Surface-Piercing Propellers

by Paul Kamen, N.A.

First published in Professional Boatbuilder magazine.

A paper with similar content was presented to the Northern California section of the
Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers.

The art of positioning a propeller underneath a boat hull is not a new one. Designers
and naval architects have been grappling with every aspect of the propulsion-by-
propeller problem for generations, and the result has been the evolution of a well
known set of standard and efficient solutions.

When a new and promising solution to a very old problem appears, it's usually made
possible by advancements in some other related technology - material science or
control and instrumentation devices, for example.

But in the case of surface-piercing propellers, there's really no new technology

involved at all. Simply the re-arrangement of all the traditional elements of a
propulsion system into a different configuration. A few features may be borrowed
from the drive- line and hydraulics fields, but these technologies are also as old as the
hills. The implication is that we've been wrong - or at least quite a distance away
from optimum - for an awful long time. So it is with understandable skepticism that
the idea of using surface-piercing propellers on more-or-less conventional small craft
is greeted by the boatbuilding community.

What is a surface-piercing propeller, anyway? Simply stated, a surface-piercing

propeller (or surface propeller) is a propeller that is positioned so that when the
vessel is underway the waterline passes right through the propeller's hub. This is
usually accomplished by extending the propeller shaft out through the transom of the
vessel, and locating the propeller some distance aft of the transom in the relatively
flat water surface that flows out from the transom's bottom edge. (The exception
being single-shaft catamarans, where the propeller hub intersects the undisturbed
waterline.) In the case of articulated surface drive systems, the propeller shaft is
driven through a double universal joint inside an oil-tight ball joint, allowing the shaft
to rotate athwartships for steering and to trim up and down for control of propeller
submergence. Fixed-shaft surface drives can use conventional shafts and stern tube
bearings, but require rudders. In many racing applications, outboards and outdrives
can be positioned sufficiently high on the vessel for the propellers to operate in a
surface-piercing mode.
The important operating feature is that each propeller blade is out of the water for
half of each revolution. And here is another reason for skepticism. Surely a propeller
blade is more efficient if it operates continuously in the smoothest possible flow,
rather than splashing through the water surface twice with each revolution. But
nature can play tricks on our intuition. Sometimes an unsteady process is actually
more efficient than its continuous counterpart.

Why use a surface propeller?

A summary of the principal reasons for the high performance of surface propeller
systems relative to conventional installations follows.

Propeller Efficiency: Traditional propeller design and selection is almost always an

exercise in trading off diameter against several other performance-limiting
parameters. Basic momentum theory tells us that for a given speed and thrust, the
larger the propeller, the higher the efficiency. While there are exceptions, most
notably the effects of frictional resistance on large, slow-turning propellers, it is
generally borne out in practice that a larger propeller with a sufficiently deep gear
ratio will be more efficient than a small one.

A number of design considerations conspire to limit the maximum feasible propeller

diameter to something considerably smaller than the optimal size. These include
blade tip clearance from the hull, maximum vessel draft, shaft angle, and engine
location. While this may at times make life easy for the designer - the propeller
diameter specified is simply the maximum that fits - it can also result in a
considerable sacrifice of propulsive efficiency. And if these geometric limits on
propeller diameter are exceeded, the result can be excessive vibration and damage
due to low tip clearances, or a steep shaft angle with severe loss of efficiency and
additional parasitic drag, or deep navigational draft that restricts operation or
requires a protective keel and its associated drag. In many cases, the best design
solution is to live with a mix of all of the above problems to some degree.

The surface-piercing propeller frees the designer from these limitations. There is
virtually no limit to the size of propeller that will work. The designer is able to use a
much deeper reduction ratio, and a larger, lightly-loaded, and more efficient
propeller.

Cavitation: When a submerged propeller blade cavitates, the pressure on part of the
blade becomes so low that a near vacuum is formed. This happens more easily than
one might think - atmospheric pressure is only 14.7 psi, not a very big number
considering the size of a typical propeller and the thrust it is required to produce. If
the suction on the low-pressure side of the propeller blade dips below ambient
pressure - atmospheric plus hydrostatic head - then a vacuum cavity forms. (To be
strictly correct, there is water vapor in the cavity, and the pressure is not a true
vacuum, but equal to the vapor pressure of the water.)
When these vacuum cavities collapse, water impacts on the blade surface with a local
pressure singularity - that is, a point with theoretically infinite velocity and pressure.
The effect can approximate that of hitting the blade with a hammer on each
revolution. Cavitation is a major source of propeller damage, vibration, noise, and
loss of performance. And although high- speed propellers are often designed to
operate in a fully- cavitating (supercavitating) mode, problems associated with
cavitation are frequently a limiting factor in propeller design and selection.

The surface propeller effectively eliminates cavitation by replacing it with

ventilation. With each stroke, the propeller blade brings a bubble of air into what
would otherwise be the vacuum cavity region. The water ram effect that occurs when
a vacuum cavity collapses is suppressed, because the air entrained in the cavity
compresses as the cavity shrinks in size. Although the flow over a superventilating
propeller blade bears a superficial resemblance to that over a supercavitating blade,
most of the vibration, surface erosion, and underwater noise are absent.

In theory there is a slight performance penalty for allowing surface air into the low-
pressure cavities. Instead of near-zero pressure on the forward side of the blades,
now there is 14.7 psi pushing backwards. But in practice, this effect is not significant
considering the total thrust pressures involved in high-speed propellers.

Note that cavitation can also be associated with sudden loss of thrust and high
propeller slip, often caused by a sharp maneuver or resistance increase. This can still
occur with surface propellers, although the propeller is ventilating rather than
cavitating and the result is not as damaging.

Appendage Drag: Exposed shafts, struts, and propeller hubs all contribute to parasitic
drag. Inclined the exposed shafts not only produces form and frictional drag, but
there is also induced drag associated with the magnus-effect lift caused by their
rotation. There is a surprising amount of power loss resulting from the friction of the
shaft rotating in the water flow. In fact, for conventional installations a net
performance increase can often be realized by enclosing submerged shafts in non-
rotating shrouds, despite the increase in diameter.

Surface propellers virtually eliminate drag from all of these sources, as the only
surfaces to contact the water are the propeller blades and a skeg or rudder.

Variable Geometry: When a surface propeller is used in conjunction with an

articulated drive system, the vessel operator then has the ability to adjust propeller
submergence underway. This has roughly the same effect as varying the diameter of a
fully submerged propeller, and allows for considerable tolerance in selecting
propellers - or it allows one propeller to match a range of vessel operating conditions.
This capability is somewhat analogous to adjusting pitch on a controllable pitch
propeller.
When the articulated drive is used for steering, the result can be exceptionally good
high-speed maneuvering characteristics. On single-shaft applications, drive steering
can also be used to compensate for propeller-induced side force, without resorting to
an excessively large rudder or skeg.

Shallow Draft: This is the characteristic that motivates many designers to investigate
surface propeller propulsion in the first place. The vessel's navigational draft can be
as low as half a propeller diameter. Compared with other options for shallow water
propulsion - most notably waterjets - surface propellers enjoy a very significant
efficiency avantage. This advantage is most dramatic for low-speed applications, but
is still present throughout the performance spectrum.

In the case of articulated drives, the propellers can be trimmed up until just the tips
are submerged for intermittent operation in very shallow water, including beaching.
Sometimes the design allows the propellers to trim sufficiently above the baseline so
that the vessel can "dry out" with the props well clear of the bottom.

These are the intrinsic performance advantages of surface propellers. Other desirable
characteristics include flexibility in machinery arrangement, ease of maintenance and
repair, and simplified installation. In some applications involving hybrid propulsion
systems, such as the combination of diesel cruise engines with a gas turbine sprint
engine, the ability to retract one set of propellers completely clear of the water when
not in use is an overriding consideration.

Selecting a Surface Propulsion System:

Having elected to investigate the surface propulsion option, the builder or designer is
faced with a series of major decisions and a very limited amount of reliable data.
First is the issue of fixed versus articulated. As outlined above, articulated drives
have the advantage of variable propeller submergence, superior maneuverability, and
extreme shallow draft capabilities. Fixed systems, on the other hand, do not require
the hydraulic cylinders and associated pumps, control devices, and high pressure
plumbing. Furthermore, fixed systems are often designed to work with conventional
solid shafts and stern tubes, rather than the more complex universal-joint drivelines
found in articulated systems. It should also be noted that articulated surface drives
should not be relied upon to control vessel trim angle. Trimming the drive up and
down will have only a small effect on vessel running trim, and separate trim tabs or
other devices may still be desirable.

Very frequently, the nature of the vessel or operating conditions will dictate the
fixed/articulated decision. Some multihulls, for example, have very narrow transoms
that practically rule out an articulated system unless some alternative attachment
points for the hydraulic steering and trim cylinders can be found. But in cases where
variable trim is required for shallow draft or propeller retraction, a fixed system is
clearly not viable.
In most cases, both the fixed and articulated options can be made to work, and the
maximum performance possible with each should be comparable (although there have
been applications in which variation of propeller submergence is necessary to pass
through certain transitional speeds). Personal preference, relationship and proximity
to dealers and distributors, and the existence of successful vessels with similar
propulsion systems will probably govern this choice.

At this level, it is important to establish a relationship with the surface drive dealer
or manufacturer's representative. For fixed surface drives, the Levi Drive Unit is the
most popular worldwide. This system is distinctive for its inverted U-shaped rudder
that encloses the propeller. A handful of other fixed drive manufactures compete in
certain areas. For Articulated surface drives, the Arneson Surface Drive is the
dominant product, thanks to the "universal joint inside a ball joint" configuration
patented by Howard Arneson.

Get the drive vendor involved as early as possible in the design process. But
remember to carefully evaluate the advice and predictions made by non-technical
sales reps. They want to make sales, and are understandably prone to exaggeration at
times. Sometimes the most valuable service that the salespeople can provide s a
reference to a successful project similar to yours. Naval Architecture has traditionally
relied heavily upon improving previous work. And while there may at times be a fine
line between plagiarism and "design evolution," it certainly behooves the responsible
designer to acquire full knowledge of the current state of the art.

A number of designers and builders have succumbed to the temptation to engineer

their own fixed surface drive. Results have usually been less than satisfactory, for a
variety of reasons. Probably the most common is placement of the propeller much too
close to the transom. Another pitfall is propeller design. Without the support of a
propeller or drive vendor experienced with surface propulsion, the propeller
performance is an unknown variable. And finally, the self-engineered system is
difficult to fine tune. Modifications to propeller and drive geometry in the course of
"dialing in" the system can be time consuming and expensive.

Propeller Selection: Surface propellers are usually associated with the stainless steel
"cleaver" style common to race boat applications. These propellers have straight
trailing edges, razor-sharp leading edges, and sometimes as many as eight blades.
Probably because the roots of surface propulsion technology are so firmly imbedded in
the race boat world, it's no surprise that the popular perception is that all surface
propellers are cleavers. Yet the vast majority of surface propellers being sold today
have round-tipped blades, are made of bronze (or NiBrAl), and have only three or four
blades. In fact, at first glance there is very little to distinguish them from
conventional, fully submerged props.

What distinguishes a surface propeller from an underwater design? The pressure face
of the blade is always concave, the leading edge is relatively sharp with a narrow
entry angle, and the hub and blade root are built to withstand heavy eccentric and
alternating loads. There is major incentive to keep the blade section thin (it's the
strength of the steel blades that really gives cleavers the edge at high speeds and
loadings). Nearly all successful designs have moderate to heavy trailing edge cupping.

Propeller selection begins with an estimate of required thrust at the design speed.
This is usually based on one of several computational methods, but can also be
generated from empirical formulas or, if available, trial data from nearly similar
vessels. Then a preliminary gear ratio and diameter is chosen, adjusting both until slip
and pitch/diameter ratio are optimal and the required thrust is generated. This will
generally result in a non-standard reduction ratio, so th remainder of the process
involves adjusting diameter and pitch to fit the available drive train hardware. This
is, of course, a somewhat simplified description of a "design spiral." Usually the initial
design conditions will be modified in the course of the analysis, and there are
numerous other considerations such as number of blades, propeller submergence,
drive train structural limitations, and vessel trim. Note that unlike propeller selection
for a large proportion of conventional applications, diameter remains a variable
parameter troughout the entire process.

The drive or propeller vendor is usually eager to perform these calculations for you,
and in some cases can supply you with a computer program that will enable you to
play with various options on your own.

Problems:

There can be problems with surface propulsion systems, although some of these
difficulties stem from other factors not inherently associated with this type of
propeller operation.

Vibration: One of the amazing features of surface propulsion is its smoothness at high
speed, due mainly to the suppression of cavitation. This is contrary to intuition, and
must be experienced to be fully believed. However, some installations have
experienced serious vibration problems. In most cases this is due to improper design
or alignment of the shafting between the gearbox and drive input shaft. When double
universal joint drivelines are required, as is the case with articulated systems, it is
especially important to plan the driveline geometry so that operating angles of the
two joints are approximately equal and within accepted tolerances. This is because a
universal joint does not transmit rotational velocity evenly, causing angular
acceleration and deceleration twice with each shaft revolution.

As a general guideline, joint angles should not exceed six degrees per joint, and the
difference between the two joint angles should be less than one-half degree. This
allows the angular accelerations produced by one joint to be almost exactly
compensated by the other joint. (Depending on the orientation of the universal joint
yokes, the joint angles can be opposite with driveline flanges parallel, or they can
both angle in the same direction for a net total shaft angle change of up to twelve
degrees.
The less common vibration problems that are not driveline-related can almost always
be solved by using propellers with a larger number of blades, although there is some
cost penalty involved.

Backing Performance: Surface propulsion has a reputation for very poor perfomance in
reverse. A certain amount of this reputation is based on the fact that until very
recently, nearly all surface propeller installations were on very high speed vessels
using "cleaver" style propellers. These propellers, due to the thick trailing edges,
concave pressure face, and often heavy trailing edge cupping, are notoriously poor
performers in reverse. And this is true whether they are used as surface propellers or
as cavitating fully-submerged propellers.

However, there is an occasional problem with backing performance of surface

propulsion systems, regardless of propeller style. Part of the slipstream of the
propellers is directed right into the vessel's transom, with an obvious loss of net
astern thrust. Side curtains (hull side extensions aft of the transom) can seriously
aggravate this coition. In fact, there has been at least one installation in which the
vessel was actually propelled forward when the propellers were turning backwards at
certain speeds. The aft overhang and side curtains combined to work like the
reversing bucket on a waterjet, except that in this case reverse thrust was being
"reversed" to forward thrust!

Fortunately there is an easy fix. The addition of baffle plates between the transom
and the propeller that direct the slipstream down and forward (the plates are dr when
the vessel is operating ahead at speed) has proved extremely effective. But for the
majority of applications, no such hardware is required to provide adequate, although
not outstanding, performance in reverse.

Transitional Speeds:

Most planing hull designs, especially moderately low-powered or heavy designs, are
subject to problems getting through "hump" speed. High vessel resistance at pre-
planing speeds, high propeller slip, and reduced engine torque output at less than full
RPM can sometimes combine to make it impossible to reach design speed, even
though the vessel may be perfectly capable of operating at design speed once it gets
there. The boat that "can't get out of the hole" is a phenomenon that should be quite
familiar to many designers and builders. With surface propulsion systems there is an
additional factor which may make the situation worse - the propeller is designed to
operate with only half of the blade area immersed. But a low speeds, before the
transom aerates or "drys out," the propeller must operate fully submerged. Not only is
the submerged area doubled, but the top half is operating in very strong wake
turbulence right behind the transom. The result is that it takes much more torque to
spin the propeller at a given RPM, ad sometimes the engine is not capable of providing
the torque necessary to turn the propeller fast enough to get the boat up to the speed
which allows the transom to aerate and unload the top half of the propeller.
To reduce this potential problem, various methods of aerating the top half of the
propeller have been employed. The Levi drive, for example, directs engine exhaust
into the water in front of the propeller. On some installations, passive "aeration
pipes" leading from above the static waterline to the forward side of the propeller
have been effective. When the lower surface of the aft overhang is below the static
waterline, it is sometimes advisable to leave cut-outs through the overhang to let air
get to the propellers. With articuated drives, maximum up-trim can sometimes reduce
propeller submergence sufficiently to achieve required RPM for take-off power.

Fortunately, these measures are not required for the vast majority of applications.
However, designers and builders should be particularly diligent in checking power and
thrust margins over the entire speed range, and also be aware of the possibly
disastrous consequences of producing a vessel that is seriously overweight.

The Future:

The ability to use large diameters and deep reduction ratios is a capability that is just
beginning to be exploited. Surface propellers have long been accepted for racing
applications, where minimizing appendage drag and cavitation are the major
motivations. In recent years, an increasing number of high-speed yachts and patrol
boats have been propelled by surface propellers, and some of these applications have
been spectacularly successful. But the use of surface propulsion for relatively heavy
and slow vessels is new. A major obstacle to overcome is the first-cost of the large
propeller and power transmission equipment capable of handling the higher torques
associated with the deep reduction ratios. Life-cycle economics, however, especially
for commercial vessels with heavy duty cycles, can be extremely attractive.

We should also look for major evolution in propeller design. The fact that there is no
performance penalty for large hub diameter opens the door to new versions of
controllable pitch, counter- rotation, and other exotic variations. Propeller blade
design is one area where material science may be the controlling technology, as
propeller builders experiment with composite blade materials.

But from the builder's point of view, one of the major attractions of surface
propulsion is the fact that it does not require any sophisticated or exotic new
technology. If anything, the installation of a surface drive is a simplification over
conventional shafts and struts. It is simply a re-arrangement of the familiar parts -
with significant value added.

Seven Design Rules for Surface-Propelled Vessels

1) Make sure the hull form is appropriate for the intended speed range. Semi-planing
or low speed planing designs with a high degree of bottom warping (deadrise angle
that continues to flatten aft of maximum beam) or keel rocker (curved buttocks aft of
maximum beam) will be very poor performers if pushed beyond their intended speeds.
Sometimes rocker or warp is included in a hull form because it is believed to improve
propulsive efficiency, by increasing the wake fraction (slowing down the water
relative to the hull) in way of the conventional propeller location. There will be no
benefit if the hull is to be propelled by surface propellers located outside of this wake
field. Avoid flow obstructions, such as water pick-ups or trim tabs, directly upstream
of any part of the propeller disk.

2) Be realistic with weight and center of gravity estimates. Nearly all boats weigh
more than the designer and builder would like them to weigh, and this is by far the
single most common cause of failure to meet anticipated trial speed. Surface drive
vendors will generally be delighted to estimate vessel performance for you, but they
need accurate data.

3) Use the optimum reduction ratio. It is tempting to save cost by using a shallow
reduction ratio and smaller, faster turning, and generally less expensive propellers. At
a higher RPM, the same power produces less torque, thereby also reducing the cost of
the drive drivelines, and gearbox. This obviates one of the major advantages of
surface propulsion, and there are many examples of applications which fail to perform
satisfactorily because of insufficient reduction ratio in the interest of first- cost
economy.

4) Don't neglect trim control. If the design requires trim tabs with underwater
propellers, it may require them with surface drives as well. There will be a net
vertical force from the surface propellers, depending on a number of parameters
including deadrise angle and direction of propeller rotation. Occasionally a vessel that
trims well with conventional underwater propellers and no tri tabs is excessively bow-
down with surface propellers, and the only satisfactory fix is a center of gravity move.
Ask the drive or propeller vendor for assistance in estimating what effect the drive
will have on vessel trim. (Trim tabs should not be positioned in front of the propeller
disk, however.)

5) Leave enough space for the engine! Although engine placement and installation is
greatly simplified with most surface drives, there is still a certain amount of length
required for the drive input shaft, driveline (which usually includes universal and slip
joints), and gearbox. There are also some geometric limitations on what a double
universal joint driveline can and cannot do. Working with the various vendors early in
the design process could avoid a serious problem later on.

6) Design the transom to conform to the requirements of the drive. The proper
transom angle will eliminate the need for wedges, and in the case of articulated
drives, clear space for hydraulic cylinder attachment brackets is essential. Flat
transoms allow the most straightforward installations.

7) Protect the propeller, but use side curtains sparingly. A surface propeller can be a
very substantial hazard to anything or anybody that falls off the stern of a vessel
underway. It bears a striking resemblance to a giant food processor! Nearly all
recreational designs include an aft cockpit extension, deck extension, or "swim step"
that overhangs the propellers, and even military designs use a pipe-and-canvass
overhang to protect personnel. Side walls, however, should be used with care. They
may have an adverse effect on backing performance.

(c) Paul Kamen 1995