Section A (25 Marks) - Candidates Answer One Compulsory Question Made Up of Four Parts: (A), (B), (C)

Pakistan Studies (2059/1) Booklet # 01
Paper 1-The history and Culture of Pakistan 2059/1, 1 Hour 30 minutes
Section A (25 marks) – candidates answer one compulsory question made up of four parts: (a), (b), (c),
and (d), which are linked by a common theme. Parts (a) and (b) are source-based questions using
historical sources, text or pictures/ graphic. Candidates use and interpret each source in answering the
questions.
Section B (50 marks) – candidates answer two questions from a choice of four.
Each question has three parts:
• One part testing knowledge (4 marks) A factual answer of no more than one short paragraph is
required.
• One part testing knowledge and understanding includes selecting relevant and appropriate
information (7 marks) Answers require at least two paragraphs of writing.
• One part testing knowledge, understanding and analytical and evaluative ability (14 marks)
This includes the ability to synthesize information, the appropriate use of selected relevant examples
and the ability to compare and contrast. This question should be answered in an essay, in continuous
prose of approximately two pages of writing, not in note form.
Total 75 marks.Externally assessed.
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Cultural and historical background to the Pakistan Movement
Reformers
SHAH WALIULLAH (1703-62)

Birth&Education: -
Qutub-ud-Din popularly known as Shah WaliUllah was born in Delhi in 1703. He belonged to a respected
family. His father Shah Abdul Rahim founded Madrassa Rahimya and also helped to compiled Fatawa-I-
Alamgiri a book of Islamic legal text under the direct supervision of Emperor AuragzebAlamgir. Shah
Walliullah received his education from Madrassa Rahimya and also taught there for twelve years. In 1724 he
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went to Arabia, he was greatly influenced by the teaching of Abu Tahir bin Ibrahim a well-known scholar of his
time. He returned to Delhi in 1732.
Political & Social Conditions of India during Shah Waliullah’s Time: -
The social & political condition of India during Shah Waliullah’s time was extremely bad there was political
instability & insecurity of life, property & honor were not secure as there were a number of disruptive forces at
work in the Muslim society. Disintegration of the Mughal Empire had set in & the Muslims were split up among
themselves. Taking advantage of this situation of the division of the Indian Muslims the neighboring non-
Muslim communities like the Marathas, jats& skins were now threatening to overwhelm Dehli& finish the once
mighty mughal Empire. Ignorance about Quran and sunnah. B/C Hindus and Muslim live together.
Social Conditions: -
As far as the social condition of the Indian Muslims was concerned, they were divided among
different religious groups & there was a constant trouble between the Shia & Sunni sects, which was a
serious threat to Muslim society. More over after the death of Aurangzeb the Mughal Empire began to
crack and crumble because of the incapable successors. In 1793 Nadir Shah attacked Delhi. The result
of this plunder was that the Muslims suffered the most, the infidels gained strength & as the attack has
weakened the power to Delhi the neighboring non-Muslim attacked one by one. After Nadir Shah’s
attack, Delhi was attacked, by Jats, who not only plundered Delhi but took away whatever they could
lay their hands on. After sometime the Marathas & Sikhs also attacked Delhi & thus the conditions of
Muslims in Delhi became worse Loss of power also caused economic suppression, sectarian
differences and social degradation among the Muslims. Shah WaliUllah appeared in his crucial period
& exerted to make the Islamic regima independent of all these props. His services in the religious,
political & economic fields for the above cause are discussed below:
Educational Services: -
Shah Waliullah believed that many of the problems Muslims faced was due to their ignorance about
islam& the Holy Quran. He felt that an emphasis on Quranic teachings would not only improve their
knowledge, but it would also reduce the sectarian differences & create a feeling of unity. Shah
WaliUllah worked hard to ensure that he was a role model for other Muslims His deep understanding
of the Holy Quran, Hadith, Fiqah and Tasawuf made him highly knowledgeable scholar at an early age.
As Arabic was not widely understood by the Indian Muslims, thus the average Muslims derived his
knowledge from the teaching of Muslim Jurists.
Translation of Holy Quran Shah WaliUllah recognized that the principles of Islam could not be
followed properly unless the Holy Quran itself was understood. As the Indian Muslims did not
understand the Holy Quran in Arabic since it was not their language thus Shah Waliullah translated the
Holy Quran into Persian, which was the main language of the Indian Muslims of that time. The Ulema
criticized Shah WaliUllah, but his work proved very popular Later his two sons, Shah Abdul Qadir and
Shah Rafi translated the Holy Quran into Urdu, which meant that many more people could study it.
Hijatul-Balighah in this book, Shah Waliullah discussed at length the principle & fundamentals of
Islam. In this he explained the methods of changing the Muslim society into a real Muslim society. He
advises the Indian Muslims to act upon the teachings of Holy Quran & asked them to forget their
differences & unite.
Izalat-al-Akhfa is another renowned book of Shah Waliullah in which he has written the explanation of
the Holy Quran. Shah Waliullah wrote extensively on hadis&Fiqah. He altogether wrote 51 books, out of
which 23 are in Arabic & 28 are in Persian.
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End of the Shia-Sunni Rivalry: Shah Waliullah very firmly rejected the belief of some Sunnis that the
Shias were not Muslims. He tried to bridge this difference opinion by writing an account of the first four
Khalifas of Islam in a way that should acceptable to both the sects.
His Political Services: -
The political conditions of the Mughal Empire were in a bad state. The Mughal rulers had become lazy &
ease loving & the officers had become totally corrupt.
His Letters to the Kings &Nawabs For the Protection Of Indian Muslims:
The Marhatas were a permanent threat for the Mughals. They had killed many Muslims
& had destroyed their lands & fields. The Muslim Kings, Nawabs& Knights were leading lives of ease &
did not care for their people. The Mughal rule was shaking & was on the verge of decline. Shah
Waliullah wanted to save the Muslims from these loot & plunder. He wanted that the Muslims should
lead peaceful lives & for this purpose he wrote letters to the kings &Nawabs but in vain.
His invitation to Ahmed Shah Abduli to Attack Indian:

when his efforts of writing to the Muslim kings &Nawab resulted in nothing their finally.
Shah Waliullah invited Ahmed Shah Abdali to attack India. In his letter Shah Waliullah encouraged
Ahmed Shah & pleased him to launch an attack, as it was the only way left to save the Muslims of India.
In his letter to Ahmed Shah, he explained the geographical situation of India & the economic condition of
the people & also the military strength of the enemies. Due to his effort, Ahmed Shah Abdali the ruler of
Kabul combined his forces with Najib-ud-Dullah the leader of Rohillas& attacked India in 1761. This
battle, which was also known as 3 Battle of Panipat. Ahmed Shah Abdali defeated the Marhatas&
crushed their power. But due to the lazy & ease-loving attitude of the Mughal rulers, the Muslims could
not avail this golden opportunity of the conditions created by Shah Waliullah. However he was able to
arouse the consciousness of the Muslims of India.
His Economic Services: -

Shah Waliullah was very concerned about the economic conditions of the Indian Muslims.
He requested the workers to work for more hours & spend less. He laid great stress on Adi&Tawazen
that is Justice & Equilibrium. He stressed labour; peasants & craftsmen should be justly rewarded. He
also urged the traders & businessmen to adopt a fair system of trading & making money.
His Death: -
Shah Waliullah was laid to rest in 1762, happy to saw the defeats of the Marhatas by Ahmed
Shah Abdali but disappointed that Ahmed Shah did not stay back in India. His sons & followers ably
continued his work. Under his successors the Madrassa-I-Rahimya also continued to flourish
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SYED AHMED SHAHEED BARAILVI (1786-1831)
Syed Ahmed’s Birth & Education: -
Syed Ahmed was born near Lucknow in the town of Rae Bareli. He was faithful following of Shah Abdul
Aziz. In 1806 he enrolled in Madrassa of Shah Waliullah (Madrassa-I-Rahimiya). Hs graduated from
Madrassa & joined a Pathan military force led by Amir Khan. He learnt about European weaponry
including use of Artillery. In 1821 he went for Haji & returned to Deihi in 1823 with a clear vision of
Jihad He soon founded the “Jihad Movement” which was aimed at nothing less than the rejuvenation &
restoration of Muslim power.
Syed Ahmed’s Aim & Objectives as A Muslim: -

The purpose of Syed Ahmed’s life & struggle was not only confined to the spread of islam
by preaching & persuasions but he believed in taking practical steps for this purpose. The main purpose
before Syed Ahmed & his followers was the establishment of a state, which was based on the Islamic
principles. His approach to freedom was based on the armed struggle & confrontation against the foreign
(British) & non-Muslim forces.
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Syed Ahmed’s Jihad Movement: -

Born on Azah-Born on Friday Players. Syed Ahmed ShaheedBarailvi Started his Jihad
Movement” from Punjab & N.W.F.P. The Punjab was under sikh ruler Ranjit Singh who had imposed tax
on beard, banned “Azaan” & other religious activities of the Muslims. The Punjab also seemed a logical
location from which to start a Jihad as it was the only area in the subcontinent not under muslim or
British control.
In addition, because the Afghan &Pathan tribes would tribes would be ready to assist them, there was no
danger of being surrounded on both sides by hostile forces. Syed ahmed visited towns around the Punjab
& the united provinces to whip up support & was joined by notable Muslim support (shah ismailshaheed,
grand son of shah waliullah. The initial force of a few hundred men led by syedahmed could not reach
the area directly from Delhi for obvious reasons & so had to proceed through the long & difficult route
through rajashan, sindh&Balochistan until they reached Kabul. A part from the obvious need to avoid the
sikh forces at this stage. Syed ahmed also collected support & troops along the way.
In 1826 he established his headquater to naushera& sent a massage to ranjitsingheithere accept islam or
get ready for war. Ranitsingh used degrading remarks against islam& the muslims. The 1 battle against
Sikhs was fought in 1826 in okara& 2 battle at Hazro both won by the muslims. The end of 1830
captured Peshawar by the forces of jihad. This success encouraged other pathan tribes to join syedahmed
jihad movement & the number of people reached up to 80,000. SASB wanted a jihad to restore the
muslim faith. The Punjab was under the sikh and Punjabi muslims found it difficult to plactice their
religion and were humiliated by the Sikhs.
Causes of Failure of Jihad Movement:-
1. After the successes in the wars against Sikhs, Ranjit Singh created disruption in the camp of the
Mujahideen through his agents who called the reforms of Syed Ahmed as UnIslamic.A conspiracy was
hatched against, the movement & an attempt was made on the life of Syed Ahmed by poisoning him,
which he survived. SardarYar Muhammad was bribed to betray to Syed Ahmed & joined the Sikhs
against Mujahideen.Some misunderstanding arose between the pathans& the Mujahideen& the Pathans
now deserted the Movement.
2. Syed Ahmed was still hopeful & he now shifted his headquarters to Balakot. He met the Sikhs again
in 1831 at Balakot. A serve & courageous battle took place where Syed Ahmed, Shah Ismail & many of
the Mujahideen lost their lives.
3. Lack of cooperation between the followers of Syed Ahmed & local Pathan tribes.
4. Lack of proper funds to provide for different expenses of the movement.
5. Poor war equipment.
6. Lack of training.
7
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HAJI SHARIATULLAH (1781-1840)

Introduction:-
Ever since the loss of independence, the Muslims of India were not only hovering in the
domain of uncertainly but also many un-Islamic ideas were taking place in the minds of Muslims. It
was at that time that some Muslim thinkers through that unless the Muslim were brought back to the
teachings of the Quran &Hadis, would not be possible to save Muslims from their ruin. This shows that
growth or Religion &national Movements in the subcontinent was not a spontaneous act. All these
movements started not only in one part of Indo-Pakistan but throughout the country. One of the
movements started by Haji Shariatullah in Bengal was Faraizi Movement’.
Haji ShariatUllah’s Birth & Education: -
Haji Shariatullah was born in the district of Faridpur in the year 1781. After receiving his early education
in his village he got an opportunity to perform Haji at the age of 18 He stayed there in Hejaz for 20 years
& studied religion & Arabic. He returned to Bengal in 1806. During his stay in Arabia he was greatly
impressed by doctrines of sheikh Mohammad Abdul Wahab who had intiated the Wahabi Movement in
Arabia.
Conditions Of The Muslims In Bengal & Reasons Of Starting The Faraizi Movement By Haji
Shariatullah: -
When Haji Shariatullah came back to Bengal from Arabia, he was in much pained to see the miserable
conditions of the Bengal Muslims. The British traders & the Hindu Zamindars were giving them a rough
treatment. The Muslims there had also gone far away from the paths of the true religions Islam being
influenced by the Hindus; they were sunk in various superstitions. Haji Shariatullah was deeply moved
by these prevailing conditions of the Muslims of Bengal & decided to improve it. Thus he started the
Faraizi Movement among the Muslims.
The Faraizi Movement: -

Haji Shariatullah started his Faraizi Movement, The Faraizi Movement emphasized on
performing of Faraiz, which were the religious duties, imposed by Allah. He also asked his Muslim
brothers to give up all the un-Islamic practices. His followers thus came to be known as Faraizi’.
Furthermore Haji Shariaullah utterly disliked the expressions of Pir (Master) &Murid (Disciple) &
desired them to be replaced with the title of Ustad (Teacher) &Shagird (Student). He believed that these
titles signified a complete submission by relationship between Ustad&Shagird.
Adopting Tauba: -
Haji shariatullah urged from his followers to adopt ‘Tauba’ as a manifestation of repentance for
all the past sins & a pledge to lead a righteous &God-fearing life in future. His followers as already
mentioned were known as Faraizi. His movement brought the Muslim peasants together against the cruel
treatment by the Hindus Zamindars.
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Declaring India as Dar-ul-Harb:

-Haji Shariatullah declared India as Dar-ul-Harb (Lands of Infidels) where Eid& Friday prayers
could not be offered. The Movement of Haji Shariatullah was direct, Jihad against the religious
oppression & superstitions. It infused a new life among the Bengali Muslims & especially among the
peasants. With this movement his sowed the seed of independence in Bengal. He thus brought a
renaissance in the history of Bengal & Prepared the ground for his successors for future works.
Opposition of Hindu Zamindars against Haji Shariatullah: -

Haji Sahib was greatly opposed by the Hindus who were disturbed by the unity of the Muslim
peasants. They started harassing him by putting up false cases against him. Ultimately he was forced to
leave Dhaka. He thus returned to his birthplace in faridpur district & continued his religious preaching &
fighting against the non-islamic forces.
His Death: -
Haji Shariatullah breathed his last in the year 1840 & was succeeded by his son Dadu Main who
continued his father’s movement.
Describe the achievements of Haji Shariat Ullah in reviving Islam [4]
Dar-Ul-Harb – miserable condition of Muslims, had moved away from Islamic practices and so wanted
them to observe them again – faraiz. He wanted to restore pride of Muslims, remove Hindu practices in
worship, emphasis on praying for past sins, promising to lead a righteous life in future, alarmed Hindus,
work carried on by son. Work carried on in East Bengal amongst Muslims who had been oppressed by
Hindus and British. Supported jihad.
What was the Faraizi Movement? [4]
Founded by Haji Shariat Ullah, to restore pride of Muslims, revive Islam, remove Hindu prac-tices in
worship, emphasis on praying for past sins, promising to lead a righteous life in future, alarmed Hindus,
work carried on by son.
Who was Ranjit Singh? [4]
Rannjit Singh annexed Punjab, Kashmir and most of Afghanistan. In Sindh he signed a treaty with
Great Britain in 1809. Great Britain worried about Russian expansion into Afghanistan, agreed with
Ranjit Singh, ruler of Punjab, that A should be independent. Wanted a pro Great Britain ruler there.
Ranjit Singh didn’t support Great Britain and they went ahead anyway but in 1841 Great Britain troops
were killed in Afghanistan. Great Britain decided to annex Sindh and later Punjab.
Who was Titu Mir? [4]
A disciple of Syed Ahmed, horrified by sufferings of Muslim farmers in West Bengal during 1830s,
organised a stand against zamindars, set up his own rule near Calcutta with small army, provoked
British and killed in battle 1831
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Why did Shah Wali Ullah have such a major influence on the revival of Islam in the subcontinent?
[7] (N2005/J2010/P1/1b)
LEVEL 3: Explains reasons [5–7]
Muslims had deteriorated into being a helpless and disorganized group of people and if they were to
regain their power then strong leadership was required. He believed they were ignorant about Islam and
the teachings of the Holy Quran. Therefore an emphasis on Quranic teachings would not only improve
their knowledge but produce a feeling of solidarity. He also believed that Muslims’ knowledge of Islam
was difficult to gain and so he felt that by translating the Holy Quran into Persian would enable more
people read it. Books written influenced the revival of Islam (examples).
(b) Why were there attempts to revive Islam in the sub-continent during the eighteenth and
early nineteenth centuries? [7] [N2007/June 2013]
LEVEL 3: Explains reasons

SWU believed that Muslims were ignorant about Islam and the teachings of the Holy Quran. Therefore
an emphasis on Quranic teachings would not only improve their knowledge but produce a feeling of
solidarity. He also believed that Muslims’ knowledge of Islam was difficult to gain and so he felt that
by translating the Holy Quran into Persian would enable more people read it. SAABS wanted a jihad
(Holy War) to restore the Muslim faith. The Punjab was under Sikh rule and the Punjabi Muslims
found it difficult to practice their religion and were humiliated by the Sikhs. HSU wanted to spread
Islam through the Faraizi Movement which insisted that Muslims should perform their faraiz (religious
obligations). This alarmed the Hindu landlords who were unhappy with the Muslim practices.
Was the work of Shah Wali Ullah the most important factor in the revival of Islam in the sub-
continent during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries? [14] Give reasons for your answer.
(N2006/P1/1c)
Was the work of Syed Ahmad Shaheed Barailvi the most important factor in the revival of Islam
in the sub-continent during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries? Give reasons for your
answer. [14] (J2008/P1/1c)
DidShahWaliUllahcontributemoretothespreadofIslamthananyoneelseinthesubcontinent before
1850? Explain your answer. [14] (N2009&N2004)
Did Haji Shariat Ullah contribute more to the spread of Islam than anyone else in the sub-
continent before 1850? Explain your answer. [14] (N2011/P1/2c)
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Marking Scheme
LEVEL 4:
Explains 2 or more factors (SASB to be included for max marks)
Syed Ahmed
SASB spread Islam through the Jihad Movement, which was to become an armed struggle to liberate
the Punjab and the NWF from Sikh rule largely because Muslims were banned from prayer and had
difficulties practising their religion.
Shah Walliullah
SWU felt that the Muslims faced many problems because of their ignorance about Islam and the Holy
Quran. He encouraged them to concentrate on Quranic teachings and helped them by translating the
Holy Quran into Persian which was the main language of the Muslims at that time. His books were
designed to spread the principles of Islam amongst the Muslims.
Haji Shariatullah
HSU spread Islam through the Faraizi Movement which insisted that Muslims should perform their
faraiz (religious obligations). This alarmed some Hindu landlords who were unhappy that working time
was bing lost. A huge group of followers grew which were called ‘Faraizis’.(9–13)
LEVEL 5:
As Level 4 – also produces a judgement or evaluation. (14)
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DECLINE OF MUGHAL EMPIRE
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Mughal Empire began to decline after attaining its highest point of success and stability. During this time,
the empire was under the leadership of Shah Jahan and his son, after a successful rule of Aurangzeb.
History records that the decline of Mughal Empire began towards the end of Aurangzeb’s rule. It is
important to note that there were numerous reasons that led to the fall of such a great dynasty in the
history of mankind. In this essay, we shall discuss major causes of the decline.
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Responsibility of Aurangzeb:
The first cause was Aurangzeb’s responsibility. He was largely responsible for the downfall of the
Mughal Empire. This happened even though those kings, who ruled before him, did a great job in
winning the loyalties of their subjects like the Hindus and the Rajputs. As a fanatic, Aurangzeb was
unable to tolerate those who were non-Muslims in his empire. He introduced oppressive laws like the
introduction of jazia and a total ban on celebration of Hindu festivals. Because of this animosity, he lost
the trust and friendship with the Rajputs. He executed Sikh guru and created widespread enmity with the
Marathas, forcing them to rebel against his leadership. He dismissed the Hindu Officials from state
service and allowed only those to continue who were prepared to embrace Islam. An order banning the
building of new Hindu Temples in areas directly under Mughal control was promulgated early in his
reign.
Additionally, Aurangzeb was also obsessed with the Deccan, which had detrimental effects on Mughal
army. As a staunch Sunni Muslim, he did not have room for the Shias, who also turned against him. The
nobles also developed rebellion against their king because he was mostly against their way of life,
including dancing, singing and drinking. These were common habits among most Muslim nobles, who
felt oppressed by the King. It is therefore evident that King Aurangzeb was responsible for the decline of
the Mughal Empire.
Wars of Succession
Besides the oppressive rule of Aurangzeb that, his successors also contributed to the fall of Mughal
Empire. For example, his successors turned out to be weak and incompetent to take control of the entire
empire. Most of them found pleasure in lavish lives without bothering the stability of the state. This
created weaknesses that led to the decline of the once strong and stable empire. This weakness from
successors took root because there was no law that defined the process of succession in the Mughal
Empire. Oftentimes, the death of a king resulted into wars among their sons before a king would sit on
the throne. They used nobles and royal family members to fight for power. Consequently, nobles were
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divided as they fought to safeguard their interests. This bred anarchy as nobles resorted to conspiracies,
making Mughal Empire weak and vulnerable to external attacks.
Weakness of the Nobility:
The Mughal nobles of earlier times formed a brave class of royal supporters. They were good fighters
and advisers. But degeneration gradually set in. The later Mughal nobility showed the worst vices of
court life. They became lazy and luxurious. Wealth and power changed their character for the worst.
Weakness of the Army:
Another cause of Mughal downfall was the deterioration and demoralization in the Mughal Army. The
abundance of riches of India, the use of wine and comforts had their evil effects on the Mughal Army and
nothing was done to stop the deterioration. The soldiers cared more for personal comforts and less for
winning battles. In the words of Irvine, "Excepting want of personal courage, every other faults in the list
of military vices may be attributed to the degenerate Mughals; indiscipline, want of cohesion, luxurious
habits, inactivity and commissariat and cumbrous equipment. Drill was unknown and a soldier's training
which he might undergo or as he liked, consisted in muscular exercise and a individual practice in the use
of the weapons with which he was armed.
Lavish Life Style
After Akbar, the following rulers distributed and threw this wealth with both hands. The office bearers
became leisure lovers. The son of Akbar (Jehangir) wasted this wealth in the construction of domes &
forts. After Jehangir, Noor Jehan also spent the wealth lavishly & indiscriminately.
Discontent grew and revenue from tax collection declined. Industrial Revolution started in the west,
development in education & new farm implements while in the east decline of Mughal rule was obvious.
After the death of Orang Zeb, his grand sonJehandar set on throne that took the lavish life to its height.
He made Lalkunwar his friend who with the help of his friends & relatives was bestowed upon the wealth
& properties having no limits. As a result of this lavish expenditure, the treasury became empty.
Financial Weakness
The conquering of Mughal during the Akbar period was vast and continuous due to which wealth and
treasures were unlimited & these areas were difficult to control. Too many officers were appointed in the
government; the expenditure of their salaries weakened the economy.
After the death of Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire faced financial bankruptcy. The beginning had already
been made in the time of Aurangzeb and after his death; the system of farming of taxes was resorted to.
Although the Government did not get much by this method, the people were ruined. They were taxed to
such an extent that they lost all incentive to production. Poor economy of Mughal Empire further
weighed heavily on its stability.
Weak Administration
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The huge empire was very difficult to administer. Decisions often had to be relayed over thousands of
miles. Obviously emperors could not know exactly what was happening in every part of empire. This is
one reason why Aurangzeb encouraged the use of mansabdars. With the weak control from the center,
the mansabadari system was not sufficiently supervised and administrative efficiency declined.
Another cause of Mughal downfall was the widespread corruption in the administration. The exaction of
official perquisites from the public by the officials and their sub-ordinates were universal and admitted
practice. Many officials from the highest to the lowest took bribes for doing undeserved favor. The
Mansabdari System degenerated in the time of Aurangzeb and his successors. There was corruption and
oppression on all sides.
External Invasions
The invasion on India by Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali gave a serious blow to the already
tottering Mughal Empire. The easy victory of Nadir Shah and the repeated invasions of Ahmad Shah
Abdali exposed to the world the military weakness of the Mughal state.
The invaders sacked Delhi and carried away with them huge booty. This affected adversely the prestige
of the Mughal Empire and the people lost all faith in the capacity of the Mughal Rulers to protect them
against foreign invaders. This also encouraged the Indians to assert their independence.
Rise of Marathas
Another problem for Mughal was the Marathas. They formed a Hindu empire in southern India and
were a constant source of difficulty for the Mughals. Aurangzeb spent 25 years trying to defeat
Marathan forces and after his death, they continued to take land from Mughals. In 1737 they defeated
the Mughal army and plundered Delhi. By the middle of 1th century the Marathas had replaced
Mughals as the most powerful force in India.
Arrival of British
The Mughal Empire was in serious decline at the end of eighteen century. What pushed it into the final
decline was the ambition of British. Since the time of Jehangir the English east India Company tried to
take advantage of the wealth by trade in India. The EIC was a private company but behind it was a
government of England. England has also faced Industrial revolution and its industries were producing
cheap manufactured goods that gave it a competitive advantage over markets around the world, with
the wealth created British could afford the military strength which Mughals could not match.
How far was Aurangzeb responsible for the decline of Mughal Empire? [7]
Aurangzeb was ambitious to be the ruler of entire India. He built up a massive army and launched
several military campaigns to expand his empire. He went north-west into Afghanistan, and drove
southwards to conquer Bijapur and Golconda states. Though he succeeded in expanding the empire, but
it was at enormous cost in lives and treasury.
Instead of political solution through negotiation, he always tried to suppress the rebellions by using
military force. A number of revolts rose against him throughout the empire - Rajputs, Jats, Sikhs,
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Satnamis, Marathas and Pathan tribes. These far-flung campaigns were extremely costly and almost
drained the Mughal treasury.
To sustain long costly wars, Aurangzeb obviously needed money for his armies and so he levied heavy
taxes on the people including the Jizya tax on non-Muslims. This caused immense displeasure in the
people and resulted in political instability in the empire.
According to some historians, his religious policies were intolerant towards non-Muslims. A number of
temples were destroyed and construction of new ones was forbidden, and he tried to impose Islamic
laws on non-Muslims which caused an angry reaction in them.
However, the kingdom survived for 150 years after Aurangzeb's death. There were a number of other
reasons that lead to the disintegration of the empire including weak successors, foreign invasions, and
vastness of the empire, fratricidal wars and final blow from the British. So Aurangzeb solely cannot be
held responsible for the collapse of the Mughal Empire.
Q Explain why the Mughal Empire declined following the reign of Aurangzeb. [7] (J2006/P1/1b)
Why Aurangzeb’s successors are blamed for the decline of Mughal Empire? [7]
LEVEL 3: Explains reasons:
Aurangzeb’s successors became lazy, weak and corrupt and left the administration to their ministers
who often put their own interests first. There was no law of succession. Instead there was usually a
struggle for succession which ended in war. Succession often depended upon the ability of the
candidates and the support they could get. Fighting wars became expensive and the military was
stretched and suffered much inefficiency. The successors failed to run the Empire effectively becoming
very extravagant and so suffered from financial inefficiencies. The vastness of the Empire made it hard
to defend and as such suffered several invasions. Eventually the British overran the Empire and were
superior in such areas as military might.
Q. ‘Aurangzeb’s successors failed to live up to his courageous and determined personality.’ Was
this the most important reason for the decline of the Mughal Empire? Give reasons for your
answer. [14] (N2003/P1/1c)
Q‘The spread of Marathan power was the main reason for the decline of the Mughal Empire.’
Do you agree or disagree? Give reasons for your answer. [14] (J2011/P1/1c)
Were the invasions by the Persians and Afghans the main reason for the decline of the Mughal
Empire? Explain your answer [14] (N2015)
The arrival of British in India was the main reason for the decline of the Mughal Empire?
Explain your answer [14]
LEVEL 4: Explains more than one reason including Marathan power [9–13]
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Marking Scheme: Explains more than one reason including Marathan power. Also produces a
judgement or evaluation.
There were a number of reasons for the Empire’s decline. The Marathas were skilful Hindu guerrilla
fighters who defeated a Mughal army in 1737 and took control of Delhi and eastwards towards Bengal.
By 1760 they were the most powerful people in India and nothing could the Mughals do to stop it.
However, there were other reasons for the decline. Auranzeb had an intolerant attitude to non-Muslims.
He introduced a tax on non-Muslims called the Jizya. He destroyed Hindu temples and tried to ban
Hindu practices. Taxation was high as he had to pay for the cost of military campaigns such as the
Deccan Wars and he spent highly on luxurious palaces. Because of these he became an unpopular rule.
Aurangzeb’s successors became lazy, weak and corrupt and left the administration to their ministers
who often put their own interests first. There was no law of succession. Instead there was usually a
struggle for succession which ended in war. Fighting wars became expensive and the military was
stretched and suffered much inefficiency. The successors failed to run the Empire effectively becoming
very extravagant and so suffered from financial inefficiencies.
After his death Mughal Emperors were renowned for living an extravagant lifestyle and spending
money with little thought to the effect it had on the economy of the Empire. This led to inefficiencies
and a lack of interest in the running of the Empire.
The invasion on India by Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali gave a serious blow to the already
tottering Mughal Empire. The easy victory of Nadir Shah and the repeated invasions of Ahmad Shah
Abdali exposed to the world the military weakness of the Mughal state.
The invaders sacked Delhi and carried away with them huge booty. This affected adversely the prestige
of the Mughal Empire
The British expansion into the sub- continent was rapid and their forces and equipment was no match
for the Mughals, who fell into rapid decline as a result.
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THE EAST INDIA COMPANY & BRITISH

COLONIAL RULE IN NORTHERN & NW INDIA
The English had always desired to trade with India & their main interest were ‘Spices and Christians’,
but the English were not the 1st Europeans to do trade with India in 1498 Portuguese explorer Vasco de
Gamma visited India and established a base in Goa in 1510. In 1600, Queen ElizabthI, granted a charter
to British East India Company, giving it a monopoly for all British trade east of Africa. The 1 serious
effort made by the British for trade with India was made in 1608 through Captain Hawkins who
requested the Mughal Emperor Jehangir to set up a factory in Surat. The request was turned down
(pressure by the Portuguese). In 1612 another request was made through Sir Thomas Roe, which was
accepted by khurram (Future Shah Jehan) and thus the company setup its factory at Surat.
In 1615 British Company had a minor battle with Portuguese to remove them from India. In 1640 the
English built fort (head office) at Madras. In 1681 they got a charter to keep warships, soldiers and
weapons for the defense of their factories. In 1674 they got a charter to keep warships, soldiers and
weapons for the defense of their factories. In 1674 the British moved their headquarters to Bombay and
founded the town of Calcutta in 1690.
Aurangzeb suspected the East India Company of issuing their own coins and avoiding taxes. In
1691 Aurangzeb fought with the British and defeated them and they have to pay a huge fine, if they
wanted to trade in India. After acQuiring all the important coastal strategic bases in India the company
made some changes in their policies and started to get involved in the administration of India. In 1751 a
brief war broke out between British and France, which was won by British.
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Battle of Plassey 1757:

The province of Bengal was one of the largest and the richest province of India. It was also economically
very important due to its natural resources and trade. A fierce battle took place at Plassey in 1757 in
which due to the treachery of Mir Jaffer the Nawab of Bengal Sirajudalla was defeated. The company
then appointed Mir Jaffer as the new Nawab of Bengal as promised.
Battle of Buxar 1764:
In 1764 the victory at Battle of Buxar meant that EIC also received trading rights from Nawab of Oudh
as well as new territory. The EIC had been established to gain as much profit as possible but its greed
after battle of Buxar embarrassed the British government. The company made huge profit from its
monopoly of the trade in Bengal and company merchants become accustomed to receiving personal
‘gifts’, which increased their wealth, whilst they made huge profits, the local people were exploited and
many died in a serious famine, which hit Bengal.
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Act of Parliament 1773:
The British government was forced to act to try to stop this misgovernment. In 1773 it passed an Act of
Parliament, which require the EIC to provide good government to stop this anarchy. Then in 1784 the
British government passed the India Act (Pitt Act) and took direct control of the Indian possessions. It
appointed a Governor-General, who would control of the three presidencies (Bombay, Madras and
Calcutta). There would also be Provincial governor and a C-in-C of the armed force. The EIC continued
to trade, but lost most of its administrative powers. In 1784 the first British Governor General of India,
warren Hastings, signed a treaty ending the First Maratha war between the British and Marathas. This
gave the British the opportunity to extend their influence elsewhere.
Anglo-Marathan War
Hastings waged wars against the Marathas and Mysore. The important war fought during the Governor-
Generalship of Warren Hastings was the First Anglo-Maratha war. Initially the British army met with
humiliating defeats. But Warren Hastings vigorously pursued the war which came to an end with the
Treaty of Salbai. This treaty enhanced the power and prestige of the British in India.
Capturing of Maysore:
The Second Anglo-Mysore war was fought during Warren Hastings’s tenure. After the first Anglo-
Mysore war the treaty of Madras was signed under which it was agreed that the Company and Mysore
ruler Hyder Ali would help each other in case a third party invaded any one of them. However, when the
Marathas attacked the Mysore, the British did not help. Hyder Ali was further irritated when British
occupied Mahe and Guntur. So he made alliance with the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad and
declared war against the British. In the midst of the war Hyder Ali died and his son Tipu Sultan
continued the war. The Treaty of Mangalore brought an end to the war. The treaty established friendly
relation between the British and Mysore.
The Third Anglo-Mysore war was fought during his tenure against Tipu Sultan as he refused to sign the
subsidiary alliance. The British defeated Tipu and signed the Treaty of Seringapatam. By this treaty half
of the dominion of Tipu was taken away and divided among the British, the Marathas and the Nizam.
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The next large scale expansion of British rule in India occurred during the Governor Generalship of Lord
Wellesley who came to India in 1798. By 1797 the two strong Indian powers, Mysore and the Marathas
had declined in power. Political conditions in India were favorable for expansion. To achieve his political
aims Wellesley relied on three methods-the system of Subsidiary Alliance, outright war and the
assumption of the territories of previously subordinate rulers.
Under Subsidiary Alliance system, the rulers of the allying Indian states were compelled to accept a
British force within their territory and to pay a subsidy for its maintenance. This alliance also provided
that the Indian ruler would agree to the posting of a British Resident to his court, would not employ any
European in his service without the approval of the British and would not negotiate with any other Indian
rulers without consulting the Governor General. Lord Wellesley tried to force this Subsidiary Alliance on
Tipu Sultan of Mysore, who never accepted it.
Now Wellesley turned his attention to the Marathas. The next important expansion took place during the
Governor-Generalship of Lord Hastings. The Maratha chiefs made a desperate last attempt to regain their
independence and old prestige in 1817 under the leadership of the Peshwa. However Lord Hastings
struck back with characteristic vigor. His territories were annexed to the Bombay Presidency. Holkar and
Bhonsle accepted Subsidiary Alliance. The Rajputana states, which had been dominated for several
decades by Sindhia and Holkar, now accepted British supremacy.
Thus by 1818 the entire Indian sub-continent except the Punjab and Sindh had been brought
under British control.
The British completed the task of conquering the whole of India from 1818 to 1857. Sindh and Punjab
were conquered and Oudh, the Central Province and a large number of other petty states were also
annexed.
Annexation of Sindh and Punjab
The conquest of Sindh occurred due to growing Anglo-Russian rivalry in Europe and Asia and the
consequent British fear that Russia might attack India through Afghanistan or Persia. The commercial
possibilities of the river Sindh also attracted them. The road and rivers of Sindh were opened to British
trade by a treaty in 1832. The amirs were made to sign a Subsidiary Treaty in 1839. Finally in 1843
Sindh was annexed after a brief campaign by Sir Charles Napier.
The most important tool of Dalhousie’s policy was the Doctrine of Lapse. Under this doctrine when the
ruler of a protected state died without a natural heir, his state was not to pass to an adopted heir as
sanctioned by the age-old tradition of the country. Instead, it was to be annexed to British India, unless
the adoption had been clearly approved earlier by the British authorities. Many states, including Satara,
Nagpur and Jhansi were annexed by applying this doctrine.
The death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in June 1839 was followed by political instability in the Punjab.
Ultimately power fell into the hands of the brave but undisciplined army. This gave the British an
opportunity to try their luck in Punjab. On December 13, 1845 war was declared against the Sikhs. The
Sikhs fought with exemplary courage, but they were defeated and had to sign the humiliating treaty of
Lahore in March 1846. Later in December, another treaty was signed. This treaty made the British
Resident at Lahore the real ruler of Punjab and the British were permitted to station their troops in any
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part of the state. But the British officials wanted to impose direct British rule over Punjab. In 1848
Punjab witnessed a number of revolts. The British defeated the Punjabis and Punjab was annexed to the
British Empire.
What was the East India Company? [4] (J2010/P1/1a)
A trading company, Charter granted in 1600 by Queen Elizabeth I, landed at Surat in 1608, permission to
trade in 1612, headQuarters moved to Bombay in 1664. Grew in power during 18th Century.
Who was Tipu Sultan [4]
Son of Haider Ali of Mysore, both of whom resisted British rule. Tipu received support from
the French and the British were concerned about this. He was known as the Tiger of Mysore
and ruled there from 1782 to 1799.
He won important victories against the British in the Second Anglo-Mysore War, and negotiated the
1784 Treaty of Mangalore with them after his father died the previous year.His treatment of his
conquered non-Muslim subjects and British prisoners of war is controversial. He remained an enemy of
the British, bringing them into renewed conflict with an attack on Travancore in 1789. In the Third
Anglo-Mysore War, Tipu was forced into a humiliating treaty, losing a number of previously
conquered territories, including Malabar and Mangalore. In the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, the
combined forces of the British and the Nizam of Hyderabad defeated Tipu and he was killed on 4 May
1799, while defending his fort of Srirangapatna.
Who was Robert Clive? [4]
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Became a general in EIC armed forces in India, defeated the French, Plassey 1757 showed qualities as
a soldier and leader by defeating Nawab of Bengal. Made Governor of Bengal and enabled British
supremacy there, increased power of merchants and established Oudh as a buffer state between Bengal
and the Marathas. Introduced a number of reforms – dual system government, civil reforms, abolition
of private trade system, Society of Trade, military reforms etc. Made Lord Clive, accused ‘plundering
India’ but found not guilty. Became addicted to opium and in 1773 committed suicide.
Q Why was Britain so successful in expanding its control of increasing parts of the sub-continent
between 1750 and 1850? [7]
[Military Superiority] The British were successful in gaining control over India because of their
military superiority. They fought a series of bloody wars and defeated a number of strong local rulers like
Siraj-ud-Daulah in the battle of Plassy, Tipu Sultan in the battle of Maysure, the Marathas and the Sikhs.
They had latest warfare tools, efficient communication for quick deployment of troops and sound
financial resources for fighting costly wars in the far-flung areas. They had well-trained army and good
planners of war strategies. They were also expert in bribing and conspiring with the key persons like Mir
Jafar and Mir Sadiq with the help of whom they defeated their strong rivals in the battlefields.
[Dealing Skills] The British were very skilled diplomatic experts. They gained the support of a number
of local rulers. They were shrewd in purchasing the loyalties of influential Indians. They signed
“subsidiary alliances” with local rulers under which the rulers were granted protection by the British
troops. In return, they paid the salaries of the soldiers and provided residence to a British advisor. These
were lucrative deals and control on the affairs!
[Indian Disunity] Indians were not united as a single nation. They were divided along religious,
linguistic and ethnic lines. Local rulers were interested only to their own territories. Some princely states
even supplied troops to the British when they were fighting against their countrymen. It was very easy for
the strong British army to conquer them one after the other. Majority of the well-off Indians stayed away
from the wars. They were making profits by trading with the English merchants. They were also happy
with the infrastructure the British were developing including schools, hospitals, roads, railway networks
and irrigation systems.
[Doctrine of Lapse] The doctrine of lapse, introduced in 1852, was a land-grabbing law. If the ruler of a
princely state would pass away without having a direct heir, his kingdom would become property of the
British. A number of states were seized under this law.
Q Why the East India Company did become involved in the Indian sub-continent during the
seventeenth century? [7] (N2010/P1/1b)
Marking Scheme:
Level 3: Explains reasons:
[Economic Reasons] There was enormous wealth in the subcontinent. Trade, profit and power were the
real motives that East India Company (EIC) was looking at. Indian goods including spices, silk, yarn,
cloth, cotton and goods of metalworkers were very demanding in the European markets. British factories
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needed raw materials while British merchants needed big markets like India to sell their industrial
products. Cotton was the main raw material for the textile industries in Britain. EIC made huge profits
and the company flourished very rapidly. By 1620, the company operated about 40 ships for trade with
India. The company was having a very profitable future in trade with India. Indian soldiers at very cheap
wages were available to protect their trade and profits.
[Political Reasons] East India Company had no political motives at first. It came to India primarily for
trade. But the decline of Mughal Empire and the demolition of Maratha Power in 1761 by Ahmad Shah
Abdali prepared the gateway for the British to take over India. Lack of a strong central government
attracted the British attention for interfering with Indian political affairs. By that time, they had already
got the skills of dealing with Indian rulers and merchants. Now they started thinking about establishing
British Raj in the subcontinent.
[Regional Influence] India had strategic position on the globe. It would give regional supremacy to the
British and Royal Navy. They would control the sea routes and hence trade with the East. The company
also wanted to westernize the Indians. The British believed that western culture is superior and must be
spread in the world. They thought themselves the most civilized nation of the world.
Q Why did the British Government take control of the affairs of the East India Company in the
early nineteenth century? [7] (J2004/P1/1b)
LEVEL 3: Explain reasons

The volume of trade became so significant that the British government felt it was too valuable an asset
to leave in the hands of a private company even though the EIC was now holding its possessions in
trust for them. Also the fear of Russian expansion in Central Asia worried the government and so
Britain decided to shape its foreign policy by further expansion towards Afghanistan to counter this
threat. As Britain was becoming more involved prestige began to be at stake and further expansion
became inevitable especially after the defeat by the Afghans at Kabul.
(c) Was the Industrial Revolution in Britain the most important reason why the British were
able to take control of India between 1750 and 1850? Explain your answer. [14] Oct/Nov 2013
LEVEL 4: Explains the Industrial Revolution and other reasons [9–13]
The Industrial Revolution provided vast wealth ad profit but depended upon the import of raw
materials. Raw cotton was imported from India and no imports of finished cotton goods were allowed.
This had a terrible effect on the cotton industry in India and as a result it collapsed. Britain now
controlled the cotton trade making vast profits but none was invested in India. A network of roads and
later railways served to reinforce Britain’s control of India which was essential to assist trade and
control the land.
In order to further reinforce its control, Britain established an administrative system that took
over all duties and responsibilities of the East India Company and imposed government control through
an efficient administrative system, that featured such personalities as Lord Wellesley, Robert Clive and
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Warren Hastings as Governors Generals, who through their administrative skills were further able to
exert greater control of India.
The conquest of large areas of India further strengthened British control of India. India was
not a united nation and the British army did not meet much resistance. The manufacture of weapons in
Britain aided this control. Candidates may also consider such factors as education, religious and social
reforms during this time, the Doctrine of Lapse etc. However any of these factors must relate to the
notion of control as in the question, in order to reach level 3 or 4
LEVEL 5: As Level 4 – also produces a judgment or evaluation [14]
Q Indian resistance to British attempts to take control of lands in the sub-continent in the hundred
years before 1850 was totally unsuccessful.’ Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer. [14]
(J2008/P1/2c)
Marking Scheme:
LEVEL 3:
Explains successes OR failures (7–10)
Explains successes AND failures. Also produces a judgment or evaluation.
Successes:
power of local Nawabs
early successes of Tipu Sultan
Ranjit Singh
Failures:
strength of British army
eventual failure of Tipu Sultan and Ranjit Singh
conquests of British against weaker opposition
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War of Independence 1857
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The causes of the war of independence were political, social economic & religious: -
1.
Political Causes: -
The English East Indian company had been growing fast over the sub-continent ever since the battle of
Plessey 1757; soon afterwards in 1764 the British got yet another victory in the battle of Buxar against
the Indians. The victory at Buxar brightened the prospects of the company in India. By
1818practicallyall the Indian states had either been annexed or had entered into a treaty with the British
.a. Annexation Policy of the British: -
The Britishers through their diplomacy continued to expand their rule by annexing different states of
the sub-continent for example Sindh, Mysore, Oudh, etc as a result their territorial limits also increased.
.b. Doctrine of Lapse: -
Lord Dalhousie applied a new policy for the expansion of the British Empire, which was called
Doctrine of Lapse. in 1852. According to the doctrine the rulers of state were not allowed to adopt sons.
As a result their states were annexed many states like Oudh, Jhansi, Behar etc through this doctrine.
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These annexations created a sense of insecurity among the general public. They became suspicious of
the British policies. Before the introduction of Doctrine of Lapse, the replacement of both Sanskrit &
Persian by English as the official language in 1834 had further upset both the Hindus & Muslims.
c. Confiscation of Property of Nobles: -
It was decided by the past rulers that the nobles were always granted large estates which served as a
source of income for them. The British Government reversed this policy & confiscated thousand of
such states. As a result thousands of affected persons went against the company. That is why when the
war broke out those landlords were in the front-line.
2. Economic Causes: -
The new agrarian policy of the British, destruction of the local industries, unemployment & monopoly
of the British traders were some important economic causes of the war.
Agrarian Policy: -
The new agrarian policy introduced by the British Government shook the foundations of the village
communities. The Zamindars were now asked to provide documents to proof about their land holdings.
If they failed to do so then their properties were confiscated. In addition the rates of taxes on the lands
were also increased due to which thousands of zamindars were in great problem
Unemployment: -
The British did not trust the Indians due to this factor Indians were not appointed on important jobs
especially on the higher posts. The higher posts were now reserved for the British only. This policy
resulted in unemployed & many educated Indians were now without a job. Due to destruction of local
industries (cottage industries) left millions of people jobless especially among lower classes.
3. Religious Causes: -
Propagation of Christianity: -
Although in the beginning the English had shown respect towards all religions, yet with the passage of
time they changed their mind & devised ways & means of propagation of Christianity in India. The
missionary’s were sent to India from England for preaching. They did their preaching mainly on the
public places with the support of British Government. Bible was included in the syllabus of different
school. More ever the British Government now passed a law according to which the convents were
allowed to keep their ancestral properties
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. Anti-religious Laws: -
The British Government introduced certain laws which were against the prevailing religions of the sub-
continent. For example the windows were allowed to remarry which greatly offended the Hindus & so
did the banning of the sati custom in 1829. The British government banned Parda.
4. Military Causes: -
Disbandment of Armies of the annexed states: -
The British had annexed many states of the sub-continent on the basis of the doctrine of lapse. Now
they declared that the armies of these annexed states were banned. This action of their left thousands of
local soldiers unemployed. As the British Army marches into Afghanistan, it created problem. Because
the Hindu soldiers did not want to leave what they saw as Mother India The Muslims soldiers were also
unhappy with having to fight fellow Muslims.
Greased Cartridges: -
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The British introduced a new kind of cartridges which were greased in cow s &pigs fat & the soldiers
were reQuired to chew the top & then use it. Since there were both Muslims &Hindus soldiers in the
army; they became too agitated with this new introduction as pig is consider Haram for Muslims &
cow is a sacred animal for the Hindus. Now both communities refused to use these new cartridges.
Causes of the Failure of the Revolt of 1857
War of independence 1857 was over officially in August 1858. Although the people made great
sacrifices and waged a heroic struggle to end the foreign domination; the attempt to expel British failed
due to number of reasons:
Lack of Coordination
There was absence of fully organized plan and coordination between the freedom fighters; they fought
like rabbles in different groups at various places. Even there was no coordination between the local
rulers who were fighting individually so they were defeated easily by the British troops.
Strength of British Army:
British troops numerically inferior were superior to the armies of the local soldiers; they were well
trained, well equipped and well disciplined. The British also had advantage of effective and adequate
military equipments and resources. Their control over telegraph and postal system enable them
together information from various fronts of the war and issue necessary instructions.
Lack of unity:
There was very little unity and the sense of nationalism amongst the Indian states. The rising was led
by princes and big landlords. They were temporarily united to achieve a single common goal
of throwing out British from India. The only uniting forces were of Muslims. Most of the rulers were
fighting to restore their own regionalauthority and restoration and the protection of their own
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rights .Many of the prominent states for example Hyderabad, Gwalior and Nepal remained loyal to the
British. Rulers of Kashmir and Punjab assisted British government during the rising.
Lack of Leadership
Apart from the Rani of Jhansi (Lakshmi Bar) and Nana Sahib there was no capable central leadership
who could unite whole population.
The last Mughal King was too old and weak and was not fit to be the leader of the rebel s army. The
British succeeded in bribing certain freedom fighters in the Indian camp. These traitors betrayed their
own men & sided with the British troops, which result a great loss to Indians.
Impact of the War of Independence1857
Bahadur Shah Zafar the last Mughal emperor exiled by the British to Rangoon in Burma and Mughal
rule (Muslim Rule) was ended from India forever. War of independence also put an end to the rule of
British East India Company and crown rule was established. British held Muslim responsible for the
rising because they were the chief fighters and Muslims of India wanted to restore Muslim Rule n India.
On other hand Hindu had no such desire. Hindu joined hand with British and started a revengeful
policy to crush Muslims in all fields of life. Soon after the War of Independence British government
realized that some of their earliest policies were wrong for example abolition of Doctrine of Lapse and
change n the policy of annexation; they did much to correct them.
What happened at the battle of Kanpur? [4] (J2011/P1/2a)
Troops joined revolt, killed their officers, led by Nana Sahib, British held out for 3 weeks, then
surrendered, soldiers and 300 women and children slaughtered, remainder kept as prisoners,
reinforcements arrived and prisoners killed, British carried out acts of revenge, Sahib escaped.
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What was the Doctrine of Lapse? [4]
Governor-General Dalhousie is most associated with it (accept statements that he introduced it because
most books incorrectly assert this), extended British control, when a ruler died without a natural heir the
British would annex his lands, e.g. Oudh.
Why did the Indians not achieve independence in 1857? [7] (N2011/P1/2b)
Level 3: Explain Reasons
There was a lack of unity and common cause amongst the Indian population. The Punjab was
uninterested in helping the rebellion and actually sent men and supplies to help the British. This also
happened in Kashmir. The British had more modern methods of fighting and the army was better
disciplined as well as being supplied by some of the local rulers. Their control over telegraph and
postal system enable them together information from various fronts of the war and issue necessary
instructions. The last Mughal King was too old and weak and was not fit to be the leader of the rebel s
army. The British succeeded in bribing certain freedom fighters in the Indian camp. These traitors
betrayed their own men & sided with the British troops, which result a great loss to Indians.
Q Did educational reforms have a more important effect on the Indians than the social, religious
and economic ones introduced by the British during the years 1773 to 1856? Explain your answer.
[14] (N2011/P1/1c)
Q‘Religious factors were more important than any other in causing the War of Independence of
1857-58.’ Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer. [14] (N2008/P1/1c)
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Was the introduction of the ‘Doctrine of Lapse’ in 1852 the most important reason for the War
of Independence in 1857? Explain your answer.
LEVEL 4: EXPLAIN REASONS
Macauley introduced schools across the country to teach Western ideas using the English language. He
believed that British ideas were far better than anything that came from India and that it would impose
Western values and help the British to govern India more effectively.
Although a common language would help to unite India, imposing a European culture on the Indians
would alienate many of them. Indians had to send their children to co- educational schools, which was
unpopular, since it appeared to impose the British system on the Indians without due regard to their
religious and cultural feelings.
Christian missionaries came to India to convert the local population as well as to set up schools. In
these schools the missionaries taught Christianity and expected local religions to be given up, which
was resented by Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs alike. The replacement of Persian and Sanskrit by English
as the official language in the 1830s deeply upset both the Muslims and Hindus. A number of social
reforms had been imposed by the British without consultation or care for local feeling, which caused
much unrest.
The banning of female infanticide and suttee, whilst seen by the British as inappropriate, did go against
many traditional feelings Hindus especially held. They were also forced to abandon purdha, which had
been an Indian custom for centuries.
In 1852, the ‘Doctrine of Lapse’ was introduced and this caused great unrest because any local
kingdom not having a direct male heir was taken over by the British.
The introduction of the railway in India revolutionized communication and transformed the country.
For Britain, it meant that there was another means of extending their power and helped industry to
profit by transporting raw materials to the ports. For the Indians, there were many advantages,
especially in times of famine when food could be transported more easily.
As a result of the industrial revolution in England, cheaper &superior goods now flowed in Indian
markets. The local industries could not compete with theimported goods, as a result the local industries
badly suffered.
The new agrarian policy introduced by the British Government shook the foundations of the village
communities. The Zamindars were now asked to provide documents to proof about their land holdings.
If they failed to do so then their properties were confiscated. In addition the rates of taxes on the lands
were also increased due to which thousands of zamindars were in great problem
LEVEL 5: EVALUATION
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SIR SYED AHMED KHAN
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Early Biography Details
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Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was born in 1817 in Delhi. He came from a wealthy family and his father gave
him high quality education. When he was 18 Sir Syed was skilled in Arabic, Persian, Mathematics and
Medicine. He was also introduced as Sub-continent most able writer. In 1838 his father died so he
became a judge in Delhi in 1846. When the war of Independence broke out in 1857 he was working as
Chief Judge in Bijnaur and had saved the life of British women and children during the fighting. In
return for his loyalty the British gave him estate with large income but he refused. His Belief that
armed uprising against the British was pointless made him unpopular to many Muslims. He was
appointed Chief justice in Muradabad and was later transferred to Ghazipore. In 1864 he was
transferred to Aligarh where he played an important part in establishing the college. In 1876 he retired
from his work to concentrate on running the college and devoting himself to improve the position of
Muslims through education. He died on 27 March 1898.
Beliefs
Sir Syed was extremely unhappy about the position of Muslims in the subcontinent. Since the days of
the Mughal declined the social and economical status of Muslims had declined sharply and the role of
Muslims in the war of Independence had left further decline as British took measures to ensure that
their control was unchallenged. Sir Syed Ahmed felt that the poor status of Muslims was due to they
were treated as second-class citizen by British and Hindus and they had to take some responsibilities
themselves. Most Muslims thought that British were no more than just invaders and they had nothing
to do with them. Sir Syed Ahmed believed that Muslims had to accept that the British were there rulers
and could only improve if they have a positive approach towards them. They needed to accept the
British idea and their education if they wanted to improve. Sir Syed wanted to see Muslims untied and
prospering in their social, economical and religious fortune. He made this his Life’s ambition and
founded Aligarh Movement.
Aligarh Movement
Sir Syed was interested in Muslims. He wanted to improve relations with British and the positions of
Muslims.
The central aims of the Aligarh Movement were to:
- improve relations between the British and Muslims communities by removing British doubts about
Muslim loyalty and Muslim doubts about the British intentions.
- improve the social and economic position of Muslims by encouraging them to receive Western
education and take up posts in the civil service and army.
- increase their political awareness to make them aware of the threat to from the Hindu policy of
cooperation with the British.
Work
1. Improving Relation between the British and Muslim Communities
Sir Syed believed that the position of the Muslims in the subcontinent could only be improved if
relations with the British were improved by the Muslims gained higher-quality education. There were
two major obstacles to good relations.
A. The British had put the entire responsibility for the War of Independence in 1857 on the Muslims.
Sir Syed wanted to ensure that this false view was corrected.
B. There was a deep-seated resentment of the British among many in the Muslim community.
Sir Syed wanted to ensure that the benefits and advantages of British rule, in particular in the areas of
science and technology were embraced by the Muslim community to improve the lives of the
masses.
Convincing the British
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In 1860 Sir Syed wrote “The Loyal Mohammedans of India”. In this work he defended Muslims and
listed the name of those Muslims who remained Loyal to the British during the uprising. In order to
convince that the British were wrong to fully blame the Muslims for the uprising so he wrote a
pamphlet “Essay on the Causes of the Indian Revolt”. In this he pointed the reasons for the uprising.
He told that British were unable to understand the Indians. This Pamphlet was circulated freely among
the British officials in India and the copies were also sent to England were it was studied carefully. He
also wrote `ÀSBAB-E-BAGHAWAT-E-HIND''- (The causes of Indian Revolt) This book was
published in 1859 after the 1857 revolt after witnessing the atrocities committed by the British on the
inhabitants of Delhi. He saw an uncle, a cousin and an aunt dying before his eyes. He saved his mother
but she died due to privations she had experienced. Muslims were the main targets of the government's
wrath.
Many British thought that he was blaming them for uprising but others sympathetic and accepted the
truth in his words. He also cleared the misunderstanding that Muslim called the British “Nadarath”, He
told that this was no insult but the word came from Arabic word “Nasir” which means helpers.
Convincing the Muslims
Sir Syed was aware that the British knew very little about Islam. Indeed, on a visit to England he was
so offended by an English book on the life of the Prophet (PBUH) that he immediately wrote his own
work correcting the many errors. Sir Syed was aware that Muslim in India knew very little about
Christianity. He tried to overcome this by writing “Tabyin-ul-Kalam” in which he pointed out the
similarities between Islam and Christianity.
2. Encouraging the growth of Western education
● He also supported the idea of western education as he knew that Muslims could not succeed until
they had high quality education which was received by the Hindus. He believed that the acceptance of
Western scientific and technological ideas was necessary as this could only make Muslim advance in
the world of science. He wrote`'TEHZIB-UL-AKHLAQ'' – It succeeded in making people realize the
value of modern knowledge. It also gave new directions to Muslim social and political thoughts.
He related this with Holy Quran that it was written in Quran that the study and that an understanding
of modern scientific belief actually helped reveal the full majesty of God. He established scientific
society at Ghazipore and its main purpose was making Scientific Writing available to more people.
When he visited England he was impressing by the quality of education the student received there so in
1875 he founded Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College its main purpose was to provide the education
to the Muslims like the people in England received. The subjects were Mathematics, Modern Science
and Agricultural Science. (In 1920 the college became the University of Aligarh.
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3. Increasing Political Awareness
 Syed Ahmed also wanted Muslims to have a good relation with the Hindus but he found out that
Hindus did not want good relations.
 In 1885 Indian Nation Congress was found which claimed to speak for Indians but later it was
found out that it was a body dominated by Hindus.
 Sir Syed wanted Muslims to stay away from Democracy as the Muslims were in minorities in
India and every election would be won by the Hindus.
 A further cause of concern to Syed Ahmed was the “Hindi-Urdu Controversy”. In 1867 the Hindus
demanded that Hindi should be the next official language. The Muslims were struck by this as
Urdu had special place in their hearts. This was another factor guiding him towards his two nation
theory.
Hindi-Urdu Controversy
Hindi-Urdu Controversy was started in 1867. Hindus demanded Hindi to be official language but
Muslims wanted Urdu to be official language. Sir Syed supported Urdu in this thing. Due to this reason
Sir Syed started “Two Nation Theory” telling that Muslims and Hindus were two separate kinds of
people. Muslims opposed this and supported Urdu as it was the sign and united the Muslims of the
India under one language.
Two-Nation Theory
Urdu was the national language for many years. But Hindus opposed it in Urdu Controversy. This
provoked Sir Syed to make his Two Nation Theory to tell that Urdu had place in hearts of Muslims and
was supported by them and can’t be replaced by Hindu which was the language of the Hindus. It was
important because Sir Syed had realized that Muslims and Hindu couldn’t work together as the Hindus
were not with the Muslims.
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Another reason was that the parliamentary system was not supported by Sir Syed was Hindus were in
more number so they always outnumbered the Muslims and due to this Sir Syed opposed it. Sir Syed
realised that separate electorate was the possible solution to this so in view of his Two Nations Theory.
He made this decision of separate electorate demand for elections for the good of the Muslims.
Another reason it was important was that congress spoke of competitive examinations for jobs and
good posts while Muslims were always not given good education so they were also not able to take
good posts as Hindu won all the seats and passed the examinations always. According to Two Nation
Theory Sir Syed suggested it as two separate groups of Muslims and Hindus were not working for the
Muslims at that time so Two Nation Theory was important here as well.
Importance
He worked tirelessly to improve the relation of British and Muslims and wrote several books and
pamphlets so that British might be convinced and trust Muslims once again. He played a major role in
educating Muslims so that they can take up good jobs and their condition was improved. He is known
as “Father of the Pakistan Movement” As he was the first one to express the Idea of treating Muslims
and Hindus separately.
What was ‘The Loyal Mohammedans of India’? [4] (N2011/P1/2a)
To bring about better relations between British and Muslims, told British that Muslims were not
opposed to them, British shouldn’t discriminate against them as Muslims were wrongly blamed for
violence, try to understand and respect Muslim beliefs, should consult with Indians
What was the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental School? [4]
Set up in 1875 on May 24thin Aligarh on pattern of English public school system. The British refused
to allow it to be affiliated with a Muslim university outside British territory so it couldn’t become the
Muslim university that Sir Syed wanted. The school offered western some Islamic and Indian
education and became a symbol of Muslim unity. Many of future Pakistan leaders educated there e.g.
Liaquat Ali Khan and Ayub Khan.
Why did Sir Syed Ahmad Khan found the Aligarh Movement? [7] (J2011/P1/2b)
Why did Sir SyedAhmad Khan wish to develop a better understanding with the British following
the War of Independence (1857-58)? [7] (J2008/P1/2b)
LEVEL 3: EXPLAIN REASONS

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was one of the Muslim reformers. He carefully studied and analyzed the decline
of Muslims in political power, social status and economic well-being. He came to the conclusion that
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Muslims were being handicapped because of the misunderstanding which had cropped up between the
British and Muslim rulers, the Muslims opposed and hated the British and everything associated with
the British. Muslims kept away from modern education and English language which the British were
trying to enforce in India. On the other hand the British held the Muslims responsible for the revolt of
1857 and considered them (Muslims) to be their real enemies. The result of this mistrust was that
Muslim were being crushed in every way. Therefore, Sir Syed tried to remove this misunderstanding
by addressing both the British and Muslims. If they were to improve their poor status then the Muslims
had to accept more British ideas and take advantage of British education. He wanted to improve their
social and economic conditions by taking up posts in the civil service and the army. If they didn’t do
these things then they would see others prosper instead.
Was the attempt to achieve a better understanding with the British the most important
contribution that Sir Syed Ahmed Khan made to the Muslim cause during the nineteenth century?
Explain your answer. [14] (J2005/P1/1c)
Was the development of a western education system the most important contribution of Sir Syed
Ahmad Khan in developing the cause of Muslims during the nineteenth century? Explain your
answer. [14] (J2009/P1/2c)
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan’s political beliefs had a greater impact on the Muslims than any of
hisother beliefs’. Do you agree or disagree? Give reasons for your answer. [14] (N2007/P1/2c)
Were the religious views of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan his most important contribution in developing
the cause of Muslims during the nineteenth century? Explain your answer. [14] (N2010/P1/2c)
LEVEL 4: Explains at least TWO factors, including education. Also produces a judgement or
evaluation.
Education
Sir Syed gave much importance to modern education and his efforts and contribution to Muslim
education and his efforts and contribution to Muslim education is very important. He opened schools at
several places where he was posted. He established Scientific Society and printed the Aligarh Institute
Gazette. He was visited England in 1869 on his own expenses to observe the working of British
Universities. Most important achievement in education sector was the founding of M.A.O College at
Aligarh in 1877. Sir Syed founded the Mohammadens Educational Conference whose objective was to
discuss and solve the education problems of Muslims in the sub-continent. His efforts for Muslim
education served double purpose. It helped the Muslims to get good jobs and raised their status in
society. It also helped in removing the mistrust between the British and the Muslims. Therefore
education was the most important aspect of Sir Syed’s services in the Muslims of India
Politics
He also made a contribution in politics. Sir Syed’s advice to Muslims in the political field is also
important. He believed that under the European system or democratic government the Muslims of India
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would always be at the mercy of Hindu majority. He suggested separate electrorate for muslims. He
advised the Muslims not to join Congress. He opposed the system of competitive examinations for
government posts because Muslims were much behind the Hindus in education. Sir Syed strongly
opposed the replacement of Urdu with Hindi as court and official language
Attempts to achieve a better understanding between the British and the Muslims
He wrote a number of books following the War of Independence in which he tried to show the British
that the Muslims were only partly to blame and that there many who were supporters of the British
government. He suggested that the British should try to understand Muslims better. He explained
‘Nadarath’ in an attempt to remove British misunderstanding of Muslims.
He believed that relations with the British could be improved by improving the understanding of
Christianity by Muslims. He tried to overcome this by writing Tabyin-ul-Kalam, in which he pointed
out the similarities between Islam and Christianity. He was also aware that the British knew little about
Islam and was offended by a book he read in Britain on the life of the Prophet and as a result he wrote
his own work correcting the many errors he had read.
Religion
In Religion Sir Syed united the Muslims by supporting the “Two Nation
Theory”and the Hindi-Urdu controversy of 1867 in which Hindus wanted Hindi to be the official
language while the Muslims wanted Urdu. He realized the threat to Muslims so united them and gave
them good education.
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Languages
URDU- NATIONAL LANGUAGE
Introduction
Language is the only media by which one can express his ideas and feelings. It plays a vital role in
building the character of an individual as well as a nation. Languages bring closer each other and it
creates a sense of harmony among the people.
Urdu - National Language of Pakistan
After independence Quaid-e-Azam said in clear cut words that the National Language of Pakistan
would be Urdu. He said
Let me make it clear that the National Language of Pakistan is going to be Urdu and no other language.
Without one state language no nation can remain tied up solidly together.
Evolution of Urdu
Urdu evolved over a period of centuried by cultural between local people of north of Sub Continent
and Muslims of Arabia, Iran and Turkey. The base of this language is Prakrit, an Aryan language. The
script of Urdu is modified form of Persian. Urdu is a word of Turkish language and its literal meaning
is camp. The infusion of local languages Arabic, Persian and Turkish gave birth to new language Urdi.
Progress of Urdu Language
Due to the efforts of poets and writers during different periods of historyUrdu progressed well and
reached almost all parts of the sub-continent in the 16th Century. The Muslims, from time to time,
brought about changes and amendments in it to make it more simple and easy to understand according
to their needs and requirements.
After the emergence of Pakistan, a great deal of work has been done for the progress of Urdu language.
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The Urdu language has crossed its evolutionary stages after the Independence and is now on its way to
the road of progress and development. Each Pakistani feels proud of speaking, reading and writing
Urdu. Most of our national leaders, while visiting other countries, deliver their speeches in Urdu
language which enhances its prestige on the International level. Several Committees have been formed
for the level. Being the national language of the country, it is the binding force between different parts
of Pakistan.
Importance of Urdu in National Life
1. Means of Brotherhood and Unity
People of Pakistan are one nation, therefore their thinking, aims and objectives are common. Their
progress and prosperity depends upon their unity and brotherhood. An important factor for achieving
this unity and brotherhood is Urdu.
2. Source of Expression
Urdu has become a source of expression, feeling, thoughts and aspiration. People of two different areas
can easily understood each other ideas and thoughts by Urdu.
3. Means of Communication and Co-ordination
Urdu serves as a means of communication and is a binding force between all the four province of
Pakistan. People living in different provinces realize that in spite of speaking different languages, they
are joined together by one national language which is the heritage of all.
4. Medium of Instruction
Urdu language is the medium of instruction in most of the educational instituations of Pakistan. History,
Islamic Studies, Political Science and other subjects are taught upto M.A level in Urdu. Lectures on
Islamic education and religion are also delivered in Urdu throughout Pakistan.
Developments:
 Amir Khusrou (1253-1325) occupies a prominent position in its early development.

 The language received a boost when Emperor Muhammad Shah and Bahadur Shah Zafar took an
interest in promoting it. The latter being a great poet himself.
 Famous poets of this period are Mir, Sauda, Dard and Ghalib.
 Aligarh Muslim University became the centre for the study of Urdu and produced talented writers
like HasratMohani, Majaz and Jazbi.
 In the early twentieth century DrAllamaIqbal, DrNazirAhmad,Hali and AllamaShibli greatly
enriched Urdu prose and poetry, producing numerous literary masterpieces.
 translation of the Quran into Urdu by Shah Abdul Qadir.
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Promotion:
 For the promotion of Urdu, AnjumanTaraqqi-i
 -Urdu, National Language Authority and Urdu Science College board have done good work.
 Urdu Science College was established in 1964 which was given the status of university in 2002.
 Used fopr Communication and in mediums of Tv, Radio, magzines, newspapers.
 Urdu Software has been Developed.
 Urdu dictionaries have been printed.
 Cumpulsuro subject in Schools and Colleges
 Many books have been Published
Conclusion
Being the national language of the country it is the binding force in different parts of Pakistan.
The officers have adopted Urdu language in their official work and the Government has published a
dictionary contained Urdu terms for the office work. The Urdu Development Board and "Anjuman-e-
Taraqi-e-Urdu" are trying to give Urdu a place in society and it is hope that Urdu would find its place
in society within short period of time.
REGIONAL LANGUAGES OF PAKISTAN
Pakistan is a multi-lingual country. No less than twenty-four languages and dialects are spoken by the
people of Pakistan, but mainly include five regional languages Punjabi, Sindhi, Balochi, Pushto, Brahvi
and Kashmiri. These languages are rich in literature, poetry, folksongs and spiritual sayings of their
respective saints and contribute greatly to the culture of Pakistan.
The regional languages though distinct from one another in their forms, dialects and expressions of
thoughts have several common factors in them. They cultivate in them love, respect and a firm
adherence to the Pakistan Ideology. The regional languages of Pakistan are:
1. Punjabi
Punjabi is the local language of the province of the Punjab which is the biggest province of Pakistan
with regard to population and development. It has its links with the Aryan language Prakrit. Before
partition it was spoken in Delhi, Dhirpur, Peshawar and Jammu too. However as time rolled on the
vocabulary of Punjabi language became a mixture of Persian, Arabic and Turkish words. It has
different dialects in different parts of Punjabi like Saraiki and Potohari but the basic language remains
the same.
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Various forms of Lyric and Narrative Poetry
Punjabi is rich in mystical and romantic poetry. The highly imaginative and artistic exquisite literature,
mostly in verse has two forms one is "Lyric Poetry" which includes Bait, Kafi, Si-harfi, Bara Mah and
Satwara the other one i "Narrative Poetry" which is composed of various rhythms and meters.
Examples are Qissa Noor Namah, Gulzar, Jang Nama and Vaar. Punjabi folk tales are very famous like
Heer-Ranjha
Famous Punjabi Poets
Some of the famous poets of Punjabi language are:
* Baba FaridShakarGanjBaksh* Sheikh Ibrahim FaridShani* Madholal Hussein
* Sultan Bahu* Bullay Shah* Ali Haider* Waris Shah
Promotion After Independence:

Before partition Punjabi was spoken and understood in the eastern part of the Punjab. After
Independence concrete steps were taken for the promotion and development of this language which
made it a popular language in other parts of the province. The Government is still making efforts for
the progress of Punjabi language and extending support to those institutions which are striving for its
development. A present the Punjabi literature is taugthupto M.A. level in Pakistan.
Punjabi films, dramas and theatres have been become very popular. Newspaper, journals and
magazines have also been very significant in promoting Punjabi culture & literature. New poets and
writers like MunirNiazi, Ahmad Rahi, S.Kunjahi, Ashfaq Ahmad, BanoQudsia and others have
produce master pieces of poetry and writings in Punjabi.
Punjabi is taught up to MA level in Punjab University and Punjab Academy has translated and
produced many books in Punjabi. This way round its promotion is quite significant. Punjabi folk art,
culture, craft and songs in their purest forms will be preserved in books, journals, dictionaries and
encyclopedia. Literature of Urdu and Englisjh will be translated to Punjabi.
2. Sindhi
Sindhi is one of the important regional languages of Pakistan. It appears that Sindhi was spoken in the
Indus Delta from time immemorial. It is said that the language of the people of Moen-jo-Daro
contained elements of the present Sindhi language.
The origin of this language is not exactly known. However travelers like Al-Beruni have told us about
the original script of the language. "ChachNama" being an authentic document proves that the dialect
of the Sindhi language was the same in the 12th century, as it is today. With the advent and influence
of Arabs in the Sub Continent Sindhi changed its form and adopted maximum words of Arabic and
also of Persian and Turkish.
Way of Writing
In the beginning Sindhi was written in "Marwari" and "ArzNagari"' way of writing. With the advent
and influence of Arabs in the subcontinent this way of writing was subsequently changed into Arabic
and adopted maximum words of Arabic and also of Persian and Turkish.
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Some of famous Sindhi Poets are
* Shah Abdul LatifBhittai* SachalSarmast* Makhdoom Noor* Shah Inayat* Bedil* Sabit Ali
* KaziKazah

Several newspapers published in Sindhi, such as Ibrat, Naw-i-Sind and Khadim-I-Watan besides a
number of Weeklies. Sindhi literary board was set up in 1948 which had produced many books with
coordination of poets like F.N Bux and G. Allone.
Sindhi library in Karachi has helped Sindhi literature spread. Many folk writings have also been
produced. Bazme-Talib-ul-Mola have been set up which translates books into Sindhi. Sindhiology Dept.
in Jamshoro University and development & promotion of Sindhi literature and culture through modern
means.
Example: TV, radio, newspapers etc. Dr. Ali Akbar established sarmastacademcy that published many
Sindhi books. The sindhi Language Authority is arranging conferences to develop the use of this
language and to make it compulsory in schools up to intermediate level. Ways os teaching Sindhi must
be improved too. A sindhi font has also been developed that contains Sindhi letter and symbols.
3. Balochi
Balochi is the regional language of Balochistan. It is the least developed of all the regional languages.
It was spread by Balochi tribal migrated from Iran.
The history of Balochi literature may be divided into four periods:
1. Early Medieval Period - 1430 to 1600
2. Later Medieval Period - 1600 to 1850
3.Modern Period - 1850 to 1930
4. Contemporary Period - 1930 up to date
Linguistically Balochi belongs to the western group of the Iranian branch of the Indo-European
languages, and is closely related to Kurdish and Persian. Balochi is spoken in south-western Pakistan,
south-eastern Iran, southern Afghanistan, the Gulf States and Turkmenistan. Literature produced by
earlier poets has no record as it is preserved traditionally in the memories of the people. No newspapers
or books were published in Balochi up till 1940. After partition, however Balochi literature received a
little boost due to the efforts made by many associations and by the establishment of T.V stations. At
present, Balochi literature is on the road to development
Types of Balochi
There are two types of Balochi namely:
Sulemani 2.Makrani
Famous Literacy Figures and Poets of Balochi are;
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* Azad Jamaldini* UlfatNaseem* Abdul QadirShahwani* Malik Mohammad Ramzan
* Mir AaqilMaingalWell known poets of Balochi language are* Jam Darag* Shah Murid* Shahdad
The Balochi literature was on the verge of decline before partition. After partition, however it received
little boost when Radio Pakistan, Karachi began its broadcast in Balochi language. Balochiprogrammes
were relayed from Radio Pakistan Karachi which enhanced the developmental process of Balochi
language.
Balochi Literary Association
TheBalochi literary Association was set up which published many magazines and articles in Balochi
language. A weekly magazine known as "Nan Kessan" was published. A monthly known as "Olassis"
was also published.
Quetta Television Station
With the establishment of Quetta Television Station the Balochi language has received great fillip. Atta
Shah is a famous Balochi poet of Pakistan. IshaqShamim is another famous poet of Balochi language
whose poem "Dulhan" is very popular. The renowned politician Gul Khan Naseer is also considered a
good poet of Balochi language. Balochi prose has also developed a great deal after partition.
Translation of the Bible has also been published in Balochi language.
4. Pushto
Pushto is the regional language of the N.W.F.P and tribal areas. It belongs to the East Iranian group of
languages and contains many Persian, Arabic, Greek and Pehlevi words.he history of Pashto literature
spreads over five thousand years having its roots in the oral tradition of tapa. However, the first
recorded period begins with Bayazid Ansari (1526-74), who founded his own Sufi school of thoughts
and began to preach his beliefs. He gave Pashto prose and poetry a new and powerful tone with a rich
literary legacy. The second period is perhaps the most prolific and glorious one.
Khushal Khan Khattak (1613-89), father of Pashto, is the central figure of this period. He introduced
new forms and modern trends in Pashto literature. The Persian ghazal, rubai and masnavi influenced
the Pashto poets and writers of this period. The fourth period begins with the dawn of the twentieth
century.
The Khilafat and Hijrat Movements gave rise to a type of poetry that called out to soldiers of freedom.
This generation of Amir Hamza Khan Shinwari and Dost Mohammed of young poets enriched the
poetry of the period with new idealism. The twentieth century proved very fertile, rich and flourishing
for Pashto literature because it gave new genres and literary forms like Drama, Short Story, Novel,
Takl, Character-Sketch, Travelogue, Reportage, Satire, Azad Nazamand Haiku. A large number of
literary organizations also took birth in this century. OlasiAdabi Jirga that is considered as the first ever
organized literary organization of Pashto was founded by in 1949.
Famous Pushto Poets
Some of the well known poets of Pushto language are:
* Amir Karoro* Khushal Khan Khatak* Rehman Baba* Sher Shah Soori* Saifullah* KazimKzim.
Steps Taken to Develop Pushto

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Although Pushto is an old language but its literature is comparatively new one. After independence
Pushto literature received a great boost.The services rendered by the Pushto poets and writers in the
freedom struggle, in fact contributed a great deal towards the promotion of Pushto literature.Sahibzada
Abdul Qayyum worked very hard to create political awareness in the people of N.W.F.P. The Islamic
College, Peshawar which became the citadel of freedom movement in N.W.F.P, was established
because of his dedicated services.
Promotion after Independence:
Peshawar University was established after three years of Independence.
An academy for the promotion of Pushto literature was set up under the supervision of the Government.
The Pushto academy was set up in 1954 and Maulana Abdul Qadir (Alig) was appointed as its
Director. This academy prepared Pushto dictionary.
Pashto dramas and films have also gained importance. Pashto papers, journals and books have also
helped Pashto language to promote. New writers & poets have also added to this contribution by
producing classic poetry and stories Pashto typewriter has also been prepared. Hence Pashto has
greatly been promoted over the year.QlandarMoomand founded Da SahuLeekunkewAdabiMaraka in
1962 and rendered invaluable services to Pashto since its inception. QalandarMoomand compiled the
first ever Pashto to Pashto dictionary (Daryab).
Conclusion
The regional languages of Pakistan - Punjabi, Sindhi, Balochi, Pushto, Brahvi are the most modern
Pakistani languages. The have several common feature and their literature bears the same eternal
message for mankind. Government has been doing its best to develop the regional languages.
Q: Why did Pakistan choose Urdu as its national language in 1947? [7]
One of the reasons why Urdu became the national language in Pakistan is its long history. It was
widely used in Mughal period and dates back as far as the sultans of Delhi. In its early stages it was
used by the Muslim armies and became widely spoken and understood in many parts of the sub-
continent. So it was natural that such a well-known and established language would be chosen. Another
reason for Urdu being chosen was its high status.
Some of the finest early poets such as Amir Khusrou wrote in Urdu and Sir Syed Ahmad Khan’s
school at Aligarh became a centre for Urdu study. Many religious books, including the Quran, were
translated into Urdu. So it was considered an important language with a rich literary tradition.
Perhaps the major reason for Urdu being chosen was the fact that it was so closely associated with the
Pakistan Movement. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan supported it and the
Muslim league was formed not only to defend Muslim interests, but also to protect Urdu. The Quaid-e-
Azam was particularly keen to promote Urdu as he saw it was it as a unifying force. Since Pakistan was
a new country, it was very appropriate to pick a language which had played a part in unifying Muslims.
How successful has the promotion of the following regional languages been in Pakistan between
1947 and 1999?
(i) Punjabi
(ii) Pushto
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(iii) Sindhi
Explain your answer with reference to all three of the above [14]
The development of Pushto has been promoted more than any other Pakistani regional lan-guage
between 1947 and 1988.’
The promotion of regional languages in Pakistan between 1947 and 1988 has been more suc-
cessful than the promotion of Urdu.’ Do you agree? Explain your answer. [14] (J2006/P1/1c)
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SOURCE A
Nawab Siraj-ud-Duala opposed the growing British power in Bengal in 1757. Robert Clive,
commander of the British East India Company’s troops that had just retaken Calcutta from the
Nawab, began to re-establish control of Bengal. Clive was heavily outnumbered by the Nawab’s
forces, but persuaded Mir Jafar, the Nawab’s commander, to switch sides and not fight when the
two armies met. The Nawab opened the battle with heavy gunfire which went on until it started o
rain heavily. Clive’s troops covered their cannon and muskets to protect them from the rain, whilst the
Nawab’s troops did not. When the rain cleared, Clive attacked. The Nawab’s troops retreated. 22 of
Clive’s soldiers were killed and 500 of the Nawab’s soldiers were killed.
From Seven Years’ War: Battle of Plassey by Kennedy Hickman
a) According to Source A, what reasons are suggested for the British victory at the battle of
Plassey in 1757? [3]
Reward each correct statement identified from source with 1 mark, up to a maximum of 3.
Clive persuaded Mir Jafar to switch sides
Nawab’s opening gunfire was ineffective
The Nawab didn’t cover their cannon and muskets when it rained
English soldiers knew how to prepare for battle in the rain better
Nawab’s muskets were useless due to the wet powder
Mir Jafar’s men unwilling to fight against the British
Jafar had turned traitor/been corrupted by the British
Nawab had 500 casualties to Clive’s 22
It was raining
The Nawab’s troops retreated
SOURCE B
The British East India Company
What does Source B tell us about the British East India Company in 1825?
LEVEL 3: Inference(s) supported by detail from the source and/or contextual knowledge[4–5]
The painter has made the British officer the largest figure to demonstrate the importance that they held
in India. Similarly the Indians are shown as small people to reflect their lowly status.
Local rulers are on horseback behind the British official. They are shown as smaller, reflecting their
lower status to the British. The horses are shown as large animals, graceful in appearance and
movement, again
showing superiority and power. This is reinforced by soldiers on horses who were carrying weapons.
The East India Company is shown as being a wealthy organisation as seen in the uniforms and the
decorations on the horses. The Company were able to achieve this wealth through trading as can be
seen by the boat shown inthe picture and through the gaining of lands through conquest and agreements
with local rulers. This is shown by the weapons displayed and the wealthy appearance of the Indians
that the British were also able to exploit.
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Why were the British able to take control of India by 1850?

The British built a huge network of roads and later railways that meant that communication and
transport links between cities became better, soldiers could travel much more easily from trouble spot
to trouble spot. It also benefitted British trading links which in turn produced more wealth. The battles
of Plassey and Buxar also gave the British the vast riches of Bengal and favourable trading rights with
the local nawabs. This provided massive new resources which Britain could use to consolidate its
control. The British also introduced governor-generals into the provinces who administered them on
British lines and provided yet more control. The British army using its vast local resources and superior
weapons and skills were
increasingly taking control of more land
d) Was the work of the Christian missionaries the most important reason why the Indians
opposed British attempts to westernise them between 1750 and 1850? Explain your answer.
LEVEL 4: Explains the work of Christian missionaries AND other reasons [6–9]
Christian missionaries came to India to convert the local population as well as to set up schools. In
these schools the missionaries taught Christianity and expected local religions to be given up which
was resented by Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs alike. However, there were other reasons why the Indians
opposed the British attempts to westernise them. The replacement of Persian and Sanskrit by English as
the official language in the 1830s deeply upset both the Muslims and Hindus. This had the potential to
threaten their languages. A number of social reforms had been imposed by the British without
consultation or care for local feeling which caused much unrest. Indians had to send their children to
co-educational schools which was hated since it appeared to impose the British system on the Indians
without due regard to their religious and cultural feelings. Thomas Macaulay believed that European
ideas of education were vastly superior to anything coming out of India and, as a result, the British
imposed a system of education that promoted western values on a people who resented this interference.
They were also forced to abandon purdha which had been an Indian custom for centuries. In 1795 the
killing of baby daughters was declared to be murder, but the British found difficulty in enforcing this as
it was again a tradition practiced in many parts of India. Suttee, the ritual burning of Indian women on
the funeral pyres of their husbands was also banned by the British, first in Bengal and then in the rest
of the country. Although the British had been reluctant to get involved in banning this practice, there
was little opposition to the outlawing of it.
LEVEL 5: As Level 4 – also produces a judgment or evaluation [10]
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………
Practice Questions of four Marks
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1- Who was Auranzeb?

He was the sixth Mughal Emperor. His father was Shah Jehan and Mother was MumtazMehal. He was
an Islamic ruler and imposed the Jizya Tax. He divided his empire into his three sons.
2- What was jizya?

2. It was a tax on non-muslims living in an Islamic country. This tax was stopped by Akbar but
restarted by Auranzeb. This was a reason for uprising against auranzeb.
3- Who were Marathas?

They were a group in Southern India. Under the leadership of Shivaji a large Maratha empire was
established their leader was called peshwa. They were defeated by ahmed shah.
4- Who was sivaji?

He was a Maratha Leader. He founded the Maratha Empire. He was a ruthless leader. He was born in
pune. He promoted Sanskrit.
5- Who was Robert clive?

He was a british officer in india. He was also known as clive of india. He is seen as founder of British
India. He commanded the british army in battle of plassey and defeated the Nawab’s forces. He was
made the nawab of Bengal.
6- Describe the battle of Buxar?

. The Battle of Buxar was fought between the forces of under the command of the British East India
Company led by Hector Munro, and the combined armies of Mir Qasim, the Nawab of Bengal; Shuja -
ud-Daula the Nawab of Awadh; the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam. The battle fought at Buxar, then
within the territory of Bengal, a town located on the bank of the Ganges river, was a decisive victory
for the British East India Company.
7- Describe the battle of Plessey?

It was a battle between the British East India Company and the forces of Siraj -ud-din and his French
Allies. British defeated the larger army of Siraj. It was because clive bribed the Mir Jafar. He was made
the Nawa b of Bengal.
8- Who was tipu Sultan?

He was the ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore. He was son of Haider Ali. He was also known as tiger of
Mysore. He won first 2 Anglo-Mysore wars but was died in 4th Anglo-Mysore War.
9- What was Pitt’s India Act 1784?

Pitt's India Act was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain intended bring the East India Company's
rule in India under the control of the British Government. Pitt's India Act provided for the appointment
of a Board of Control, and provided for a joint government of British India by both the Company and
the Crown. A governing board was constituted with six members.
10- What was suttee?

. It was an Indian ritual in which the widows were also burned with the dead husband. This was first
banned by Auranzeb. British Missionaries also tried to ban it but this bold step was taken by Bentinck.
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Who was Siraj-ud-Daullah?

He was the last independent Nawab of Bengal. He attacked the British presidency of Calcutta and
conQuered it. But when Clive’s forces arrived he was defeated. This was due to conspiracy of his men
Mir Jafar. He was executed by British.
11- Who was Nadir Shah?

. He was a leader of Persia. Nadir Shah entered the Mughal Empire from Afghanistan. He captured the
Lahore,Peshawar,Kabul and then delhi and looted all the wealth including the Peacock throne. He
returned leaving the empire looted and burnt.
12- Who was Ahmed Shah Abdali \Durrani?

He was the Afghan general and leader of Persian army. He was called by Shah WaliUllah to fight with
the marathas. In battle of panipat he defeated the marathas. Instead of ruling himself he made
ahmedshah(muhannad shah’s son) as the emperor and left.
13-What was subsidiary Alliance?

The doctrine of subsidiary alliance was introduced by MarQuess Wellesley. Many small rulers signed
it as it gave them security against attack by their neighbours.TheNizam of Hyderabad was the first to
enter into such an alliance. Tipu Sultan of Mysore refused to do so, but after the British victory in the
Fourth Anglo -Mysore War, Mysore was forced to become a subsidiary state. The Nawab of Awadh
was the next to accept the Subsidiary Alliance.
14- What was the regulating act 1773?

The Regulating Act of 1773 was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain intended to overhaul the
management of the East India Company's rule in India. It was replaced by Pitts India act later. It made
the East India Company accountable to British parliament.
15-Who was Warren Hastings?

He was the first Governor-General of India. Hasten extended his rule by wars against Haider Ali of
Mysore, his son Tipu and with Marathas. He was accused to bribery and corruption and there was a
trial against him in Britain. He was cleared but his reputation was destroyed.
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Section-2- The Emergence of Pakistan 1906–47

Pakistan Movement 1940-1947
 1939-1945 Word War 2
 1940- Pakistan Resolution
 1941 August Offer and Cripps Missions
 1942- Quit India Movement
 1944-Gandhi Jinnah Talks
 1945-Simla Conference and Provincial Elections
 1946-Cabinet Mission Plan
 1947- 3 June Plan

rd
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THE PAKISTAN RESOLUTION (1940)

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was the first Muslim who pointed out that the Hindus and the Muslims were
separate nations. In 1930 Allama Iqbal gave the idea for a separate homeland for the Muslims on the
same basis. In 1933 Chaudri Rehmat Ali suggested the same idea and the name. At first M.A
.Jinnah was not in favor of idea. He believed that Muslims would be bettor of in a federation in which
they had political autonomy and a promise that their rights would be safeguarded. But the two years of
Congress rule and a growing realization that the British would soon be force to leave India convinced,
M.A.Jinnah that it was to consider establishing a Muslim State.
The Historic annual session of Muslim league began on 23rd March in 1949 at Lahore under the
chairmanship of Quaid-e-Azam. On 23rd March 1940 the famous resolution which was called
‘Pakistan Resolution’ by Hindu press and was put forward buy Fazul-ul-Haq “Sher-e-Bengal” and
seconded by Chaudri Khaliq-uz-Zaman. It was passed with great enthusiasm. The important part of the
resolution was as follow:
“Geographically contiguous units are demarcated into regions… In which the Muslims are
numerically majority as in the north-western and eastern zone of India should be grouped to
constitute independent and sovereign.”
This resolution was passed unanimously and soon became known as ‘Lahore Resolution’. However the
Hindu press began referring it as ‘Pakistan Resolution’ and that title was soon adopted. The Muslims of
the subcontinent had finally got their rallying call. The years of oppression from the British and the
Hindus were to be put behind them. Now it was the time to work for the homeland to become a
reality – and it was the Muslim league which w as undisputed leader of ‘Pakistan Movement”
WHY IT CAME ABOUT?
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By the time when this resolution was passed there were different proposals about the future and
especially the future of the Muslims of India. They were talking of Muslim India, division of India and
about units, confederacy and about cultural zones.
What were the bases of these demands was the distinct socio-cultural identity of the Muslims of this
Sub-Continent. That factor has to be taken into account because they did not want to be overwhelmed
by the majority community Congress and they wanted to protect and promote their identity and
interests and that is why there were different proposals. They had witness the cruelty of the Congress
during its rule 1937-1939. Ultimately the political experience led them to the conclusion that perhaps
partition or division of India will offer them a more secure solution, a better option and a more
practical method to realize their goals and objectives.
Allahbad address also formed the foundation for this resolution. Allama Iqbal talked about the
redistribution of India in his Allahabad Address. First he talked about North West of India where
Muslims were in majority and later in his letters he talked about Bengal another area where Muslims
were in a majority.
IMPORTANCE OF PAKISTAN RESOLUTION
The Pakistan Resolution is a land mark in the history of the Muslims of India. This famous Resolution
results in the creation of Pakistan. The acceptance of Pakistan Resolution strengthened the Two Nation
Theory which was the basis of Muslim struggle for Independence. One significant point is that the LR
does not offer a precise demarcation of territory and it uses the word like territory units. So it was
talking in general terms identifying the territory where the Muslims were in a majority so the
underlying was that Muslims were in majority.
LR was a declaration of general intact, a declaration of the direction in which the Muslim movement
was to grow and this has to be seen against the backdrop of various proposals for Muslim India or for
separation that existed at that time or were presented earlier and in that context LR comes forward with
a formal resolution for the future of the Muslims of India. Another significance of Lahore Resolution is
that the word Pakistan does not appear in the text of the Resolution. It is interesting that soon after the
approval of LR it began to be described as the Pakistan Resolution.
Another significance of LR is that it gave a new direction to the ML struggle for separation and for
independence. However despite the passage of the LR in March, 1940 the ML was willing to go for
accommodation short of fully sovereign and independent state. This reflected ML approach for
political accommodation, political settlement and for constitutional struggle.
AUGUST OFFER OF LORD LINLITHGOW (1940)

The British government wanted the co-operation of Indian especially Muslims during the world war ll.
On the behalf of the British Government Lord Linlithgow the British viceroy made an important
declaration in August 1940.
·To expand the Executive council of governor general including more Indian members from the
political parties.
·To set up the War advisory councils of Indians.
·To set up a constitution making body after the war of suggest the new constitution of India.
·The British government made it clear that there would be no transfer of power to any party at present
whose authority was denied by the large and powerful element of Indian society.
Criticism:
Both All India Muslim league and Congress rejected the August offer.
·The Congress demanded immediate transfer of power; it wanted power first and Hindu Muslim
settlement afterwards.
·All India Muslim league that wanted party of seats for Muslims in the Executive Council rejected the
offer for inadequate representation of Muslims in the Government.
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THE CRIPSS MISSION (1942)

Mr Churchill the British prime minister announced to send the delegation headed by Sir Stafford
Cripps, to suggest the recommendation for the new reforms and to persuade the Congress leader ship to
support the war effort. The mission reached Delhi on 23rd March 1942 to hold the discussion with the
Indian leaders but because of the dead lock between Congress and the Muslim league, the mission
failed to reach any agreement, it however submitted its recommendation, which is as follow:
Proposals:
·Dominion status for India after the war
·Any provinces of states would be to opt out of proposed Indian Federation
·Election would be held at the end of world war
·During the British government would retain control of the defense of India.
Criticism:
The Congress objected to:
 The offer of dominion status instead of a provision for complete independence.
 According to Cripps proposals, provinces could opt out of the Indian Union, which was definitely
not acceptable to Congress Nationalists
 Representation of the states by nominees and not by elected representatives.
 Absence of any plan for immediate transfer of power and absence of any real share in defense; the
governor- general’s supremacy had been retained, and the demand for governor-general being only
the constitutional head had not been accepted.
The Muslim League:
 Criticized the idea of a single Indian Union.
 Did not like the machinery for the creation of a constituent assembly and the procedure to decide
on the accession of provinces to the Union.
 Thought that the proposals denied to the Muslims the right to self-determination and the creation
of Pakistan.
Importance
· Muslim League showed that they will not accept anything less than Pakistan
· British realized they can’t rule India for a long period now
· Muslim League realized that Congress was totally against Pakistan
· British for the first tine allowed Indians to make their own constitutions
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What was the Cripps Mission? [4] (Specimen 2010/P1/4a)
1942, British wanted support for the war effort, after war India would be given Dominion status, a
Constituent Assembly to draw up new constitution, elections for the CA, reaction of Muslims (no
Pakistan in plan), Hindus wanted immediate control, post-dated check on failing bank, led to ‘Quit
India’ Resolution by Gandhi.
Q Why did the Cripps Mission of 1942 fail? [7] (N2004/P1/3b)
Marking Scheme: Explains reasons

The Muslims rejected the plan because the British would not agree to Partition and the Congress Party
wanted immediate and full control over the central government. The British were also negotiating
from a weak position which the Congress Party exploited by demanding Britain leave the sub-
continent immediately.
Was the Cripps Mission in 1942 the most important factor during the 1940s that led to the
partition of the sub-continent in 1947? Give reasons for your answer. [14] (N2008/P1/3c)
LEVEL 4: Explains at least two factors. Cripps Mission to be explained for maximum marks.
Cripps went to India to gain support for the war effort in return for a number of promises include- in
Dominion Status after the War had ended. The Muslim League rejected the plan because the British
would not agree to Partition while Congress wanted immediate and full control over the central
government. The British were also negotiating from a weak position which Congress exploited by
demanding that Britain leave the sub-continent immediately. Gandhi and Jinnah held talks about a
Muslim homeland but failed to reach agreement since Jinnah wanted six provinces included in Pakistan
whereas Gandhi only agreed to three. Nevertheless, it was an important meeting since Gandhi had
negotiated with the Muslim League on an equal footing for the FIRST time. However, Cripps was not
the only factor which was important in leading to eventual Partition. At the Simla Conference, the
Viceroy realized that the two parties were unable to reach agreement on anything. Although all parties
agreed to the principle of the Executive Council, the sticking point was the method of selection.
Following the Conference, Lord Wavell announced new elections. The results demonstrated that
Congress had control of the non-Muslim vote, but that the League had gained control of
the Muslim vote. It was
clear that the League was an equal player to Congress and that the demand for Partition could no
longer be ignored by Congress or the British Government. However, it was following the
announcement by Attlee that the British would leave the sub- continent by 1948, and the subsequent
violence in the Punjab in March 1947, that convinced Nehru that Partition should take place. This was
formalized in the 3 June Plan.
QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT (1942)

On 8th August 1942, the India National Congress Committee passed its ‘Quit India Resolution’ calling
for immediate withdrawal of the British. This resolution “Quit India” was to be followed by open non-
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violent civil disobedience and resistance to British Rule. Gandhi called it ‘Do or Die’ attempt to force
British out. He argued that if the British left India, there would be no longer being threat of Japanese
invasion. The British responded firmly by arresting most of the senior leaders of congress e.g. Gandhi,
Nehru and Azad etc as well as by banning the Congress party. For several weeks there was widespread
rioting and the British lost control in some parts of the Country. Thousands of Indian lost their lives.
Why it was formed:
The demand was to declare India immediately as an independent country. Gandhi was having
negotiations with Japan and Jawaherlal Nehru was “thrilled” by the thought of the Japanese invasion of
India. So in their attempt to take power from the British, the Congress leaders were not against to
employing tactics, which were rude and not respectable. It can also be said that the Congress feared
that if independence would be delayed the divided India would become a reality. They wanted to stop
the emergence of Pakistan but it’s a fact that in 1947, Congress itself was forced by the events to agree
for the division of India
The Muslims league did not approve of the Quit India movement campaign Quaid-e-Azam raised the
slogan ‘Divide and Quit’ in answer to Gandhi’s “Quit India Movement”. Muslim league neither
supported Congress nor the British Government. During this movement, Quaid-e-Azam termed the
“Quit India Movement” as a Black mail, saying that congress was trying to exploit Britain’s problems
to win advantage for itself.
Why was the ‘Quit India’ Movement formed in 1942? [7] (J2005/P1/4b)
MarkingScheme:
Both Muslims and Hindus were to some extent united in their opposition to the Cripps Mission’s
proposals. The Muslims rejected them because the British would not agree to Partition and the
Congress Party wanted immediate and full control over the central government. The British were also
negotiating from a weak position which the Congress Party exploited by demanding Britain leaves the
sub-continent immediately. As a result Gandhi began the Movement.
GANDHI-JINNAH TALKS (1944)

Lord Wavell released Gandhi from prison in May 1944. Gandhi proposed Jinnah that they should meet
to consider the future of India after the British departure, which now seemed inevitable. Throughout
September 1944 the two met at Jinnah’s home in Bombay. Although many people expected a
compromise to be reached, the talks broke down for a number of reasons:
·Gandhi wanted the Muslim league to give immediate support to Congress in its struggle to remove the
British. Only after the British left could partition is considered. Jinnah knew that he had to secure
partition before the British left.
·Gandhi also wanted the central government to have control over key areas such as defense and foreign
policy. Jinnah wanted these matters to be in the hands of the provinces.
·Gandhi considered himself to be speaking for all India. Jinnah reminded him that really he was just the
spokesman of Congress.
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·Gandhi gave the impression that he did not support the ‘Two nation theory’, whereas this had now
become official Muslim league policy.
Importance: Though the meeting ended on failure but it was a great technical and political achievement
of Muslim league and Jinnah. As the Congress through its main leader (Gandhi) had been forced to
negotiate with Muslim league on equal footing and recognize that there were two leaders in India
Jinnah representing the Muslims and Gandhi representing the Hindus?
Why did the Gandhi-Jinnah Talks fail in 1944? [7] (J2011/P1/4b)
Marking Scheme:
Gandhi only wanted to achieve independence first and foremost – partition discussions could follow
later, whereas Jinnah wanted to settle the issue of partition first and before the British left. He knew
that his bargaining position would be much weaker if he went along with Gandhi’s plan. Gandhi
insisted that he spoke for all Indians and couldn’t accept the position of Muslims as being a separate
nation. Hence independence for all Indians as a united nation was on his agenda. Jinnah was at odds
with Gandhi and accused him of only speaking for Hindus; otherwise he would accept the idea of
partition. He accused Gandhi of not accepting the two nation idea of partition. Gandhi also wanted
the central government to have control of key areas such as defense and foreign policy, whereas Jinnah
wanted these issues to be dealt.
Q Were the Gandhi-Jinnah talks the most important factor during the 1940s that led to the
partition of the sub-continent in 1947? Give reasons for your answer. [14] (N2005/P1/4c)
Marking Scheme:
Gandhi and Jinnah held talks about a Muslim homeland but failed to reach agreement since Jinnah
wanted all six provinces included in Pakistan whereas Gandhi only agreed to three. Nevertheless it was
an important meeting since Gandhi had been forced to negotiate with the Muslim League on an equal
footing for the first time.
LEVEL 4: Explains at least two factors (to be included for maximum marks).
However they were not the only factor which was important in leading to eventual Partition at the
Simla Conference, the Viceroy realized that the two parties were unable to reach agreement on
anything. Although all parties agreed to the principle of the Executive Council, the sticking point was
the method of selection. Following the Conference, Lord Wavell announced new elections. The results
demonstrated that the Congress had control of the non-Muslim votes but that the League had equally
gained control of the Muslim vote. It was clear that the League was an equal player to the Congress
and that the demand for Partition could no longer be ignored by the Congress or the British
Government. However it was following the announcement by Attlee that the British would
leave the sub-continent by 1948 and the subsequent violence in the Punjab in March 1947
that convinced Nehru that Partition should take place Quickly. This was formalized in the 3June
Plan.
LEVEL 5: Also produces a judgment or evaluation.
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SIMLA CONFERENCE (1945)
In 1945 Lord Wavell the Viceroy of India announced a plan for the transfer of power of India to its
natives. To discuss the details of the plan Lord Wavell invited representatives from the various political
parties in a conference at Simla in June 1945.
Wavell Proposals:
 ·An Executive council should be set up as Interim Government under the present constitution
(Government of India act 1935) until a new constitution could be agreed on.
 ·The Executive Council would contain equal number (5 each) of Muslims and Hindus.
 ·All portfolios would be given to Indians expect defense and Viceroy.
To discuss the formation of the Executive Council and the future handover the Viceroy called a
conference of all the political parties in Simla. The Muslim league delegation included Quaid-e- Azam,
Liaquat Ali Khan and Khawaja Nazimuddin while Gandhi, Abdul Kalam Azad and Khizar Hayat
Tiwana represented the Congress. They deliberately included Muslim members in the delegation to
demonstrate that not all Muslims were members of the Muslim league.
There was a deadlock over the Muslim league’s demand that all the five members of the Executive
Council should be the nominees of the Muslim league. The Viceroy accepted four and Chief Minister
of Punjab and Unionist party leader Khizar Hayat Tiwana demanded one Muslim seat out of Muslim
quota, which was accepted by the Viceroy. Jinnah also pointed out as the Sikhs and Scheduled Castes
on the Council were bound to vote with the Hindus, this would mean permanent Muslims minority in
the Executive Council. Jinnah also objected Lord Wavell could see no solution to the problem and
closed the conference on 14th July 1945. Another British attempt to find a solution had failed.
ELECTIONS (1945-46)
The general elections to the provincial and central legislatures were held in 1945-46. Both the parties
took an active part in these elections because the constitutional future of India was dependant on the
results of these elections. Both Congress and Muslim league contested the election on two exactly
opposed slogans. Congress wanted to keep Subcontinent united, whereas Muslim League wanted to
divide it.
Results of Election: The results showed that the Muslims league won all the 30 Muslims seats in the
Central Assembly and 446 out of 495 Muslims seats in the Provincial Assemblies. The Congress won
the same victory in the Hindu majority areas. In Bengal, the Muslim League won 113 out of 119
Muslim seats and formed ministry in Sindh. The Victory of Congress in N.W.F.P was a serious blow to
the league, Muslim League won 17 out of 36 Muslim seats and Congress took 19 Muslims seats and Dr.
Khan Sahib formed ministry with Congress. In Punjab, Muslim league won 79 out of 86 Muslim seats
and Khizar Hayat Tiwana formed the ministry with Congress. Congress won total 930 seats gaining an
absolute majority in 8 provinces.
Conclusion: Result of the elections not only divided the assemblies between Muslim League and
Congress but also approved the Muslim league claim that, it was a sole representative’s party of the
Muslims of Subcontinent and the demand for the establishment for a separate Muslim homeland was
true.
DELHI RESOLUTION
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When all the election results were announced, an all Indian Muslim league legislator’s convention was
announced in Delhi from 7 to 9 April, 1946. Nearly 500 Muslims who had been elected attended it. A
resolution was passed known as ‘Delhi resolution’. This demanded that the Muslims majority
provinces to be made into a fully independent sovereign state.
THE CABINET MISSION PLAN (1946)
The British Prime minster, lord Clement Attlee announced that a special mission consisting of three
cabinet Ministers would be sent to India to discuss the constitutional issues with the viceroy and Indian
political leaders.
The Cabinet mission was consisted of Lord Patrick Lawrence Sir Stafford Cripps and A.V Alexander.
Quaid-e-Azam made it clear to the mission that the Muslim majority areas should be grouped together
to make a sovereign and independent Pakistan comprising of six provinces. Congress was opposed to
any partition and would not accept Jinnah’s idea. The mission conducted meeting with top leaders of
India in Simla Sir Stafford Cripps openly supported Congress. Abdul Kalam Azad, Jawaharlal Nehru,
Abdul Ghaffar Khan and Vallabhai Patel represented Congress while Quaid-e- azam, Liaquat Ali Khan,
Nawab Ismail and Abdul Rab Nishtar represented the Muslim league demanded two separate
constitution making bodies be set up for framing the respective constitution. Both the parties could not
accept the proposals of each other. The Cabinet Mission and Viceroy formulated a three-tier
constitutional plan, which was as follow:
Long term Plan:
1) It rejected the idea of establishing Pakistan
2) There would be three different parts to post-British India.
A) The Hindu majority territories
B) The western Muslim provinces
C) Bengal and Assam
3) Each part would have local autonomy and would be able to draw up its own constitution
4) Foreign affairs defense and communication would be managed by a central Indian Union.
Short term Plan: The mission also proposed of setting up of an interim Central Government in which
the Indian national should hold all portfolios.
Gandhi criticized and rejected the plan and called it ‘An appeal and an advice’ while the Muslim league
accepted long term and short term plans. The viceroy broke his promise by refusing to form the
government only with Muslim league. On other hand Nehru, however said that Congress would not
feel bound by the plan once the British had gone. The Muslim league felt that his made further
discussions pointless. Any agreement might just overturn after the British had gone. So the Cabinet
Plan was dropped.
Why cabinet mission plan failed? [7]
1) Jinnah accepted the Cabinet Mission Plan as he felt this was the best that could be achieved under
the circumstances. Firstly, the Congress rejected the Viceroy's offer to join the Interim Government,
because of principle parity with the Muslim League (a communal organization). The Congress also
wanted a nationalist Muslim in the Government since the Congress represented the nation and not
Hindus alone.
2) The Muslim League, on the other hand, accepted the June 16 statement and demanded the formation
of Interim Government. But the Viceroy did not like to do without Congress & postponed the plan.This
infuriated the Jinnah and he persisted that the elections to the Constituent Assembly too, should be
postponed. Since the Viceroy did not agree to the postponement, the Council of League withdrew its
acceptance of the Plan by a resolution passed on July 29, 1946.
3) Despite League’s protests, elections to the Constituent Assembly were not postponed. By the end of
July, the elections were completed. Strangely enough’ even Jinnah’s Muslim League participated in the
elections, despites its grumbling and unnecessary wrangling. The total number of Congress Members
was 205 & that of the Muslim League was 73.
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4) Apprehending dominating majority of the Congress in the Constituent Assembly which could enable
it to take any decision it might think proper and desirable, the League decided to withdraw its previous
support to the Cabinet Mission Plan. On July 10, 1946, during a question and answer period following
a news conference in Bombay, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru stated that the Congress party was not bound
by the stipulations of the Cabinet Mission Plan. Nehru was the newly elected President of the Congress
and his statement was the bombshell that destroyed the Cabinet Mission Plan. Hence the Muslim
League rejected the proposals of the Cabinet Mission on July 29, 1946 and resolved to Direct Action
on August 16, 1946 to achieve its cherished goal of Pakistan.
DIRECT ACTION DAY (1946)
By late summer 1946, it was clear that the British with drawl from India w as imminent. The Muslims
feared that the British might pull out and leave India to sort out its own problems. If that happened, the
Muslims would surely suffer at the hands of the overwhelming Hindu majority. What was needed a
show of Muslim salutatory and an indication of Muslim strength to both the British and Congress.
In July 1946 the Muslim league passed a resolution declaring that it should prepare for the final
struggle against both the British and Congress. On 16th August 1946 the Muslim league called for a
‘Direct Action Day’ to show the strength of Muslim fee lings. In many places thousands demonstrated
peacefully to show Muslim salutatory. In Calcutta, however the demonstrations turned into violence in
which up to 4000 people died in the Great Calcutta killing.
3RD JUNE PLAN (PARTITION PLAN 1947)
Lord Mountbatten was appointed as the last viceroy of India and he was told by the prime minister,
lord Clement Attlee to hand over the power to the Indian by 1st June 1948. Attlee had deliberately set a
short time span for arrangement to be made. He feared that if more time were given, there would only
be more disagreement. When Mountbatten reached India, he faced problems like Muslim league
wanting partition and congress opposing it and he had very short time. In March 1947 there were riots
and killing between Muslims and Hindus in Punjab. Soon the trouble spread to other provinces. After
negotiations, he had worked out a partition plan. The Congress met on 1st may 1947 and gave its
acceptance of the partition plan and Muslim league also gave its approval. Mountbatten got approval
from the British Government and the plan was issued on 3rd June 1947. The main characteristics of the
plan were:
·India would be divided into 2 different states on the midnight of 14 and 15 August 1947
·Government of India act 1935 would be modified to adopt as the temporary Constitution for both
India and Pakistan.
·Boundary Commission would be set up to demarcate the boundary between India and Pakistan.
·Military and Financial assets would be divided between India and Pakistan
·Legislature of Sindh would be given chance to vote Pakistan.
·Referendum would be adopted to decide NWFP future.
·Muslims members in the legislative assembly of Bengal and Punjab were given chance to vote for
Pakistan.
·Appropriate measures would be adapted to decide the future of Balochistan.
·Rulers of Princely states would be given option to join Pakistan or India or remain independent.
RADCLIFFE AWARD (1947)
The issue which was not solved on 14th August was the boundary between Muslims and non- Muslims
areas. Lord Mountbatten had appointed Sir Cyril Radcliffe to head a boundary Commission to establish
new borders, particularly in Bengal and Punjab. Radcliffe had four assistats, two nominated by the
Muslim league and two by Congress.
The decision of the boundary Commission (known as Boundary reward on Radcliffe award) was
announced on 16th August 1947. The Muslim league was disappointed to hear that Calcutta was given
to India, even though the Muslim areas surrounded it. In Punjab both Ferozpur and Gurdaspur were
given to India. Again the Muslims were disappointed by this decision. Ferozpur had a Muslim majority
and Pakistani had evidence to suggest the Radcliffe had originally awarded it to Pakistan but had been
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forced b Mountbatten to change his mind. Gurdaspur also had a Muslim majority. By awarding it to
India the Indian now had a border with Kashmir and future disputes between India and Pakistan
became inevitable.
Jinnah told people of Pakistan that the awards were Wrong and unjust and perverse. However, the
partition had been take place two days earlier.
INDEPENDENCE ACT OF 1947: The British Government passed the Indian independence acts on
15 July 1947. The act ordered that from 15 august two independent dominions is established by the
names of India and Pakistan. These dominions have complete freedom to pass any act or bill and the
Government of India act 1935 was to be the provincial constitution until replaced. The princely states
were given the option to join one or either of the country.
Nov 2015-Sample for New Pattern
SECTION A
1 (a) Source A The All India Muslim League meeting in Lahore 1940
In March 1940, the All India Muslim League held its annual session at Minto Park, Lahore.
Quaid-e-Azam, Muhammad Ali Jinnah outlined the events of the past few months and presented his
own solution to the Muslim problem. He said that the problem of India was not of an internal conflict
between Hindus and Muslims, but mainly an international one. He felt that the differences between
Hindus and the Muslims were so great and so sharp that their union under one central government was
full of serious risks. He said that Hindus and the Muslims belonged to two different religions,
philosophies, social customs and literature. Hindus and Muslims belonged to two separate and distinct
nations and therefore the only chance open was to allow them to have separate states.
From The Story of Pakistan
According to Source A, what were the problems facing India in 1940? [3]
Reward each correct statement identified from source with 1 mark, up to a maximum of 3.
Problem of India an international one and should be treated as such
Differences between Hindus and Muslims so great and sharp (1) that union under one central
government was risky People belonged to 2 separate and distinct nations(1) only chance to allow them
to have separate states They belonged to 2 different religions, philosophies, social customs and
literature Concepts on and of life different
Source B From Punch magazine 1945 http://punch.photoshelter.com/gallery-

image/Imperialism-and-Colonialism-Cartoons/G0000vKN2v8ZjQ.g/I0000dfowI2gJnmM
What does source B suggest about the attempts to solve the problems of the sub-continent in 1945?
LEVEL 1: Identify surface features from the source [1]

Two people are playing chess
LEVEL 2: Unsupported inferences [2–3]

Negotiations aren’t going well. It was a slow process. They look confused
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LEVEL 3: Inference(s) supported by detail from the source and/or contextual knowledge[4–5]
This source is representing the negotiations at Simla in 1945.

The negotiators don’t appear to be cooperating with each other. One (Jinnah) is looking bored and the
other (Gandhi) appears to be floating above the ground suggesting that he is in another place rather
than sat round the table. The observer (Lord Wavell the Viceroy from Britain) is watching. His face
suggests that he is impatient and he is looking at his watch. They are perhaps thoughtful. Their faces
show they are thinking about their next move/waiting to see what move the other makes. Using a game
of chess in the source suggests the negotiations were complex and took time which clearly the British
didn’t want to waste.
c) Why did Congress and the Muslim League oppose the Cripps Mission in 1942?
LEVEL 1: Simplistic answer [1]

The Cripps Mission had no success/Describes the Mission.
LEVEL 2: Identifies reasons [2–4]
The Muslim League wanted a separate state and Congress wanted immediate power.
The Muslims rejected the plan because the British would not agree to Partition and the Congress Party
wanted immediate and full control over the central government. The British were also negotiating from
a weak position which the Congress Party exploited by demanding Britain leave the sub-continent
immediately. The ML insisted on a firm promise of an independent state of Pakistan. Anything else
would lead to an Hindu majority which they thought would deny Muslim rights.
Was the success of the Labour Party in winning the British General Election in 1945 the most
important reason why the subcontinent of India was partitioned in 1947? Explain your answer.
LEVEL 1: Simplistic statement [1–2]

They converted people
LEVEL 2: Description /identification of reasons [3–4]

Labor were in favor of partition
LEVEL 3: Explains the success of the Labor Party victory OR other reasons [5–7]
LEVEL 4: Explains the success of the Labor Party victory AND other reasons [6–9]
The Labor Party won a massive and unexpected victory in the 1945 General Election. The party was
opposed to imperialism and eager to promote independence for India following the election. Thus the
signs for an independent state of some kind looked very positive. However there was a problem, since
the new government was pro-Congress and Gandhi, so Partition was most unlikely and instead the
favored route was for a federal India rather than two separate states.
However there were other reasons partition took place in 1947. Following the Simla Conference in
1945, Lord Wavell announced new elections. The results demonstrated that the Congress had control of
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the non-Muslim votes but that the League had equally gained control of the Muslim vote. It was clear
that the League was an equal player to the Congress and that the demand for Partition could no longer
be ignored by the Congress or the British government.
However in March 1946, members of the British Cabinet Mission arrived in India to work out a plan
for achieving independence for India as a federation. The Mission met with some 470 Indian leaders
but Jinnah stuck firm to his stance that partition was the only way forward as far as the Muslims were
concerned.
Once the plans for grouping the provinces together were known, the ML accepted the plan as long as
the groupings were to be compulsory. Congress however refused to accept the groupings and that they
would not be bound by any British plan. The British government decided to form an Interim
Government headed by Nehru of Congress. Eventually members of the ML joined it too.
The ML grew more concerned that the British would leave India without organizing a settlement and
didn’t want Congress to be left in charge of organizing a new country. Thus the ML organized a Direct
Action Day in the summer of 1946 in an attempt to stop the British government giving in to Congress.
Rioting on a massive scale took place and 000s died. The British grew increasingly worried that civil
war would ensue and gradually a change of mind grew over Partition. In February 1947 came the
announcement by Attlee that the British would leave the sub-continent by 1948 and the subsequent
violence in the Punjab in March 1947 that convinced Nehru that Partition should take place quickly.
This was formalized in the 3 June Plan of 1947 in which Mountbatten, the new Viceroy brought about
Partition in August 1947.
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Practice Questions four marks (1940-1947)

Questions:
1- What was the day of deliverance?
2- What was the Pakistan movement?
3- Who was Maulvi Fazl-Ul-HaQ?
4- What was Cripps Mission?
5- What was Quit India Resolution?
6- Describe Gandhi-Jinnah Talks?
7- Who was Lord Wavell?
8- Describe Simla Conference?
9- Describe the elections of 1945-46?
10- What was the Cabinet Mission Plan?
11- What the direct Action Day?
12- Who was Mountbatten?
13- What was the 3rd June Plan?
14- What was the independence Act?
15- Who was Muhammad Ali Jinnah?
16- What was the August Offer?
Answers:
1. This day was celebrated by the Muslims of India on 22nd December, 1939. Jinnah called the
Muslims to celebrate this day because the congress ministries had resigned. They had resigned because
the viceroy Linlithgow said that India would fight on their side against Germany without consulting
congress. Muslims celebrated it very happily because the rule of congress was full of oppression and
injustice for them. Congress was offended by this.
2. It was put forward by Fazl-ul-HaQ on 22nd march and it demanded that Muslims provinces should
be made separate states. It was passed in the Annual session of Muslim League on 23nd march, 1940 in
Lahore. It was known as Lahore resolution but later it came to be known as the Pakistan resolution.
There is a national holiday on 23rd march.
3. Fazl-ul-HaQ was one of the four members of the committee that drafted the constitution of the All
India Muslim League in 1906. He was also a delegate of the Round Table Conferences. In 1937 he was
elected as Chief Minister of Bengal. He put forward the Pakistan Resolution in 1940.
4. British sent sir Stafford Cripps to India in march 1942 to see that if a compromise could be reached
which would win support of Indians for British war. It proposed that there would be an Indian union
with dominion status. The provinces could opt out of the Indian union and declare independence if they
wanted. The constitution would be setup by constitutional assembly but elections for the constitute
assembly would be held after the war.
5. It was an anti-British movement started by Gandhi. He it was a non-violent protest but it later turned
into a violent protest. British lost control of some areas but by use of strong measures could restore
their control. Gandhi, Nehru and other senior members were arrested. The congress party was banned.
Muslim league did not approve of this campaign.
6. Gandhi and Jinnah met in Jinnah’s home in Bombay. Their aim was to discuss the future of India
after British departure. Gandhi demanded that they should first cooperate with each other to persuade
British to leave India and they would discuss later whether partition should happen or not but Jinnah
disagreed with this. Other area of disagreement was that whether the defense and foreign policy should
be in center or provinces. So these talks failed.
7. Wavell was a British field marshal and the commander of British Army forces in the Middle East
during the Second World War. When Linlithgow retired as viceroy in the summer of 1943, Wavell was
chosen to replace him as viceroy of India. He remained in office till 1947 when Mountbatten replaced
him. He was present in Simla conference and proposed the Wavell plan.
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8. Lord Wavell called this conference to discuss the future of India with Indians. Congress, Muslim
League and scheduled casts attended it. Wavell proposed that an executive council should act as in
interim government and it would have equal members of congress and Muslim league and scheduled
casts were given seats. This failed because Jinnah said that the scheduled casts would take side of India
and they would be left in minority.
9. Muslim league had manifesto of Pakistan and congress had of a joint India without British. In the
election, the Muslim league won all the seats of Muslims in center and 446 out of 495 in provincial
elections. Congress won 91% of non-Muslims seats. Congress also won in NWFP.
10. In March 1946 a three-man delegation including Stafford was sent to India. It announced its plan
that there would be no Pakistan but the new India would have three parts, Hindu majority areas, Bengal
and assam, and Muslim majority area in west. Each part could frame its own constitution but the fence
and foreign affairs would be in hands of the central Indian union. This was rejected by both congress
and Muslim league.
11. On 16th August Muslims celebrated the direct action day to show their solidarity and strength to
British and congress. It was non-violent but in Calcutta it turned to violence in which 4000 people were
killed. It is called the Great Calcutta Killings.
12. He was the last the last viceroy of British India and the First Governor-General of India. He
belonged to the royal families of both Germany and Britain. He was in navy during Second World War
but was sent as the viceroy to arrange the departure of British in India. He persuaded Radcliff to
change the map of Pakistan in 1947. He died in Ireland.
13. This plan was announced in 1947 by Mountbatten. It said that British India would be split into two
states, India and Pakistan. Each state was to have dominion status. The provinces would have choice to
join Pakistan or India. Punjab, Sindh, n.w.f.p, blochistan, Bengal and assam joined Pakistan.
14. It was passed in 15 August, 1947. It said that British India would be partitioned into Pakistan and
India. Each state could pass any law they wanted. The government of India act 1935 was to be the
constitution of both states.
15. He was born in Karachi. He went to study law in London and returned to India. There he became
an advocate. In his early carrier he joined both congress and Muslim league. Later he left congress and
became the president of Muslim League. He was the first governor-general of Pakistan.
16. The August offer 1940 was made on August 8, 1940, the eve of the Battle of Britain. The Viceroy
at the time, Lord Linlithgow, made a fresh offer that promised the expansion of the governor-general's
Executive Council to include more Indians, the Establishment of an Advisory War council, giving full
weight to minority opinion, recognition of Indians' right to frame their own constitution (after the war
would end). In return, it was hoped that all parties and communities in India would cooperate in
Britain's war efforts.
POLITICAL ACHIEVEMENTS BY QUAID-E-AZAM (1906-47)
·In 1906 Jinnah made his 1st formal entry in politics when he became the member of Inc.
·In 1906 Jinnah became the member of Imperial legislative Council
·In 1913 he joined All India Muslim league.
·By 1916 Jinnah was one of the leading figures in Indian politics. He was respected & admired by both
Hindus and Muslims & called as the ‘Ambassador of Hindu Muslim unity’. In 1916 Lucknow pact was
signed between AIML & INC mainly because of the efforts of M.A.Jinnah. It was the political
agreements based on scheme for constitutional reforms for India.
·Jinnah resigned from the imperial legislative Council in 1919 in protest at the passing of ‘Rowlett Act’.
Because of the rising influence of Gandhi, Congress decided to back out of the separate electorate
accepted in 1916 & calling of the Non-cooperation movement in 1920. In 1920 Jinnah resigned from
Inc protesting against the policies of Gandhi.
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·In 1927 Simon Commission arrives in India since the commission had no Indian member so the AIML
under the leadership of M.A.Jinnah decided to boycott it.
·In 1928 when Nehru report was passed Jinnah tried to reach a compromise on the issue of separate
electorate but INC refused to accept the proposals of Jinnah. After that Jinnah abounded the efforts of
Hindu Muslim reconciliation.
·In 1929 at Delhi during the meeting of Muslim league M.A.Jinnah put forward his famous 14points,
which was the formula for constitutional reforms in reply to Nehru report. It contained constitution
safeguards for the protection of Muslims culture & politics.
·In 1931 & 32 Jinnah attended the 1st & 2nd session of the RTC in London, where he firmly talked
about the protection of minority’s right in India. Being disappointed by Indian politics he decided to
stay in England in 1934 after numerous requests of Allama Iqbal & Liaquat Ali Khan he returned India
and was elected as the life president of AIML.
·In the provincial election of 1936-37 AIML did not perform well as it had hoped. So immediately after
the elections of 1936-37 the AIML launched the program of mass contact under the leadership of
M.A.Jinnah. The labor born fruit and Muslim league membership rose from ten thousand to hundred
thousand. Jinnah was now known as Quaid-e-Azam the great leader.
·With the outbreak of 2nd World war, INC directed its minister to resign from their posts. Following
the resignation of INC’s minister Quaid asked all Muslims to celebrate ‘The Day of Deliverance’ in
Dec 1939.
·On 23rd March 1940, a historic session of AIML was held under the leadership of Quaid-e-Azam.
During the session a resolution was passed demanding the establishment to separate sovereign &
independent state for the Muslims of India.
·August offer of 1940, Cripps mission 1942, Simla Conference 1945 & the cabinet mission 1946, these
were all scheming to solve the communal and constitutional problems of India. In all these schemes
effort were made by both Hindus & British to undermine the representative character of AIML, to
prevent the establishment of Pakistan and to preserve the Indian unity. But Quaid led the Pakistan
Movement so successfully that no device could harm the establishment of Pakistan
·In the election of 1945-46 under the dynamic leadership of Quaid. AIML won the majority of
Muslims seats in central & provincial legislatures and proved that AIML demand for separate
homeland was true so that British and Hindus surrendered before the exemplary struggle of Muslims
under the leadership of Quaid and Pakistan came in to existence in 14th August 1947.
CHAUDRI REHMAT ALI (1897-1951) AND THE PAKISTAN MOVEMENT
Chaudri Rehmat Ali was born in Hoshiyarpur in East Punajb on 16th November 1897. He received his
basic education from Jallandar and passed his B.A from Government college Lahore. In 1915 he
founded a society named Bazm-e-Shibli. In 1930 he went to England where earned the degree of
M.A.Jinnah and Bar at Law from Cambridge University and Dublin University.
Contribution in Pakistan Movement:

·In 1930 Round Table Conference were held in London to discuss possible political agreement between
Hindus, Muslims and British. Chaudri Rehmat Ali met the Muslims leaders including M.A.Jinnah and
tried to convince them to give the idea of Indian federation and focus their energies to form a separate
homeland for the Muslims. But at this stage M.A.Jinnah and other leaders remained unconvinced nd
they refuse to accept the proposals of Chaudri Rehmat Ali.
·In 1933 Chaudri Rehmat Ali founded the ‘Pakistan Movement’ which issued its 1st pamphlet on
Pakistan under the title of ‘Now or Never’ in that pamphlet that Muslims should have their own
homeland called ‘Pakistan’. Muslim states were consisted of Punjab b. N.W.F.P, Kashmir, Sindh,
Baluchistan. Muslim homeland which was formed from the initials of components units; P for Punjab,
A for afghania, K for Kashmir, S for Sind and Tan for Balochistan. The word Pakistan means the
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‘Land of Pure’. His views were different from Allama Iqbal as Chaudri Rehmat Ali wanted his
Muslims homeland to be independent.
·He was rightly awarded when in 1940 ALL INDIA MUSLIM LEAGUE adopted his central demand
for a separate homeland for the Muslims and later the name ‘Pakistan’ which was also coined by
Chaudri Rehmat Ali adopted for the Muslim homeland.
·He was one of those leaders who lived to see the establishment of Pakistan. But he did not agree with
the final map of Pakistan. His contribution also never appreciated officially. He visited Pakistan in
1948 and lives in Lahore for some time and left for England. He died in Cambridge on 3rd February
1951.
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Section-3- Nationhood 1947–99
The Problems of the New State
The attainment of independence brought an end to one phase of the struggle and marked the
beginning of a new one for setting up and running a viable, stable and prosperous state. Pakistan
began its independent life under very difficult and unfavorable circumstances. Pakistan faced
serious problems in the initial stages.
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New Administration
The shortage of trained human power especially senior officers was a serious problem in the setting up
of federal government in Karachi. Most of them had migrated to India. There was a shortage of office
space, equipment and furniture. This disturbed the direct connections between the federal government
and provincial governments. On the other hand, the provincial governments were overburdened that
needed very accurate connection between the centre and the provinces to solve the problems of the
Muslim refugees who had nothing to eat, drink, wear, rest, etc. To counter the critical situation, the
official system should have been efficient but due to the lack of all these facilities the administrative
authorities were painfully facing difficulties.
Division of Assets
The Indian government was not cooperative for transfer of record and equipment to Pakistan. The civil
administration was not handing over the promised financial, military, and other shares that created
mountainous hurdles to eradicate the pains and miseries of the refugees.
Financial Assets
At the time of the partition there was a cash balance 4 billion rupees in the Reserve Bank of
India, which was to the share between India and Pakistan on the ratio of 17 to India and 5 to
Pakistan. Pakistan was to receive 750 million rupees, which was initially delayed by the Indian
government. After the protest of Pakistan India agreed to pay 200 million rupees. As the war between
Pakistan and India had started on the issue of Kashmir in 1948, India again stopped the
rest of the amount by saying that Pakistan could use it to but arms. After threat of hunger strike from
Gandhi, Nehru forced to pay another 500 million rupees. However the remaining 50 million rupees are
still not paid. The money was Pakistan rightful share India deliberately withhold it because they hoped
that Pakistan would become
bankrupt.
Military’s Division
It was announced on 1st July 1947, that British Indian Army would also be divided. The agreed division
of the military was in a ratio of 65 to 35 in India’s favor, which was with the reference of communal
balance in the army. General Auchinleck was appointed as the Field Maritial of the joint army of India
and Pakistan and in-charge of the distribution of military asset Pakistan’s immediate requirement for an
army of 150,000 soldiers and 4000 officers. These were only 2500
Muslim officers were available. The short falls had to make up of temporary commissions and 500
British officers, which included the 1st two C-in-C of Pakistan Army.
India created lot of problems in the division of military assets. Whatever Pakistan received was nothing
but scarp and out of order machines, broken weapons, unserviceable artillery and aircrafts. There were
16 ordnance factories and all were situated in India. Eventually a financial settlement was made and
Pakistan was given 60 million rupees towards its share in the ordnance factories. Later an Ordinance
factory was established at Wah. Pakistan received six Armor divisions to India’s fourteen, eight
Artillery divisions to India’s forty and eight Infantry divisions to India’s twenty one. Pakistan also
received the Staff College in Quetta and Service Crops College at Kakul, which later became Pakistan
Military Academy.
Integration of Princely States

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At the time of partition there were 462 princely states in Subcontinent, which covered one third of
Indian Territory and quarter of its population. The Princely States came under indirect control of
British Government because the states were independent in their internal affairs but their defense and
foreign relations were under the control of British Government At time of partition the rulers of the
states were given option to join either India or Pakistan by the British Government. But the rulers were
advised to consider their geographical location and religious trend of the population before their
accession. In 1947 the northern states of Dir, Swat, Chitral, Amb and Hunza joined Pakistan. They
were joined by Gilgit and Kalat in Balochistan Bahawalpur also joined Pakistan, adding a further 1.5
million inhabitants to the new country. In the East the people of Sylhet voted in a referendum which
led to them joining Pakistan By 15th of August 1947 majority of the princely states announced their
accession with either Pakistan or India except Kashmir, Hyderabad and Junagadh.
The Issue of Kashmir
In 1947 Hindu Raja Hari Singh ruled the State of Jammu and Kashmir.
This was one of the largest princely State in the Subcontinent and the fact that it had boundaries with
Tibet, China, Afghanistan and Russia gave it strategic importance. In spite of the wishes
of a large Muslim majority (4 million=77%), Maharaja did not want to join Pakistan. It was believed
that he was trying to win independence for his state and so he delayed joining either Pakistan or India.
In September 1947 he started a campaign to drive many Muslims out of the
Kashmir. Over 200,000 fled to Pakistan and finally the Muslims rose in rebellion. The maharaja forced
to india. India forces entered in Kashmir through Gurdaspur, which provided India with the only exit
to Kashmir. It was Muslim majority area and was unjustly rewarded to India by the
Radcliffe Award. India’s action also proved the fact that accession of Kashmir with India was pre-
planned and Gurdaspur was deliberately handed over to India to provide her a link with Kashmir.
Quaid-e-Azam ordered Pakistan Army to move Kashmir but General Grassey (1st C-in-C of
Pakistan Army) refused to obey the instructions. Mean while the freedom fighters were able to liberate
almost one-third of Kashmir. On 31st December 1948 India submitted a formal complaint against
Pakistan in UNO for providing assistance to the freedom fighters in Kashmir. A ceasefire was
arranged and Kashmir was divided between India and Pakistan.
However, Pakistan was angered that India retained the largest area of Kashmir, including the capital,
Srinagar. India Prime Minister Nehru agreed that a referendum would be held to know the wishes of
Kashmiri people. This referendum has not been held and the ‘Kashmir Issue’ remains a major source
of discontent between the two countries today. Pakistan has made numerous demands that UNO
resolve the dispute, but, so far, it has been impossible to reach agreement.
Junagadh
It was a small state with access to sea having about 7 lakh population and 3377 mile area. The ruler
was Muslim while the majority of its population was Hindu. The ruler decided to accede to Pakistan
and Pakistan also accepted the accession. In November1947, the Indian troops entered the state and
took its control. The referendum favored India.
Hyderabad
Hyderabad was the largest of the princely states (almost equal to U.K) with population of 160 million
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and generates revenue of over 160 million rupees Majority of its population was Hindu but ruler
whose title was ‘Nizam’ was a Muslim Hyderabad being a prosperous state and because of its prestige
and importance wanted to maintain its independent status but Lord Mount batten told him this was not
possible. As being Muslim he wanted to accede to Pakistan.
The Indian government, however, was determined not to allow Hyderabad to join Pakistan. It began
pressurizing the Nizam to join Pakistan. He was unwilling to do so, but finally agreed to enter in
respect of defense, foreign affairs and communications The Indians exerted further pressure and in
August 1948 Hyderabad filed a complaint before the UNO. Before it could be heard, on 13th
September 1948 just two days after the death of Quaid-e-Azam, Indian troops entered Hyderabad,
dismantled the state and incorporated it into different provinces in India.
Communal Riots and Refugees
The Communal riots occurred earlier in August 1946. The killing of Muslims in Indian areas forced
them to leave India. The Sikhs and Hindus attacked the refugee caravans and trains. There were
organized gangs to kill the Muslims. The refugee problem created critical condition in the border areas.
The massive migration proved serious economic and humanitarian problems for the new state. The
military was asked to help cope with the refugee problem.
Clashes between Hindus and Muslims became usual after the announcement of 3rd June Plan.
But the communal violence reached to its height when the Redcliffe Award defined the boundaries of
Bengal and Punjab on 16th August 1947. Sikhs who were enraged at the loss of Guru Nanak’s
birthplace they were better armed and better organized. Hindus and Sikhs had organized program for
the massacre of Muslim Refugees. In the non-Muslim princely states there were examples of state
troops being used to support attacks on Muslims.
Millions of people found themselves living in the ‘Wrong Country’ and became victims of communal
attacks. The only answer was for Muslims to move into Pakistan and non-Muslims to move into India.
At the time of partition World’s largest migration took place. Over 10 million people had moved
from India to Pakistan or in the other direction by January 1948. A million men, women and
children died as a result of violence or the difficulties of the long journey. Nearly 20 million
people were made homeless and both India and Pakistan faced enormous problems a huge
numbers of refugees field to them for safety Karachi alone received nearly two million refugees
in 1947 alone. It was estimated that only West Pakistan had received 5.5 million refugees as
compared with East Pakistan’s 3.5 million. Some refugees moved willingly, taking as many of
their possessions with them as they could. Other fled from violence and often arrived in their new
country with nothing at all Pakistan, as a new and not wealthy country, it was extremely difficult
for these people to be accommodated.
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To help the newly arrived refugees Quaid-e-Azam set up a Relief Fund to rehabilitate them as quickly
as possible. The people were quick to respond with donations in cash and kind.
Canal Water Problem
Canal Water Dispute between Pakistan and India had its origin in Red cliff’s Award. Redcliffe divided
the boundary of India and Pakistan in such a way that it cut across River Ravi and Sutlej making India
and Pakistan upper and lower beneficiaries.
West Pakistan is fertile country but has a hot and dry climate. Rainfall is not plentiful and so it relies
upon irrigation system from series of canals, which draw from the three main rivers in the area, the
Indus, the Jehlum and the Chenab. The problem for Pakistan was that the flow of water through the
canals and rivers was controlled at a series of ‘Head works’, most of which lay in the part of Punjab
that was now in India. The Indian government promised not to interfere with the supply of water to
Pakistan. On 1st April 1948 India stopped the flow of water (Ravi and Sutlej), knowing that the
economy of Pakistan dependent on agriculture, which caused heavy economic loss for Pakistan. In the
beginning Pakistan had to pay large amount of money to purchase water from India. The Pakistan
government called for the matter to be settled by the international court of justice, but India refused. In
May 1948 a temporary agreement was reached. India agreed to allow water from East Punjab to flow
into West Punjab, but only if Pakistan agreed to try to find alternative water supplies.
Issue of National Language and Identity
Immediately after the establishment of Pakistan language controversy was started between East and
West Pakistan, when the members of the Constituent Assembly belonged to East Pakistan. Liaquat Ali
Khan Prime Minister of Pakistan refused to accept the demand that created resentment among East
Pakistan. Refusal of the demand ultimately transformed into a political movement. In March 1948
while addressing at Dhaka Quaid-e-Azam declared, “Urdu and Urdu alone would be the National
Language of Pakistan”. Advice of Quaid temporarily took the heat out of Language Movement but
the issue was not settle it exploded later after the death of Quaide-Azam. Pakistan was mainly made up
of five different regions, they were: 1) The Pakhtuns in the north 2) The Balochs in the west 3) The
Sindhis in the south 4) The Punjabis in the northeast 5) The Bengalis in the east. These people had
different traditions, cultures, languages and lifestyle. Pakistan was not comprised of a single united
people and there was much work to do in convincing everyone of the wisdom of joining the new state.
Thus created a problem of National identity
Issue of Pakhtoonistan
At the time partition the “Red Shirts” the ally of INC controlled N.W.F.P. The Khan Brothers, Dr.
Khan Sahib and Abdul Ghaffar Khan, were there leaders. Despite the 1947 referendum in which the
people of the region voted to join Pakistan, the leaders of the “Red Shirts” demanded union with
Afghanistan or complete regional autonomy. The Afghan government also supported the issue that the
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“Pakhtoons” or Pathans living in both Pakistan and Afghanistan belong to the same race and the
“Pakhtoons” of Pakistan wanted to be the part of union with Afghanistan, called “Pakhtoonistan”.
(G) Death of Quaid-e-Azam

Despite all the problems, Pakistan continued to march under the dynamic leadership of Quaid-eAzam,
Nobody can deny the fact that in the early year predominant leadership of Quaid-e-Azam was a source
of strength for Pakistan. Quaid-e-Azam died on 11th September 1948, just after one year of
independence. After the death of Quaid-e-Azam there were other great leader too but unfortunately
none was of the caliber of Quaid-e-Azam.
Q Source: In 1947 the new nation of Pakistan faced huge difficulties which threatened its survival as
an independent nation. Two serious disputes with India made life difficult for the new government of
Pakistan. One of these was the Canal Water Dispute.
What was the Canal Water Dispute? [4] (J2010/P1/4a)
Threatened agriculture in the Punjab, irrigation system depended on 6 rivers and 30 canals, some of
which were in India. April 1948 India shut off waters flowing into Pakistan from Firozpur headworks,
threatening millions of acres of agricultural land in Pakistan. Some waters reinstated in May 1948 but
not permanently until 1959 and Indus Water Treaty.
Q Why was Pakistan faced with a refugee problem in 1947? [7] (N2006/P1/4b)
During 1947, violence between Hindus and Muslims increased dramatically. Muslims fearful of being
killed were forced to leave all their possessions and cross into Pakistan to seek shelter. The Boundary
Award had made the problems worse between the two. Since Pakistan had become independent so
Muslims were leaving India for their homeland, often with little or no possessions. It was argued that
India deliberately made difficulties for the new Pakistani government by forcing Muslims across the
border. Hindus and Sikhs, perhaps fearful of reprisals and a genuine desire to live in a Hindu nation,
also contributed to the refugee problem by crossing from Pakistan to India.
Why was the division of the armed forces and military assets a problem for Pakistan in 1947? [7]
(N2003/P1/4b)
Was the refugee issue the most important problem facing the newly formed government of
Pakistan in 1947? Give reasons for your answer. [14] (J2004/P1/3c)
The Canal Water Dispute was the most important problem facing the newly established
government of Pakistan in 1947’. Do you agree or disagree? Give reasons for your answer. [14]
(J2007/P1/4c)
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The formation of a government was the most important problem facing the newly established
country of Pakistan in 1947.’ Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer. [14] (N2009/P1/4c)
Marking Scheme: Explains at least two factors

Also produces a judgment or evaluation.
The refugees had been submitted to terrible atrocities and so thousands fled to Pakistan. They needed
food and shelter and placed great strain on the new government. However there were other reasons. It
was essential following the creation of Pakistan to have a new government immediately. However there
was a shortage of properly Qualified and experienced personnel which made the task of running a
government department extremely difficult. Pakistan had been awarded 750 million rupees under the
final settlement but only received 200 million at first. This put enormous strain on the new government
since they were unable to use the money appropriately. It was also the case with the division of the
armed forces and military assets. Much of the assets awarded were obsolete or out of order. Perhaps
crucially the Canal Water Dispute was one of the most serious problems since India now controlled the
water supply to Pakistan which brought tensions to a head between the two countries. The problem
dragged on until 1959
The government of Pakistan was totally successful in solving the problems of Partition during
1947 and 1948.’ Do you agree? Explain your answer. [14] (J2005/P1/4c)
Marking Scheme: Explains successes and failures
Successes:
Quaid-e-Azam Relief Fund created to help refugees. He appealed to the people to help the refugees. He
toured the provinces encouraging and motivating the people.
Declared him ‘Protector-General’of religious minorities.
State Bank of Pakistan set up.
Karachi made capital of Pakistan.
Civil Services re-organised.
Joined United Nations and attempted to draw their attention to Kashmir problem.
Failures:
Kashmir and other Princely States issues not resolved.
Canal Water Dispute not resolved until 1959.
Millions made homeless or died as a result of Partition.
THE GOVERNOR-GENERALSHIP OF QUAID-E-AZAM, 1947-1948
On 15th August 1947 Quaid-e-Azam assumed the office as the Govemor General of Pakistan.
However, he took the role of Chief Executive in the new government. He chaired cabinet
meetings & was the president of the constituent assembly.
BUILDING A NATION:
• He could little about the fact that the country that the country was divided in to two distinct areas-east
& West Pakistan. He works hard toward establishing the Pakistan was a single, united country. He
stressed people not think of himself or herself as for example: Punjabi or
Bengali
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• Quaid-e-Azam declared himself “Protector General of Minorities”. He made it an absolutely clear

that the state of Pakistan was not going to discriminate against any citizen on the ground of his religion.
• To help the newly arrived refugees he setup a Relief Fund to rehabilitate them as quickly as possible.
The people were quick to respond with donations in cash & kind.
• Quaid secured membership of the country in to the United Nation Organization (UNO) on
30th September 1947. This helped in gained recognition & support among the other nations of the
world.
BUILDING A GOVERNMENT:
• Quaid-e-Azam paid up his attention towards setting up the administrative machinery.
Karachi was made the capital of Pakistan where the central secretariat was setup. Without carrying
inadequate office equipments, the government officers began their work with zeal & sentiments of
sacrifices.
• Liaqat Ali Khan was appointed prime Minister and Cabinet was formed. A Constituent Assembly was
set up to begin to frame a constitution for the new Pakistan.
• The Civil Services were recognized to draft the civil services rules.
• He also completed the judicial structure of administration by creating the Federal court.
BUILDING AN ECONOMY:
• Quaid-e-Azam gave monetary independence to Pakistan by establishing the State Bank of

Pakistan on 1st July 1948.
• In 1948 Jinnah’s Industrial policy Statement made it clear that he & the government wanted to setup
industries in Pakistan as quickly as possible.
• Canal Water Dispute was settled due to Quaid’s efforts. He also helps to persuade to Indian
government to hand over the agreed share of financial assets from pre-partition of India.
ESTABLISHING NATIONAL SECURITY:

• Although Pakistan has been given poor military equipment & it lacked military officers for the army.
Quaid fulfill this gap by offering temporary commission & using British officer in Pakistan army.
• Although Pakistan army was ill equipped saw its 1st action in Kashmir. Despite being out numbered
& having inferior arms & ammunition, it stoop up well & held its own in fighting.
Significant Features of various Ministries (1947 – 1988)
Governor Generals of Pakistan (1947 – 1956)

• Quid-e-Azam: Assume power as the 1st Governor General of Pakistan on 15th August 1947, died on
11 th September 1948.
• KhwajaNazimuddin: Assume power after the death of Quaid-e-Azam on 14th September 1948,
resigned from his office after the death of Liaquat Ali Khan to become the prime Minister on 17th
October 1951.
• Malik Ghulam Muhammad: Assume Power on 19th October 1951, forced to resign because of his
ill health on 15th October 1955.
• Major General Iskander Mirza: Assume power on 16th October 1955, resigned from the office of
Governor General on 22nd March 1956 to become the President of Pakistan.
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Presidents and Chief Martial Law Administrators of Pakistan

(1947 – 1988)
• Major General Iskander Mirza: Elected as the 1 st President of Pakistan by the Members of the
National Assembly on 23 rd March 1956, forced to resign by General Ayub Khan on 27th October
1958.
• General Ayub Khan: Assume power as the 1 st Chief Martial Law Administration of Pakistan on
27th October 1958, sworn as 2nd President of Pakistan in February 1960 resigned in March 1969
because of widespread protest against his government.
• General Yahya Khan: He became the Chief Martial Law Administrator and 3 rd President of
Pakistan after the resignation of General Ayub Khan on 25th March 1969; he resigned on 20th
December 1971 after the separation of East Pakistan.
• Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto: Assume the power as the 1st Civilian Chief Martial Law Administrator and the
4th President of Pakistan on 20th December 1971, resigned from the office of the President when
elected as the Prime Minister of Pakistan by the National Assembly on 13th August 1973.
• Chaudri Fazal Elahi: Elected as the 5th President of Pakistan on 14th August 1973, retired at the
end of his term on 16th September 1978.
• General Zia-ul-Haq: Assume power as the Chief Martial Law Administrator on 15th July 1977, also
became the 6th President of Pakistan after the retirement of Fazal Elahi on 16th September 1978, died
in plane crash on 17th August 1988.
• Ghulam Ishaq Khan: The Chairman of Senate assumed the office of President after the death of Zia-
ul-HaQ on 17th August 1988, forced to resign on 8th July 1993.
Prime Ministers of Pakistan (1947 – 1988)
• LiaQat Ali Khan: He became the 1 st Prime Minister of Pakistan on 15th August 1947, shot dead on
16th October 1951.
• Khwaja Nazimuddin: Assume power on 17th October 1951, dismissed by Ghulam Mohammed on
17th April 1953.
• Mohammad Ali Bogra: Appointed (twice by Ghulam Mohammad on 17th April 1953, Ghulam
Mohammed dissolved the Constituent Assembly on 11 th August 1955.
• Chaudri Mohammad Ali: Elected by the members of the members of the Constituent Assembly as
the Prime Minister on 11 th August 1955, forced to resign when lost majority in the Assembly on 12th
September 1956.
• Hussain Shaheed Suharwardy: Assume power on 12th September 1956, forced to resign when lost
majority in the Assembly on 17th October 1957.
• Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar: Assume power on 18th October 1957, forced to resign when lost
majority in the Assembly on 16th December 1957.
• Feroz Khan Noon: Assume power on 18th December 1957, removed when Martial Law was
imposed on 17th October 1958.
• General Ayub Khan: On 22nd October 1958, Major General IskanderMirza appointed General Ayub
Khan as the Prime Minister of Pakistan.
• Noor-ul-Amin: Nominated by General Yahya Khan on 7th December 1971, removed after the
separation of East Pakistan on 20th December 1971.
• ZulfiQar Ali Bhutto: He became the 1st democratically elected Prime Minister of Pakistan on 12th
August 1973, removed by General Zia-ul-HaQ on 5th July 1977, when Martial Law was imposed on
the country.
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• Mohammad Khan Junaijo: Appointed by General Zia-ul-HaQ as the Prime Minister of Pakistan on
23 rd March 1985, dismissed by Zia-ul-HaQ on 29th May 1988.
• Benazir Bhutto: After the election held in October 1988, Benazir Bhutto (daughter of Z.A. Bhutto)
becoming the 1st woman Prime Minister of Pakistan in November 1988.
1st Martial Law imposed by President Major General Iskander Mirza on 7th October 1958 and lifted
by President General Ayub Khan on 1st March 1962. 2nd Martial Law imposed by President General
Yahya on 25th March 1969 and lifted by Z.A. Bhutto on 1st March 1972. 3 rd Martial Law imposed by
General Zia-ul-HaQ on 7th March 1977 and lifted by President General Zia-ul-HaQ in December 1985.
The Objectives Resolution (1949)
The Objectives Resolution was the first constitutional document that proved to be the foundation’ of
the constitutional developments in Pakistan. It provided parameters and sublime principles to the
legislators. It made the constitution-making process easy task setting some particular objectives before
them that would be acceptable to the people of Pakistan who had suffered a lot under the Hindu-
dominated majority. The Resolution was moved by Liaquat Ali Khan, the then Prime Minister of the
Islamic Republic of Pakistan, and approved on March 12, 1949.
Features of the Objectives Resolution

1. Sovereignty over the entire universe belongs to Almighty Allah alone.
2. The authority which He has delegated to the state of Pakistan through its people for being exercised
within the limits prescribed by Him is a sacred trust.
3. Constitution will be framed for sovereign, independent state of Pakistan.
4. The state shall exercise its power through the representatives of the people.
5. Principles of Democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance and social justice as enunciated by Islam will
be fully observed.
6. Muslims shall be enabled to organize their lives in accordance with the teachings and requirements
of Islam as set out in the Quran and the Sunnah.
7. Minorities to have freedom to freely profess and practice their religions and develop their cultures.
8. Provisions for safeguarding the legitimate interests of minorities, backward and depressed classes.
9. Pakistan shall be a Federation with autonomous units. State’s sovereignty and territorial integrity
will be protected.
10. People of Pakistan should prosper and attain their rightful place in the comity of nations and make
contribution towards international peace and progress and happiness of humanity.
Explanation and Importance
The Resolution declared the sovereignty of God as the distinctive political philosophy. The
Western democracy gives the notion that sovereignty lies in the people but this Resolution is
important having the concept of the sovereignty of God. It clarified that people would utilize
powers gifted by God so they would have to work within the limits prescribed by Him. The
exercise of the powers is a sacred trust. The representatives of the people of Pakistan will manage the
affairs under the universal ideology of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance, and
social justice with the spirit of an Islamic framework.
The Resolution pledged to give the due respect and rights to the minorities, backward and
depressed classes in the benign society of Pakistan. Their rights, interests, religion and culture
were not confuted. It’s important that the Resolution promised the federating units for due powers,
autonomy and territorial integrity.
Objections by Non-Muslims
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The major objection by the Non-Muslims was that the government was trying to mix the religion
and politics that was against the spirit of democracy. The non-Muslims objected on the‘Sovereignty of
Allah’ and minorities’ rights, saying it would promote ineQuality in the society.
They were also of view that Shariah was not adequate for the modern time. They feared that it
would encourage the religious extremists to work for the establishment of a ‘theocratic state.’
Importance
The Objectives Resolution is a basic and primary document of the constitutional history of
Pakistan. It is a framework that provides mechanism to achieve goals for a better life of the
people of Pakistan. It’s important that it embraces centrality of Islam to polity sustaining their links
with the pre-independence period. The AIML leaders were modernist Muslims not in favor of an
orthodox religious state. Therefore, they selected the middle way abiding by the Islamic laws and the
international democratic values. The Resolution remained ‘Preamble of all the constitutions due to its
importance.
Public and Representative Officers Disqualification Act

In 1949 the Public and Representative Office Disqualification Act (PRODA) allowed the government
to disqualify persons found guilty of "misconduct," a term that acquired a broad definition. In 1952 the
Security of Pakistan Act expanded the powers of the government in the interests of public order.
Liaquat–Nehru Pact (1950)

The Liaquat–Nehru Pact or Delhi Pact was a bilateral treaty was between the two South-
Asian states, India and Pakistan, whereby refugees were allowed to return unmolested to dispose of
their property, abducted women and looted property were to be returned, forced conversions were
unrecognized, and minority rights were confirmed. The treaty was signed in New Delhi by the Prime
Minister Jawahar Lal Nehru and the Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan on April 8, 1950. The treaty was
the outcome of six days of talks sought to guarantee the rights of minorities in both countries after
the Partition of India and to avert another war between them.
Rawalpindi Conspiracy
The Rawalpindi Conspiracy (also known as the Rawalpindi Conspiracy Case) was an attempted
Soviet-backed coup d'état against the government of Liaquat Ali Khan, the first Prime Minister of
Pakistan, in 1951. The conspiracy was the first of many subsequent coup attempts against elected
governments in the history of Pakistan. The coup was planned by Major-General Akbar Khan, a senior
[1]
commander in the Pakistani army, in conjunction with other military officers and left-wing Pakistani
politicians. Main causes of Rawaplindi conspiracy case (busted on 9 March 1951) were three. One, a
general discontent of Army's Pakistani Officers with the performance of the Liaqat Ali Khan's
Government, whom they thought of as corrupt and incompetent. Two, many of the high ranking
Pakistani Generals viewed the continuing presence of British Army Officers in the army as a security
threat, as well as an impediment to their speedy promotions. Third, and most immediate cause was
their discontent with Liaqat regime's handling of the Kashmir war with India (1948). The army
commander-in-chief, Gen. Muhammad Ayub Khan and the defense secretary Maj. Gen. Iskander
Mirza had both remained loyal to the government. Ayub Khan immediately ordered the army troops to
surround and take control of the army headquarters
Khawaja Nazimuddin (1948 – 1951)

He was from East Pakistan. He lacked firmness and was an honest and God fearing person.
Unfortunately he could not stop the influence of executive branch of government in the politics. In
1951 Malik Ghulam Mohammed who was Finance Minister at that time, persuaded him to step down
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as a Prime Minister from the post Governor General. In 1953, Pakistan suffered a great food crisis due
to flooding in East Pakistan and severe economic problems leading to civil unrest. This unrest was
exploited by religious elements that wanted Ahmediyas to be declared as Non-Muslims. The
government of Khawaja Nazimuddin was criticized for lacking firmness in the maintenance of law and
order and dealing with the economic situation. In 1953 Malik Ghulam Mohammed dismissed Khawaja
Nazimuddin’s government and appointed Muhammad Ali Bogra as new Prime Minister.
Malik Ghulam Muhammad (1951 – 1955)
When Pakistan came into being in 1947, Ghulam Mohammad was inducted in the 1 st Cabinet of the
country as Finance Minister, Liaquat Ali Khan during the last days of his rule was well of his life,
decided to remove Malik Ghulam Mohammad from his Cabinet due to his bad health. But death of
Liaquat Ali Khan turned the tables for Ghulam Mohammad. When Khawaja Nazimuddin resigned as
Governor General to become the Prime Minister, Cabinet elected Gulam Mohammad as 3 rd Governor
General of Pakistan. After assuming the charge as Governor General Ghulam Mohammad started
dominating the affairs of the country and Khawaja Nazimuddin merely became a powerless Prime
Minister.
Economic Reforms:
In 1950 a planning Commission was set up to oversee economic development in Pakistan. In 1951 it
launched a Six Year Plan for Pakistan. In 1952 a major jute processing plant was opened at East
Pakistan and exploration for oil/gas led to the discovery of vast reserves of natural gas at Sui in
Balochistan.
Political Matters:
From 1951-53 there was severe drought in Pakistan. This affected food production and in 1953 severe
food shortages led to noting in most cities throughout Pakistan. The rioting, however, had not been just
about food shortages. It had also a religious element. Some Ulemas had begun a campaign against the
Ahmedis. They demanded that Ahmedis be dismissed from office, including Zafarullah Khan. In April
1953 Ghulam Mohammad dismissed Khawaja Nazimuddin and three other members of the Cabinet,
blaming them for not controlling the economy and the riots that resulted from food shortages and issue
of Ahmedis.
New Cabinet was formed which includes a new Prime Minister, Mohammad Ali Bogra, who had been
the acting ambassador to the USA. In September 1954 M. Ali Bogra tried to reduce the discretionary
powers of Governor General under which Ghulam Mohammad dismissed khawaja Nazimuddin’s
government. Ghulam Mohammad acted immediately and dissolved the Constituent Assembly. He then
chose a new Cabinet in which he re-appointed Bogra as Prime Minister. Maulvi Tamizud-din the
speaker of dissolved assembly challenged the decision in Sindh High Court. The court gave verdict in
favor of MaulviTamiz-ud-din, but the Supreme Court reversed the decision Singh High Court. Ghulam
Mohammad fell ill and had to resign in August 1955. Major General Iskander Mirza replaced him.
Maj. Gen. IskanderMirza (1955 – 1958)

He became Governor General of Pakistan after Malik Ghulam Mohammad in October 1955. He had
joined the British Indian Army but he had been on political service by the British, so he was a perfect
bridge between military and civil service. He also used his power in an unconstitutional manner by
overthrowing political governments. In 1956, he became the 1st President of Pakistan (According to
the 1st Constitution of Pakistan in 1956, the designation of Governor General was changed into
President.) and was successful in formulating 1st Constitution of Pakistan on 23 rd March 1956. He
also invited General Ayub Khan to take over and proclaimed 1st Martial Law in Pakistan.
One Unit scheme 1955
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In October 1955, Governor General Iskander Mirza introduced a scheme known as ‘One Unit
Scheme’. This scheme was about joining all the four provinces and ten princely states of Pakistan into
single administrative system. The federation of Pakistan would then officially consist of West Pakistan
as one province with population of 34 million and East Pakistan as other province with population of
44 million. The main reason given for creating the unified province of West Pakistan was to improve
administration and economic resources. However, East Pakistan took it as a mean of denying them a
majority of seats in the national assembly. In the constitution of 1956 equal number of seats was given
to East and West Pakistan.
Field Marshal M. Ayub Khan and ‘Decade of Progress’ (1958 – 1969)
On 7th October 1958 Iskander Mirza, abrogated the Constitution of 1956 and proclaimed Martial Law
in the country with himself as the President. He appointed General Ayub Khan, the C-in-C of Pakistan
Army as Chief Martial Law Administrator. On 27th October 1958 Iskander Mirza was forced to
resigned and exiled by Ayub Khan. It was to be the 1st period of direct rule in the country.
Political Activities
Ban over political parties: For Ayub Khan political leaders created political instability in the country,
they also blocked the way of country’s progress. To culminate the influence of the political leaders and
parties and to prevent their entry into politics Ayub Khan banned all political parties under Martial Law
Regulation of 1958.
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Basic Democracies: The 1st step in Ayub Khan’s constitutional reforms came with the introduction of
the Basic Democracies Order on 26th October 1959. This four-tier system in which ordinary people
elected union council members who in turn elected district and divisional members Later it was stated
in the 1962 Constitution that the 80,000 elected Basic Democrats would also form the electoral
college for the election of the President and members of the Central and Provincial Legislatures.
System of Basic Democracies deprived the common people from taking part in the election of
President, National and Provincial assemblies directly. At the end of 1959, Ayub asked the Basic
Democrats for a vote of confidence. Almost 95% of them declared their confidence in Ayub Khan and
on 17th February 1960 he was confirmed as President of Pakistan for the next 5 years.
Constitutional Changes: On 17th February 1960 Ayub Khan announced the creation of a Constitution
Commission to make recommendations for a new constitution. Ayub Khan introduced the 2nd
Constitution on 1 st March 1962; he described it as combining ‘Democracy with Discipline. It was
Federal and Presidential type of constitution.
Criticisms: • Constitution of 1962 provided democratic dictatorship, as it provided the President

dictatorial powers. The Governors and Ministers were appointed by the President and could dissolve
the assembly. The Constitution was dictated by Ayub Khan and imposed without any discussion in
Parliament. • After the introduction of 2nd Constitution in 1962, Martial Law was lifted and ban on
Political parties was removed. It appeared that Pakistan was moving nearer to a democratic system, but
actually, Ayub’s reforms had increased the powers of the ruling elite. This had happened because the
major landlords dominated the elections to the Basic Democracies and often bribery to influence the
results
.The Constitution also further upset the people of East Pakistan. They felt that they would have little
part in governing Pakistan. Gradually they were coming to realize that Pakistan’s government was in
the hands of military and civil officials from West Pakistan.
Various steps were taken to placate East Pakistanis:
(1) Both Urdu and Bengali were recognized as two of the national languages.
(2) The National Assembly Session was to be held in both Dhaka and Islamabad.
(3) If the President were from West Pakistan, then the Speaker of the National Assembly was to be
from East Pakistan. Despite these measures the people of East Pakistan still believed that West
Pakistanis governed Pakistan. This resulted in feeling of unease in East Pakistan.
1965 War
The 1965 war began as a series of border flare−ups along undemarcated territory at the Rann of Kutch
in the southeast in April and soon after along the cease−fire line in Kashmir. The Rann of Kutch
conflict was resolved by mutual consent and British sponsorship and arbitration, but the Kashmir
conflict proved more dangerous and widespread. In the early spring of 1965, UN observers and India
reported increased activity by infiltrators from Pakistan into Indian−held Kashmir. Pakistan hoped to
support an uprising by Kashmiris against India. No such uprising took place, and by August India had
retaken Pakistani−held positions in the north while Pakistan attacked in the Chamb sector in
southwestern Kashmir in September. Each country had limited objectives, and neither was
economically capable of sustaining a long war because military supplies were cut to both countries by
the United States and Britain.
Tashkent Declaration
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On September 23, a cease−fire was arranged through the UN Security Council. In January 1966, Ayub
Khan and India's Prime Minister, Lal Bahadur Shastri, signed the Tashkent Declaration, which
formally ended hostilities and called for a mutual withdrawal of forces. This objectively statesmanlike
act elicited an adverse reaction in West Pakistan. Students as well as politicians demonstrated in urban
areas, and many were arrested. The Tashkent Declaration was the turning point in the political fortunes
of the Ayub Khan administration.
In February 1966, a national conference was held in Lahore, where all the opposition parties convened
to discuss their differences and their common interests. The central issue discussed was the Tashkent
Declaration, which most of the assembled politicians characterized as Ayub Khan's unnecessary
capitulation to India. More significant, perhaps, was the noticeable underrepresentation of politicians
from the East Wing.
About 700 persons attended the conference, but only twenty−one were from the East Wing. They were
led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (known as Mujib) of the Awami League, who presented his
controversial six−point political and economic program for East Pakistani provincial autonomy.
Six Points
The six points consisted of the following demands that the government be federal and parliamentary in
nature, its members elected by universal adult suffrage with legislative representation on the basis of
distribution of population; that the federal government have principal responsibility for foreign affairs
and defense only; that each wing have its own currency and separate fiscal accounts; that taxation
occur at the provincial level, with a federal government funded by constitutionally guaranteed grants;
that each federal unit control its own earnings of foreign exchange; and that each unit raise its own
militia or paramilitary forces.
Ayub Khan’s Decade of Progress
Agricultural Reforms:
First agricultural reforms in Pakistan were introduced by General Ayub Khan in Jan 24, 1959.
According to these reforms an individual was not allowed to own 500 irrigated and 1000 of non-
irrigated land in Pakistan. The remaining lands were to be redistributed amongst to tenants already
cultivating the land. Abolition of Jagirs which had already been abolished in Punjab and NWFP in
1950. However, the 1.1 million acres of Jagirs in Sind were abolished along with 150 and 258 acres in
Bahawalpur and Balochistan respectively. A series of reforms strengthened the Pakistani agriculture
sector. The green revolution, characterized by the introduction of high yielding varieties of rice and
wheat was brought in the society. Rural infrastructure investment was increased to improve the overall
availability of irrigation water and the amount of cultivated land. However the green revolution was
brought by the mechanization and that was available to big land owners only.
Industrial Reforms:

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The industrialization process was carried out by the loans from the western countries like USA,
Germany, and UK etc. The Export Bonus Vouchers Scheme (1959) and tax incentives stimulated new
industrial entrepreneurs and exporters.

Bonus vouchers facilitated access to foreign exchange for imports of industrial machinery and raw
materials.

Tax concessions were offered for investment in less-developed areas.


Oil refinery was set up.


Mineral development corporation


RCD in 1964 for regional cooperation with Iran and Turkey.


Encouragement of Private Enterprises (Industrial legislation with a view to facilitating the growth of
industry with minimum government interference)

Liberally provided to the industrial sector by both the commercial banks & the specialized credit
institutions

Establishment of Financial & Development Corporations (PIDC played an important role)


Industrial Trading Estates (Four new estates for small industries were established in Bahawalpur,
Gujarat, Larkana, and Peshawar)

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Investment Promotion Bureau (In order to attract foreign investment the government set up an
investment promotion bureau in April 1959)

As a result of these economic policies, economic growth rose sharply. The average growth rate was
7% in 1960s but this new wealth created problems for many Pakistanis and reduced the distribution of
income in society. His era witnessed rapid industrial progress (mainly in the western wing of the
country) with two five-year economic development plans. However his so-called 1958-68
"development decade" actually became a decade of exploitation and deliberate promotion of inequality
between classes and regions with the 22 big industrial families amassing most of the wealth. The
record reveals that Pakistan's Second Year Plan (1960-1965), the one that covered a good part of the
martial law period, was a substantial success from a statistical point of view. But there was little overall
improvement in the life-style of the general population. Dependency on foreign aid los increased.
Economic Development
Furthermore, Ayub Khan adopted an energetic approach toward economic development. It soon bore
fruit in a rising rate of economic growth. Ayub Khan period is credited with Green Revolution and
economic and industrial growth. Land reform rural credit programs and work programs, higher
procurement prices, augmented allocations for agriculture, and, especially, improved seeds put the
country on the road to self-sufficiency in food grains. This is popularly known as the Green Revolution.
The Export Bonus Vouchers Scheme (1959) and tax incentives stimulated new industrial entrepreneurs
and exporters. Bonus vouchers facilitated access to foreign exchange for imports of industrial
machinery and raw materials. Tax concessions were offered for investment in less-developed areas.
These measures had important consequences in bringing industry to Punjab and gave rise to a new
class of small industrialists.
2: Price Control:
The next step, which the military administration took, was the management of price control cells and
bodies. During the times of democratic governments, there was no check over the prices of the daily
commodities of life. Hoarding was very common. These factors were the primary source of inflation.
The situation was aggravated by the excessive profits earned by the retailers. The military government
printed price lists and made sure that no one could earn excessive profits by exploiting the needs of
the consumers.
Social Reforms
In addition, a legal commission was set up to suggest reforms of the family and marriage laws. Ayub
Khan examined its report and issued the Family Laws Ordinance in 1961. It restricted polygamy and
“regulated” marriage and divorce, giving women more equal treatment under the law. It was a
humane measure supported by women’s organizations in Pakistan. The ordinance could not have been
promulgated owing to opposition from the ulema and the fundamentalist Muslim groups. This law like
family planning was relatively mild and did not seriously transform the patriarchal pattern of society.
Rehabilitation of migrants:
As soon as the military government was established, the rehabilitation ministry, under the supervision
of Gen. Azam Ali, worked so rigorously that it came up with the settlement of majority of migrants in a
very short time. Several housing societies were established to provide shelter to the migrants,
Korangi being one of them.
Educational Reforms
Moreover, Ayub khan introduced certain reforms in the field of education. It was meant to raise the
literacy level and trained manpower in Pakistan. New curriculum and textbooks were published.
More schools were built He made technical education mandatory. Two year degree program was
Page 93 of 99
extended to three years. Civil Defense training was made mandatory in the schools and colleges. Last
but not the least, Ayub khan introduced labor reforms.
Ayub showed interest to work for the betterment of the labor class. It was made mandatory for the
factory owners to recognize the elected union council and to consider its opinion in all the issues. The
government provided the security to the leader and members of the union council from any revengeful
activity of the factory owner. In September 1961, a law was passed about the basic daily wages of the
laborers.
New Capital:
Government moved from Karachi to Islamabad for more central area for administration far from the
trade centre Karachi.
It had a better climate and was chosen to keep Officials away from Commercial influences.

To move Center of Administration from industrially and commercially developed South to the
Northern Punjab.

Was a site north of Rawalpindi and A lot of money was spend on the new Capital.

Ayub Khan’s Downfall

The prominent feature of a Martial Law regime is the rapid growth of development, but in the long run
the various measures taken by a martial dictator come in the lime light and create disruption among the
society. In spite of all the positive steps and development marking General Ayub’s Era, the graph of his
popularity began declining. The immediate cause was the elections of 1965 and the Tashkent
Declaration.

If we minutely study the ten years of Ayub’s era we calculate a few things. Like every martial law
administrator, Ayub liked to keep the power in his own hands. As soon as he came to power, one of the
first steps he took was the passing of EBDO (Disqualification of politicians and political parties under
Elective Bodies Disqualification Order), claiming to minimize corruption.

People wanted parliamentary form of government, but General Ayub presented the nation with second
constitution in 1962 which was presidential in nature.

By introducing the system of Basic Democracy (BD), the right of general public wre reduced to vote.

The control on media and press was observed.


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The Land and Family Laws were very attractive but they were not fully implemented.

The concept of urbanization was encouraged, but facilities were not provided.

The 1960's also marked Pakistan’s increase reliance on foreign aid.


Another negative feature of Ayub's industrial and trade policies were the deliberate repression of wages.

The whole of West Pakistan was made in one unit, with which the small provinces were not happy.

Rumors about his illness in the early 1968, about making Gohar Ayub his successor, withdrawal of
military support added more to his unpopularity.

One more aspect which Ayub neglected from the beginning caused a major upheaval in his popularity
graph was the case of East Pakistan. It is an atrocious truth that since independence all the governments
including that of Ayub Khan had neglected East Pakistan.

Zufiqar Ali Bhutto exploited the Tashkent declaration to turn the public opinion against Ayub.

Finally, the movement against his government intensified towards the end of 1968 and in the beginning
of 1969. The movement was launched by Urban middle class i.e. Students, lawyers, teachers, doctors,
laborers, politicians etc.

It became quite difficult for General Ayub to face so much opposition from politicians as well as
common people from all walks of life. He ultimately decided to resign in March 1969. In his last radio
address to the nation on 25 March 1969, he said, “I cannot preside over the destruction of my country”.

Page 95 of 99
Q Source: Ayub Khan seized power because he had no faith in the democratic parliamentary process,
but he wanted to show that he had the support of the people. He felt it important that all national
decisions were made by the president but believed in controlled democracy. On the first anniversary of
his takeover he introduced the Basic Democracies.
What were the Basic Democracies? [4] (N2011/P1/4a)
Marking Scheme: Candidates might refer to:

1959, local committees named Basic Democrats, 80000, no political parties to take place in the
elections held Dec 59 to Jan 60, newly elected BDs able to vote in referendum as to whether he should
remain President, 95% voted yes.
Why was Martial Law declared in 1958? [7] (N2004/P1/4b)
.
There were a number of Prime Ministers between 1956 and 1958 and it reached a stage when Ayub
Khan achieved that status that he felt the army should take control until stability had been restored and
Questions answered. East Pakistan’s politicians wanted more say in the running of the central
government which increased tension.
Constitutional reforms of Ayub Khan were the most important development’ between 1958 and
1969.” Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer. [14] (J2005/P1/5c)
Ayub Khan’s agricultural reforms were more successful than any other of his domestic policies
between 1958 and 1969’. Do you agree or disagree? Give reasons for your answer. [14]
(N2007/P1/4c)
Marking Scheme:
Level 3 and 4
In 1959 Basic Democracies were introduced which a four tier structure of government was allowing
elections at various levels. The success of these councils which were set up was such that martial law
was lifted. However, there were other factors which were important aspects of his domestic policies.
Land was redistributed to farmers with medium sized farms and agriculture was revitalized to such an
extent that crop outputs were at record levels. National growth rate rose more than 7% and the
economy grew three times faster than any other South East Asian country. However, the new wealth
was concentrated in the hands of a few and the general population did not benefit.
Page 96 of 99
. In 1962 an oil refinery was established in Karachi and a Mineral Development Corporation was set
up for the exploration of mineral deposits. An Export Bonus Scheme was set up offering incentives to
industrialists who increased exports. As a result of these policies economic growth rose sharply.
SECTION A
Answer the following question.
1 This question is about the establishment of the independent state of Pakistan in 1947.
Study the sources carefully and then answer the questions which follow.
Source A
If we are to exist as a nation and give shape to the dream of Pakistan, we will have to face the problems
with determination and force. Our people are disorganized and disheartened by the difficulties we face.
Their morale is low and we will have to work harder to pull them out of their despondency and
galvanize them to action. All this throws a greater responsibility on government servants, to whom our
people look for guidance.
From a speech by Jinnah to government officials in October 1947.
a.
According to Source A, what problems faced Pakistan in 1947? [3]
b.
Reward each correct statement with 1 mark.

Population who have low morale, are disheartened and disorganised, government will need to work
hard to motivate the people and have to become more responsible.
Source B
Muslim
Page 97 of 99
What does Source B tell us about Muslim refugees in 1947? [5]
Page 98 of 99
(c) Why did Pakistan join the United Nations in 1947? [7]
Level 3 Explains reasons, e.g.
Pakistan felt that membership of the United Nations would help their conflict with India over Kashmir
by drawing the international community’s attention to it. Also Pakistan took it upon itself to become a
spokesman of many Asian states and movements, especially Muslim countries. Other issues included
the World Bank
and the Canal Water Dispute.[5–7]
Level 2 Identifies reasons, e.g.

Because of the Canal Water Dispute.[2–4]
Level 1 Simplistic answer, e.g.

The United Nations was founded after World War II.[1]
(d) How successful was Quaid-e-Azam in establishing the new Pakistan in 1947? Explain your
answer. [10]
Level 5 Explains successes and failures, and also produces a judgement orevaluation.[10]
Level 4 Explains successes and failures.

Successes:
Quaid-e-Azam Relief Fund created to help refugees. He appealed to
the people to help the refugees.
He toured the provinces encouraging and motivating the people.
Declared himself ‘Protector-General’ of religious minorities.
State Bank of Pakistan set up.
Karachi made capital of Pakistan.
Civil Services re-organised.
Joined United Nations and attempted to draw their attention to
Kashmir problem.
Failures:
Kashmir and other Princely States issues not resolved.
Canal Water Dispute not resolved until 1959.
Millions made homeless or died as a result of partition.
He died in 1948.[8–9]
Page 99 of 99

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Pakistan Studies (2059/1) Booklet # 01

Paper 1-The history and Culture of Pakistan 2059/1, 1 Hour 30 minutes

Each question has three parts:

Total 75 marks.Externally assessed.

Cultural and historical background to the Pakistan Movement

SHAH WALIULLAH (1703-62)

Political & Social Conditions of India during Shah Waliullah’s Time: -

His Political Services: -

His invitation to Ahmed Shah Abduli to Attack Indian:

His Economic Services: -

SYED AHMED SHAHEED BARAILVI (1786-1831)

Syed Ahmed’s Birth & Education: -

Syed Ahmed’s Aim & Objectives as A Muslim: -

Syed Ahmed’s Jihad Movement: -

Causes of Failure of Jihad Movement:-

HAJI SHARIATULLAH (1781-1840)

The Faraizi Movement: -

Declaring India as Dar-ul-Harb:

Opposition of Hindu Zamindars against Haji Shariatullah: -

Describe the achievements of Haji Shariat Ullah in reviving Islam [4]

What was the Faraizi Movement? [4]

Who was Ranjit Singh? [4]

Who was Titu Mir? [4]

LEVEL 3: Explains reasons [5–7]

LEVEL 3: Explains reasons

Explains 2 or more factors (SASB to be included for max marks)

DECLINE OF MUGHAL EMPIRE

Weakness of the Nobility:

Weakness of the Army:

Lavish Life Style

THE EAST INDIA COMPANY & BRITISH

Battle of Plassey 1757:

Battle of Buxar 1764:

Act of Parliament 1773:

Annexation of Sindh and Punjab

What was the East India Company? [4] (J2010/P1/1a)

Who was Tipu Sultan [4]

Who was Robert Clive? [4]

Level 3: Explains reasons:

LEVEL 3: Explain reasons

LEVEL 4: Explains the Industrial Revolution and other reasons [9–13]

LEVEL 5: As Level 4 – also produces a judgment or evaluation [14]

War of Independence 1857

.a. Annexation Policy of the British: -

.b. Doctrine of Lapse: -

c. Confiscation of Property of Nobles: -

Disbandment of Armies of the annexed states: -

Causes of the Failure of the Revolt of 1857

Strength of British Army:

Impact of the War of Independence1857

What was the Doctrine of Lapse? [4]

Level 3: Explain Reasons

LEVEL 4: EXPLAIN REASONS

SIR SYED AHMED KHAN

Early Biography Details

Convincing the British

Convincing the Muslims

2. Encouraging the growth of Western education

3. Increasing Political Awareness