Chapter 3b

Load and Stress Analysis

Faculty of Engineering
Mechanical Dept.
Chapter Outline

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 General Three-Dimensional Stress
 All stress elements are actually 3-D.
 Plane stress elements simply have one surface with zero stresses.
 For cases where there is no stress-free surface, the principal
stresses are found from the roots of the cubic equation

Fig. 3−12 Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 General Three-Dimensional Stress
 Always three extreme shear values

 Maximum Shear Stress is the largest

 Principal stresses are usually ordered such that s1 > s2 > s3,
in which case tmax = t1/3

Fig. 3−12 Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Elastic Strain

 Hooke’s law

 E is Young’s modulus, or modulus of elasticity

 Tension in on direction produces negative strain (contraction) in
a perpendicular direction.
 For axial stress in x direction,

 The constant of proportionality  is Poisson’s ratio

 See Table A-5 for values for common materials.

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 Elastic Strain

 For a stress element undergoing sx, sy, and sz, simultaneously,

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 Elastic Strain

 Hooke’s law for shear:

 Shear strain g is the change in a right angle of a stress element

when subjected to pure shear stress.
 G is the shear modulus of elasticity or modulus of rigidity.
 For a linear, isotropic, homogeneous material,

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 Uniformly Distributed Stresses

 Uniformly distributed stress distribution is often assumed for

pure tension, pure compression, or pure shear.
 For tension and compression,

 For direct shear (no bending present),

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 Normal Stresses for Beams in Bending

 Straight beam in positive bending

 x axis is neutral axis
 xz plane is neutral plane
 Neutral axis is coincident with the centroidal axis of the cross section

Fig. 3−13
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 Normal Stresses for Beams in Bending

 Bending stress varies linearly with distance from neutral axis, y

 I is the second-area moment about the z axis

Fig. 3−14 Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Normal Stresses for Beams in Bending

 Maximum bending stress is where y is greatest.

 c is the magnitude of the greatest y

 Z = I/c is the section modulus

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 Assumptions for Normal Bending Stress

 Pure bending (though effects of axial, torsional, and shear loads

are often assumed to have minimal effect on bending stress)

 Material is isotropic and homogeneous

 Material obeys Hooke’s law

 Beam is initially straight with constant cross section

 Beam has axis of symmetry in the plane of bending

 Proportions are such that failure is by bending rather than

crushing, wrinkling, or sidewise buckling

 Plane cross sections remain plane during bending

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 Example 3-5

Dimensions in mm
Fig. 3−15 Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design
Example 3-5

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Example 3-5

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Normal Stresses for Beams in Bending
Example 3-5

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Example 3-5

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 Two-Plane Bending

 Consider bending in both xy and xz planes

 Cross sections with one or two planes of symmetry only

 For solid circular cross section, the maximum bending stress is

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 Example 3-6
As shown in Fig. 3–16a, beam OC is loaded in the xy plane by a uniform load of
9 kN/m, and in the xz plane by a concentrated force of 0.4 kN at end C. The
beam is 0.2 m long.

(a) For the cross section shown determine the maximum tensile and compressive
bending stresses and where they act.
(b) If the cross section was a solid circular rod of diameter, d = 30 mm, determine
the magnitude of the maximum bending stress. Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design
 Example 3-6
Solution
(a) The reactions at O and the bending-moment diagrams in the xy and xz planes
are shown in Figs. 3–16b and c, respectively. The maximum moments in both planes
occur at O where

The second moments of area in both planes are

The maximum tensile stress occurs at point A, shown in Fig. 3–16a, where the
maximum tensile stress is due to both moments. At A, yA = 0.02 m and zA = 0.01 m.
Thus, from Eq. (3–27)

Answer

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 Example 3-6

The maximum compressive bending stress occurs at point B where, yB = −0.02 m

and zB = −0.01 m. Thus

Answer

(b) For a solid circular cross section of diameter, d = 30 mm, the maximum bending
stress at end O is given by Eq. (3–28) as

Answer

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 Stress Concentration

 Any discontinuity in a machine part

alters the stress distribution in the
neighborhood of the discontinuity

 Stress concentrations can arise from

some irregularity not inherent in the
member, such as tool marks, holes,
notches, grooves, or threads.

 A theoretical, or geometric, stress-

concentration factor Kt or Kts is used to
relate the actual maximum stress at the
discontinuity to the nominal stress.

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 Stress Concentration

The factors are defined by the equations

where Kt is used for normal stresses and Kts for shear stresses.

 The nominal stress σ0 or τ0 is the stress

calculated by using the elementary
stress equations and the net area, or net
cross section.

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 Theoretical Stress Concentration Factor
 Graphs available for standard configurations
 An example is shown in Fig. A-15–1 and 2, that of a thin plate loaded in tension
where the plate contains a centrally located hole.

 Note the trend for higher Kt at

sharper discontinuity radius,
and at greater disruption

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Theoretical Stress Concentration Factor

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Theoretical Stress Concentration Factor

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 Stress Concentration for Static and Ductile Conditions
 In static loading, stress-concentration factors are applied as follows.

• In ductile materials (f ≥ 0.05), the stress-concentration factor is not usually

applied to predict the critical stress, because plastic strain in the region of the
stress is localized and has a strengthening effect.

• In brittle materials (f < 0.05), the geometric stress concentration factor Kt is
applied to the nominal stress before comparing it with strength. Gray cast iron
has so many inherent stress raisers that the stress raisers introduced by the
designer have only a modest (but additive) effect.

 With static loads and ductile materials

• Cold working is localized
• Overall part does not see damage unless ultimate strength is exceeded
• Stress concentration effect is commonly ignored for static loads on ductile
materials

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 Techniques to Reduce Stress Concentration
 Techniques for reducing stress concentration at a shoulder supporting
a bearing with a sharp radius.

(a) Large radius undercut into the shoulder.

(b) Large radius relief groove into the back

of the shoulder.

(c) Large radius relief groove into the small

diameter.

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 Example 3-13

The 2-mm-thick bar shown in Fig. 3–30 is loaded axially with a constant
force of 10 kN. The bar material has been heat treated and quenched to raise
its strength, but as a consequence it has lost most of its ductility. It is desired
to drill a hole through the center of the 40-mm face of the plate to allow a
cable to pass through it. A 4-mm hole is sufficient for the cable to fit, but an
8-mm drill is readily available. Will a crack be more likely to initiate at the
larger hole, the smaller hole, or at the fillet?

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 Example 3-13

Solution
Since the material is brittle, the effect of stress concentrations near the
discontinuities must be considered. Dealing with the hole first, for a 4-mm hole,
the nominal stress is

𝐹 𝐹 10 000
𝜎𝑜 = = = = 139 MPa
𝐴 𝑤−𝑑 𝑡 40−4 2

The theoretical stress concentration factor, from Fig. A–15–1, with d/w
4/40 = 0.1, is Kt 2.7. The maximum stress is
Answer σmax = Ktσ0 = 2.7(139) = 380 MPa

Similarly, for an 8-mm hole,

𝐹 𝐹 10 000
𝜎𝑜 = 𝐴 = 𝑤−𝑑 𝑡
= 40−8 2
= 156 MPa

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 Example 3-13

With d/w = 8/40 = 0.2, then Kt = 2.5, and the maximum stress is

Answer σmax = Ktσ0 = 2.5(156) = 390 MPa

Though the stress concentration is higher with the 4-mm hole, in this case the
increased nominal stress with the 8-mm hole has more effect on the maximum
stress.
For the fillet,
𝐹 10 000
𝜎𝑜 = = = 147 MPa
𝐴 32 2
From Table A–15–5, D/d = 40/34 = 1.18, and r/d = 1/34 = 0.026. Then Kt = 2.5.
Answer σmax = Ktσ0 = 2.5(147) = 368 MPa

 The crack will most likely occur with the 8-mm hole, next likely would be
the 4-mm hole, and least likely at the fillet.

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