the cation & the anion increases.

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  Factors which affect the hydration enthalpy;

a) The hydration energy is directly proportional to the magnitude of the charge

on the ion. The grater the charge the greater the hydration energy.

b) The hydration energy is inversely proportional to the radius of the ion.

Smaller the radius greater the hydration energy.

If the radius of the ions increases the hydration energy become less exothermic

10. State & explain the factors, which determines the extent of solubility of an ionic compound.

Solubility of a solid is determined by the total entropy change for 1 mol of the solid. An
ionic solid to dissolve the total entropy change should be a positive value. The total entropy
change depends on the entropy change of the system & the enthalpy change.

Sθtotal = Sθsys + Sθsurr

Sθtotal = Sθsys + (- H θsol /T)

Therefore solubility of an ionic compound is determined by the entropy change of the

system & the enthalpy change of the reaction.

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 Gibbs Free Energy ( Gθ )
1. What is Gibbs free energy & why it is important?

The total entropy which includes the system & surrounding was used previously to predict
the feasibility of a reaction. In chemical thermodynamics it’s often preferred to focus on
the system than the surroundings. Free energy enables us to do this for changes that
occur at constant temperature and pressure. (Not necessary at standard conditions).

Gibbs free energy refers to the amount of energy of the system available to do work. This
energy is referred to as the “FREE” energy as it is the remaining energy of the system
after it had used some of its energy for entropy. Since this was discovered by J.Willard
Gibbs it is called as Gibbs Free Energy. Symbolized by ΔG.

Gibbs free energy is important to predict the feasibility of a reaction where feasibility
cannot be predicted when enthalpy & entropy is considered together. Eg: Reaction which is
feasible with respect to enthalpy but not entropy (exothermic reaction with negative
entropy) or Feasible with respect to entropy but not enthalpy. (Endothermic reaction with
positive entropy)

2. Define Standard Gibbs free energy change, ΔGθ

Gibbs free energy / Gibbs function is the combination of entropy and enthalpy. The change
in the Gibbs free energy of the system that occurs during a reaction is therefore equal to
the change in the enthalpy of the system minus the change in the product of the
temperature times the entropy of the system. And can be defined by the following
equation:

ΔGθ = ΔHθ - TΔSθ

Where, ΔHθ is the standard enthalpy change of the reaction. (298K, 1atm)
T is the temperature in Kelvin
ΔSθ is the standard entropy change of the system.

ΔGθ is the standard Gibbs free energy. Remember that the superscript θ on ΔGθindicates
that the numerical value of Gibbs free energy is based on the reaction at standard
conditions and it refers to 1M concentrated solution & 1 atm pressure. Temperature is
NOT a part of standard conditions for ΔGθ.

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3. Derive the Gibbs free energy equation from total entropy equation. Gibbs free energy change
is given by the equation ΔG = - TΔStotal

4. Define the term Standard molar Gibbs free energy of formation.

Standard molar Gibbs free energy of formation is the free energy change which
accompanies the formation of one mole of a compound from its elements in their
standard state.
Symbolized by ΔGѲf and units are kJmol-1

5. Explain how ΔG determines the direction & extent of a chemical change hence spontaneity.

Thus negative ΔG indicates that the reaction is spontaneous, a positive ΔG indicates a non-
spontaneous reaction and if ΔG is zero the reaction is at equilibrium. ΔGѲf is a measure of
the stability of the compound. Greater the negative value greater the stability thus
difficult to decompose and vice versa.

 The ΔGѲf of an element under standard condition is zero. (Eg:H2,O2,Br2,C,Mg,Na)

6. Discuss the effect of temperature on spontaneity of a reaction

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 As ΔG = ΔH - TΔS , ΔG changes with temperature.

ΔH could be negative (an exothermic reaction) or positive (an endothermic reaction).

Similarly ΔS could be either positive or negative. Thus there are four possible
combinations of the signs of ΔH and ΔS

a. ΔH is negative and ΔS is positive:

As both ΔH and -TΔS terms are negative irrespective of the temperature, ΔG is
also will to be negative. The reaction will be spontaneous at all temperatures.

b. ΔH is positive and ΔS is negative :

As both ΔH and -TΔS terms are positive irrespective of the temperature, ΔG is
also will be positive. The reaction will not be spontaneous at any temperature.

c. ΔH is positive and ΔS is positive :

ΔH is positive. -TΔS is negative.
Increasing the temperature will result -TΔS will become more negative, and will
eventually outweigh ΔH thus the reaction will be spontaneous.
But at low temperatures, ΔG becomes positive thus the reaction will be non
spontaneous. Eg : Decomposition of CaCO3

d. ΔH is negative and ΔS is negative :

ΔH is negative. -TΔS is positive.
As temperature increases, -TΔS will become more positive, and will eventually
outweigh the effect of ΔH thus reaction will be non spontaneous. But at low
temperatures ΔG will be negative thus be spontaneous.

7. State the factors which is to be considered when Calculating ΔG° hence explain how ΔG of a
reaction is calculated.

ΔG° and ΔH° are both measured in kJmol-1 whereas the entropy change is
calculated in JK-1mol-1, Thus one must change the entropy change value into kJ
before when calculating ΔG°.

Similar to enthalpies and entropies the standard Gibbs free energy of a reaction can
be calculated as to the below equation:

ΔG° =  n ΔG°(products) -  n ΔG°(reactants) n = no.of moles

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8. Calculate the ΔG° in below examples hence comment on the feasibility of the reaction.

I. C(graphite) + O2(g) CO2(g)

Calculate ΔGº for CO2 at 298 K. ΔH°(CO2) = −393 KJ/mol, S° (O2) = 205 J/mol.K ,
S°(C) = 6 J/mol.K, S° (CO2) = 213 J/mol.K

II. C(graphite) + O2(g) 2CO(g)

Calculate ΔGº for CO at 298 K. ΔHf ° (CO) = −110 KJ/mol, S°(O2) = 205 J/mol.K, S°(C) = 6 J/mol.K,
S°(CO) = 198 J/mol.K

III. 2Na(s) + O2(g) Na2O2(s)

Calculate ΔGº for the reaction at 298 K. ΔH = −510 KJ/mol, S°(Na) = 51.2 J/mol.K, S°( Na2O2) =
95.0 J/mol.K, S°(O2) = 205.0 J/mol.K

26
9. Calculate ΔGº for the following Reactions, Given that;

ΔGºf (SO2, g) = −300 kJ/mol ΔGºf (SO3, g) = −371 kJ/mol

ΔGºf (H2SO4, l) = −690 kJ/mol ΔGºf (H2SO4, aq) = −742 kJ/mol
ΔGºf (H2O, l) = −237 kJ/mol ΔGºf (H2S, g) = −34 kJ/mol

a) S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)

b) 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)

c) SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(l)

d) 2H2S(g) + 3O2(g) 2SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

27
10. Calculate the temperature above at which the following non spontaneous reaction becomes
spontaneous. (Assume that ΔH° and ΔS° does not change much with temperature)

Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2 ΔH° = +465 kJ/mol

ΔS° = +552 J/molK

ΔG° = +301 kJ/mol (at 298 K)

11. With the help of a Gibbs free energy cycle calculate ΔGѲf for the below decomposition,
hence comment on the feasibility.

2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

The relevant ΔGѲf values are :

ΔGѲf[NaHCO3(s)] = -850 kJmol-1 ΔGѲf[H2O(l)] = -235. kJmol-1

ΔGѲf[CO2g)] = -390 kJmol-1, ΔGѲf[Na2CO3(s)] = -1045 kJmol-1

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