Islamic Golden Age

The Islamic Golden Age was a period of cultural,

economic, and scientific flourishing in the history of Islam, Islamic Golden Age
traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 14th 8th century – 14th century
century.[1][2][3] This period is traditionally understood to
have begun during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun
al-Rashid (786 to 809) with the inauguration of the House
of Wisdom in Baghdad, the world's largest city by then,
where Islamic scholars and polymaths from various parts
of the world with different cultural backgrounds were
mandated to gather and translate all of the world's classical
knowledge into Arabic and Persian.[4][5] Several historic
inventions and significant contributions in numerous fields
were made throughout the Islamic middle ages that
revolutionized human history.

The period is traditionally said to have ended with the

collapse of the Abbasid caliphate due to Mongol invasions
and the Siege of Baghdad in 1258.[6] A few scholars date
the end of the golden age around 1350 linking with the
Timurid Renaissance,[7][8] while several modern historians
and scholars place the end of the Islamic Golden Age as
late as the end of 15th to 16th centuries meeting with the
Age of the Islamic Gunpowders.[1][2][3] (The medieval
period of Islam is very similar if not the same, with one
source defining it as 900–1300 CE.)[9] Clockwise from top: Al-Zahrawi, Abbas ibn
Firnas, Al-Biruni, Avicenna, Averroes, Ibn al-
Nafis, ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, Alhazen, Ibn
Contents Khaldun

History of the concepts Preceded by Rashidun Caliphate

Causes Followed by Timurid Renaissance, Age of

Religious influence the Islamic Gunpowders
Government sponsorship Monarch(s) Umayyad, Abbasid, Samanid,
Diverse contributions Fatimid, Ayyubid, Mamluk
New technology Leader(s) Al-Walid
Education Sulayman
Law Hisham
Theology Al-Mansur
Philosophy Harun al-Rashid
Metaphysics Al-Ma'mun
Epistemology Al-Wathiq
Mathematics Al-Mutawakkil
Algebra Ismail Samani
 Geometry Almanzor
Trigonometry Saladin Ayyubi
Calculus
Natural sciences
Scientific method
Astronomy
Physics
Chemistry
Geodesy
Biology
Engineering
Social sciences
Healthcare
Hospitals Scholars at an Abbasid library, from
the Maqamat of al-Hariri by Yahya
Pharmacies
ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti, Baghdad,
Medicine 1237.
Surgery
Commerce and travel
Agriculture
Arts and culture
Literature and poetry
Art
Music
Architecture
Decline
Invasions Improvements to the astrolabe were
Economics one scientific achievement of the
Golden Age.
Culture
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links

History of the concepts

The metaphor of a golden age began to be applied in 19th-century literature about Islamic history, in the
context of the western aesthetic fashion known as Orientalism. The author of a Handbook for Travelers in
Syria and Palestine in 1868 observed that the most beautiful mosques of Damascus were "like
Mohammedanism itself, now rapidly decaying" and relics of "the golden age of Islam".[10]
There is no unambiguous definition of the term, and depending on
whether it is used with a focus on cultural or on military achievement,
it may be taken to refer to rather disparate time spans. Thus, one 19th
century author would have it extend to the duration of the caliphate,
or to "six and a half centuries",[11] while another would have it end
after only a few decades of Rashidun conquests, with the death of
Umar and the First Fitna.[12] Expansion of the Caliphates, 622–
750.
During the early 20th century, the term was used only occasionally Expansion under Muhammad,
and often referred to as the early military successes of the Rashidun 622–632
caliphs. It was only in the second half of the 20th century that the term Expansion during the Rashidun
came to be used with any frequency, now mostly referring to the
Caliphate, 632–661
cultural flourishing of science and mathematics under the caliphates
Expansion during the Umayyad
during the 9th to 11th centuries (between the establishment of
organised scholarship in the House of Wisdom and the beginning of Caliphate, 661–750
the crusades),[13] but often extended to include part of the late 8th or
the 12th to early 13th centuries.[14] Definitions may still vary
considerably. Equating the end of the golden age with the end of the caliphates is a convenient cut-off point
based on a historical landmark, but it can be argued that Islamic culture had entered a gradual decline much
earlier; thus, Khan (2003) identifies the proper golden age as being the two centuries between 750–950,
arguing that the beginning loss of territories under Harun al-Rashid worsened after the death of al-Ma'mun in
833, and that the crusades in the 12th century resulted in a weakening of the Islamic empire from which it
never recovered.[15]

Causes

Religious influence

The various Quranic injunctions and Hadith (or actions of Prophet Muhammad), which place values on
education and emphasize the importance of acquiring knowledge, played a vital role in influencing the
Muslims of this age in their search for knowledge and the development of the body of science.[16][17][18]

Government sponsorship

The Islamic Empire heavily patronized scholars. The money spent on the Translation Movement for some
translations is estimated to be equivalent to about twice the annual research budget of the United Kingdom's
Medical Research Council.[19] The best scholars and notable translators, such as Hunayn ibn Ishaq, had
salaries that are estimated to be the equivalent of professional athletes today.[19] The House of Wisdom was a
library established in Abbasid-era Baghdad, Iraq by Caliph al-Mansur.[20]

Diverse contributions

During this period, the Muslims showed a strong interest in assimilating the scientific knowledge of the
civilizations that had been conquered. Many classic works of antiquity that might otherwise have been lost
were translated from Greek, Persian, Indian, Chinese, Egyptian, and Phoenician civilizations into Arabic and
Persian, and later in turn translated into Turkish, Hebrew, and Latin.[5]
Christians, especially the adherents of the Church of the East (Nestorians), contributed to Islamic civilization
during the reign of the Ummayads and the Abbasids by translating works of Greek philosophers and ancient
science to Syriac and afterwards to Arabic.[21][22] They also excelled in many fields, in particular philosophy,
science (such as Hunayn ibn Ishaq,[23][24] Yusuf Al-Khuri,[25] Al Himsi,[26] Qusta ibn Luqa,[27]
Masawaiyh,[28][29] Patriarch Eutychius,[30] and Jabril ibn Bukhtishu[31]) and theology. For a long period of
time the personal physicians of the Abbasid Caliphs were often Assyrian Christians.[32][33] Among the most
prominent Christian families to serve as physicians to the caliphs were the Bukhtishu dynasty.[34][35]

Throughout the 4th to 7th centuries, Christian scholarly work in the Greek
and Syriac languages was either newly translated or had been preserved since
the Hellenistic period. Among the prominent centers of learning and
transmission of classical wisdom were Christian colleges such as the School
of Nisibis[36] and the School of Edessa,[37] the pagan University of
Harran[38][39] and the renowned hospital and medical academy of
Jundishapur, which was the intellectual, theological and scientific center of
the Church of the East.[40][41][42] The House of Wisdom was founded in
Baghdad in 825, modelled after the Academy of Gondishapur. It was led by
The Christian physician
Christian physician Hunayn ibn Ishaq, with the support of Byzantine Hunayn ibn Ishaq led the
medicine. Many of the most important philosophical and scientific works of House of Wisdom.
the ancient world were translated, including the work of Galen, Hippocrates,
Plato, Aristotle, Ptolemy and Archimedes. Many scholars of the House of
Wisdom were of Christian background.[43]

Among the various countries and cultures conquered through successive Islamic conquests, a remarkable
number of scientists originated from Persia, who contributed immensely to the scientific flourishing of the
Islamic Golden Age. According to Bernard Lewis: "Culturally, politically, and most remarkable of all even
religiously, the Persian contribution to this new Islamic civilization is of immense importance. The work of
Iranians can be seen in every field of cultural endeavor, including Arabic poetry, to which poets of Iranian
origin composing their poems in Arabic made a very significant contribution."[44] Science, medicine,
philosophy and technology in the newly Islamized Iranian society was influenced by and based on the
scientific model of the major pre-Islamic Iranian universities in the Sassanian Empire. During this period
hundreds of scholars and scientists vastly contributed to technology, science and medicine, later influencing the
rise of European science during the Renaissance.[45]

Ibn Khaldun claimed in his work Muqaddimah (1377) that most Muslim contributions in ḥadîth were
generally the works of Persians specifically:[46]

Most of the ḥadîth scholars who preserved traditions for the Muslims also were Persians, or
Persian in language and upbringing, because the discipline was widely cultivated in the 'Irâq and
the regions beyond. Furthermore all the scholars who worked in the science of the principles of
jurisprudence were Persians. The same applies to speculative theologians and to most Qur'ân
commentators. Only the Persians engaged in the task of preserving knowledge and writing
systematic scholarly works. Thus, the truth of the following statement by the Prophet becomes
apparent: 'If scholarship hung suspended in the highest parts of heaven, the Persians would attain
it.'

New technology
With a new and easier writing system, and the introduction of paper,
information was democratized to the extent that, for probably the first time in
history, it became possible to make a living from only writing and selling
books.[47] The use of paper spread from China into Muslim regions in the
eighth century, arriving in Al-Andalus on the Iberian peninsula (modern Spain
and Portugal) in the 10th century. It was easier to manufacture than
parchment, less likely to crack than papyrus, and could absorb ink, making it
difficult to erase and ideal for keeping records. Islamic paper makers devised A manuscript written on
assembly-line methods of hand-copying manuscripts to turn out editions far paper during the Abbasid
larger than any available in Europe for centuries.[48] It was from these Era.
countries that the rest of the world learned to make paper from linen.[49]

Education
The centrality of scripture and its study in the Islamic tradition helped to make education a central pillar of the
religion in virtually all times and places in the history of Islam.[50] The importance of learning in the Islamic
tradition is reflected in a number of hadiths attributed to Muhammad, including one that instructs the faithful to
"seek knowledge, even in China".[50] This injunction was seen to apply particularly to scholars, but also to
some extent to the wider Muslim public, as exemplified by the dictum of al-Zarnuji, "learning is prescribed for
us all".[50] While it is impossible to calculate literacy rates in pre-modern Islamic societies, it is almost certain
that they were relatively high, at least in comparison to their European counterparts.[50]

Education would begin at a young age with study of Arabic and the Quran,
either at home or in a primary school, which was often attached to a
mosque.[50] Some students would then proceed to training in tafsir (Quranic
exegesis) and fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), which was seen as particularly
important.[50] Education focused on memorization, but also trained the more
advanced students to participate as readers and writers in the tradition of
commentary on the studied texts.[50] It also involved a process of socialization
of aspiring scholars, who came from virtually all social backgrounds, into the
ranks of the ulema.[50]

For the first few centuries of Islam, educational settings were entirely
informal, but beginning in the 11th and 12th centuries, the ruling elites began
to establish institutions of higher religious learning known as madrasas in an
Organized instruction in the
effort to secure support and cooperation of the ulema.[50] Madrasas soon
Cairo Al-Azhar Mosque
multiplied throughout the Islamic world, which helped to spread Islamic
began in 978
learning beyond urban centers and to unite diverse Islamic communities in a
shared cultural project.[50] Nonetheless, instruction remained focused on
individual relationships between students and their teacher.[50] The formal attestation of educational
attainment, ijaza, was granted by a particular scholar rather than the institution, and it placed its holder within a
genealogy of scholars, which was the only recognized hierarchy in the educational system.[50] While formal
studies in madrasas were open only to men, women of prominent urban families were commonly educated in
private settings and many of them received and later issued ijazas in hadith studies, calligraphy and poetry
recitation.[51][52] Working women learned religious texts and practical skills primarily from each other, though
they also received some instruction together with men in mosques and private homes.[51]

Madrasas were devoted principally to study of law, but they also offered other subjects such as theology,
medicine, and mathematics.[53][54] The madrasa complex usually consisted of a mosque, boarding house, and
a library.[53] It was maintained by a waqf (charitable endowment), which paid salaries of professors, stipends
of students, and defrayed the costs of construction and maintenance.[53] The madrasa was unlike a modern
college in that it lacked a standardized curriculum or institutionalized system of certification.[53]

Muslims distinguished disciplines inherited from pre-Islamic civilizations, such as philosophy and medicine,
which they called "sciences of the ancients" or "rational sciences", from Islamic religious sciences.[50]
Sciences of the former type flourished for several centuries, and their transmission formed part of the
educational framework in classical and medieval Islam.[50] In some cases, they were supported by institutions
such as the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, but more often they were transmitted informally from teacher to
student.[50]

The University of Al Karaouine, founded in 859 AD, is listed in The Guinness Book Of Records as the
world's oldest degree-granting university.[55] The Al-Azhar University was another early university (madrasa).
The madrasa is one of the relics of the Fatimid caliphate. The Fatimids traced their descent to Muhammad's
daughter Fatimah and named the institution using a variant of her honorific title Al-Zahra (the brilliant).[56]
Organized instruction in the Al-Azhar Mosque began in 978.[57]

Law
Juristic thought gradually developed in study circles, where independent scholars met to learn from a local
master and discuss religious topics.[58][59] At first, these circles were fluid in their membership, but with time
distinct regional legal schools crystallized around shared sets of methodological principles.[59][60] As the
boundaries of the schools became clearly delineated, the authority of their doctrinal tenets came to be vested in
a master jurist from earlier times, who was henceforth identified as the school's founder.[59][60] In the course of
the first three centuries of Islam, all legal schools came to accept the broad outlines of classical legal theory,
according to which Islamic law had to be firmly rooted in the Quran and hadith.[60][61]

The classical theory of Islamic jurisprudence elaborates how scriptures should be interpreted from the
standpoint of linguistics and rhetoric.[62] It also comprises methods for establishing authenticity of hadith and
for determining when the legal force of a scriptural passage is abrogated by a passage revealed at a later
date.[62] In addition to the Quran and sunnah, the classical theory of Sunni fiqh recognizes two other sources
of law: juristic consensus (ijmaʿ) and analogical reasoning (qiyas).[63] It therefore studies the application and
limits of analogy, as well as the value and limits of consensus, along with other methodological principles,
some of which are accepted by only certain legal schools.[62] This interpretive apparatus is brought together
under the rubric of ijtihad, which refers to a jurist's exertion in an attempt to arrive at a ruling on a particular
question.[62] The theory of Twelver Shia jurisprudence parallels that of Sunni schools with some differences,
such as recognition of reason (ʿaql) as a source of law in place of qiyas and extension of the notion of sunnah
to include traditions of the imams.[64]

The body of substantive Islamic law was created by independent jurists (muftis). Their legal opinions (fatwas)
were taken into account by ruler-appointed judges who presided over qāḍī's courts, and by maẓālim courts,
which were controlled by the ruler's council and administered criminal law.[60][62]

Theology
Classical Islamic theology emerged from an early doctrinal controversy which pitted the ahl al-hadith
movement, led by Ahmad ibn Hanbal, who considered the Quran and authentic hadith to be the only
acceptable authority in matters of faith, against Mu'tazilites and other theological currents, who developed
theological doctrines using rationalistic methods.[65] In 833 the caliph al-Ma'mun tried to impose Mu'tazilite
theology on all religious scholars and instituted an inquisition (mihna), but the attempts to impose a caliphal
writ in matters of religious orthodoxy ultimately failed.[65] This controversy persisted until al-Ash'ari (874–
936) found a middle ground between Mu'tazilite rationalism and Hanbalite literalism, using the rationalistic
methods championed by Mu'tazilites to defend most substantive tenets maintained by ahl al-hadith.[66] A rival
compromise between rationalism and literalism emerged from the work of al-Maturidi (d. c. 944), and,
although a minority of scholars remained faithful to the early ahl al-hadith creed, Ash'ari and Maturidi
theology came to dominate Sunni Islam from the 10th century on.[66][67]

Philosophy
Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) played a major role in
interpreting the works of Aristotle, whose ideas came to dominate the
non-religious thought of the Christian and Muslim worlds. According to
the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, translation of philosophical
texts from Arabic to Latin in Western Europe "led to the transformation
of almost all philosophical disciplines in the medieval Latin world".[68]
The influence of Islamic philosophers in Europe was particularly strong
in natural philosophy, psychology and metaphysics, though it also
influenced the study of logic and ethics.[68]

Metaphysics

Avicenna argued his "Floating man" thought experiment concerning self- An Arabic manuscript from the
awareness, in which a man prevented of sense experience by being 13th century depicting Socrates
(Soqrāt) in discussion with his
blindfolded and free falling would still be aware of his existence.[69]
pupils

Epistemology

In epistemology, Ibn Tufail wrote the novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhan and in response Ibn al-Nafis wrote the novel
Theologus Autodidactus. Both were concerning autodidacticism as illuminated through the life of a feral child
spontaneously generated in a cave on a desert island.

Mathematics

Algebra

Persian mathematician Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī played a significant role in the development of
algebra, arithmetic and Hindu-Arabic numerals. He has been described as the father[70][71] or founder[72][73]
of algebra.

Another Persian mathematician, Omar Khayyam, is credited with identifying the foundations of Analytic
geometry. Omar Khayyam found the general geometric solution of the cubic equation. His book Treatise on
Demonstrations of Problems of Algebra (1070), which laid down the principles of algebra, is part of the body
of Persian mathematics that was eventually transmitted to Europe.[74]

Yet another Persian mathematician, Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī, found algebraic and numerical solutions to various
cases of cubic equations.[75] He also developed the concept of a function.[76]

Geometry
Islamic art makes use of geometric patterns and symmetries in many of its art
forms, notably in girih tilings. These are formed using a set of five tile shapes,
namely a regular decagon, an elongated hexagon, a bow tie, a rhombus, and a
regular pentagon. All the sides of these tiles have the same length; and all their
angles are multiples of 36° (π/5 radians), offering fivefold and tenfold
symmetries. The tiles are decorated with strapwork lines (girih), generally
more visible than the tile boundaries. In 2007, the physicists Peter Lu and
Paul Steinhardt argued that girih from the 15th century resembled
quasicrystalline Penrose tilings.[77][78][79][80] Elaborate geometric zellige
tilework is a distinctive element in Moroccan architecture.[81] Muqarnas
vaults are three-dimensional but were designed in two dimensions with
Geometric patterns: an
drawings of geometrical cells.[82]
archway in the Sultan's
lodge in the Ottoman Green
Mosque in Bursa, Turkey
Trigonometry
(1424), its girih strapwork
forming 10-point stars and
Ibn Muʿādh al-Jayyānī is one of several Islamic mathematicians to whom the
pentagons
law of sines is attributed; he wrote his The Book of Unknown Arcs of a Sphere
in the 11th century. This formula relates the lengths of the sides of any
triangle, rather than only right triangles, to the sines of its angles.[83]
According to the law,

where a, b , and c are the lengths of the sides of a triangle, and A, B, and C
are the opposite angles (see figure).
A triangle labelled with the
components of the law of
Calculus sines. Capital A, B and C
are the angles, and lower-
Alhazen discovered the sum formula for the fourth power, using a method that case a, b, c are the sides
could be generally used to determine the sum for any integral power. He used opposite them. (a opposite
this to find the volume of a paraboloid. He could find the integral formula for A, etc.)
any polynomial without having developed a general formula.[84]

Natural sciences

Scientific method

Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) was a significant figure in the history of scientific method, particularly in his
approach to experimentation,[85][86][87][88] and has been described as the "world's first true scientist".[89]

Avicenna made rules for testing the effectiveness of drugs, including that the effect produced by the
experimental drug should be seen constantly or after many repetitions, to be counted.[90] The physician
Rhazes was an early proponent of experimental medicine and recommended using control for clinical research.
He said: "If you want to study the effect of bloodletting on a condition, divide the patients into two groups,
perform bloodletting only on one group, watch both, and compare the results."[91]

Astronomy
In about 964 AD, the Persian astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi,
writing in his Book of Fixed Stars, described a "nebulous spot" in the
Andromeda constellation, the first definitive reference to what we
now know is the Andromeda Galaxy, the nearest spiral galaxy to our
galaxy.[92] Nasir al-Din al-Tusi invented a geometrical technique
called a Tusi-couple, which generates linear motion from the sum of
two circular motions to replace Ptolemy's problematic equant.[93] The
Tusi couple was later employed in Ibn al-Shatir's geocentric model
and Nicolaus Copernicus' heliocentric Copernican model[94] although
it is not known who the intermediary is or if Copernicus rediscovered
the technique independently.

Tusi couple
Physics

Alhazen played a role in the development of optics. One of the prevailing theories of vision in his time and
place was the emission theory supported by Euclid and Ptolemy, where sight worked by the eye emitting rays
of light, and the other was the Aristotelean theory that sight worked when the essence of objects flows into the
eyes. Alhazen correctly argued that vision occurred when light, traveling in straight lines, reflects off an object
into the eyes. Al-Biruni wrote of his insights into light, stating that its velocity must be immense when
compared to the speed of sound.[95]

Chemistry

Al-Kindi warned against alchemists attempting the transmutation of simple, base metals into precious ones like
gold in the ninth century.[96]

Geodesy

Al-Biruni (973–1048) estimated the radius of the earth as 6339.6 km (modern value is c. 6,371 km), the best
estimate at that time.[97]

Biology

In the cardiovascular system, Ibn al-Nafis in his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon was the first
known scholar to contradict the contention of the Galen School that blood could pass between the ventricles in
the heart through the cardiac inter-ventricular septum that separates them, saying that there is no passage
between the ventricles at this point.[98] Instead, he correctly argued that all the blood that reached the left
ventricle did so after passing through the lung.[98] He also stated that there must be small communications, or
pores, between the pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein, a prediction that preceded the discovery of the
pulmonary capillaries of Marcello Malpighi by 400 years. The Commentary was rediscovered in the twentieth
century in the Prussian State Library in Berlin; whether its view of the pulmonary circulation influenced
scientists such as Michael Servetus is unclear.[98]

In the nervous system, Rhazes stated that nerves had motor or sensory functions, describing 7 cranial and 31
spinal cord nerves. He assigned a numerical order to the cranial nerves from the optic to the hypoglossal
nerves. He classified the spinal nerves into 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 3 sacral, and 3 coccygeal nerves.
He used this to link clinical signs of injury to the corresponding location of lesions in the nervous system.[99]
Modern commentators have likened medieval accounts of the "struggle for
existence" in the animal kingdom to the framework of the theory of evolution.
Thus, in his survey of the history of the ideas which led to the theory of
natural selection, Conway Zirkle noted that al-Jahiz was one of those who
discussed a "struggle for existence", in his Kitāb al-Hayawān (Book of
Animals), written in the 9th century.[100] In the 13th century, Nasir al-Din al-
Tusi believed that humans were derived from advanced animals, saying,
"Such humans [probably anthropoid apes][101] live in the Western Sudan and
other distant corners of the world. They are close to animals by their habits,
deeds and behavior."[101] In 1377, Ibn Khaldun in his Muqaddimah stated,
"The animal kingdom was developed, its species multiplied, and in the
gradual process of Creation, it ended in man and arising from the world of the
monkeys."[102]
The eye, according to
Hunain ibn Ishaq. From a
Engineering manuscript dated circa
1200.
The Banū Mūsā brothers, in their Book of Ingenious Devices, describe an
automatic flute player which may have been the first programmable
machine.[103] The flute sounds were produced through hot steam and the user could adjust the device to
various patterns so that they could get various sounds from it.[104]

Social sciences
Ibn Khaldun is regarded to be among the founding fathers of modern sociology,[n 1] historiography,
demography,[n 1] and economics.[105][n 2]

Archiving was a respected position during this time in Islam though most of the governing documents have
been lost over time. However, from correspondence and remaining documentation gives a hint of the social
climate as well as shows that the archives were detailed and vast during their time. All letters that were
received or sent on behalf of the governing bodies were copied, archived and noted for filing. The position of
the archivist was seen as one that had to have a high level of devotion as they held the records of all pertinent
transactions.[106]

Healthcare

Hospitals

The earliest known Islamic hospital was built in 805 in Baghdad by order of Harun Al-Rashid, and the most
important of Baghdad's hospitals was established in 982 by the Buyid ruler 'Adud al-Dawla.[107] The best
documented early Islamic hospitals are the great Syro-Egyptian establishments of the 12th and 13th
centuries.[107] By the tenth century, Baghdad had five more hospitals, while Damascus had six hospitals by
the 15th century and Córdoba alone had 50 major hospitals, many exclusively for the military.[108]

The typical hospital was divided into departments such as systemic diseases, surgery, and orthopedics, with
larger hospitals having more diverse specialties. "Systemic diseases" was the rough equivalent of today's
internal medicine and was further divided into sections such as fever, infections and digestive issues. Every
department had an officer-in-charge, a presiding officer and a supervising specialist. The hospitals also had
lecture theaters and libraries. Hospitals staff included sanitary inspectors, who regulated cleanliness, and
accountants and other administrative staff.[108] The hospitals were typically run by a three-man board
comprising a non-medical administrator, the chief pharmacist, called
the shaykh saydalani, who was equal in rank to the chief physician,
who served as mutwalli (dean).[90] Medical facilities traditionally
closed each night, but by the 10th century laws were passed to keep
hospitals open 24 hours a day.[109]

For less serious cases, physicians staffed outpatient clinics. Cities also
had first aid centers staffed by physicians for emergencies that were
often located in busy public places, such as big gatherings for Friday
prayers. The region also had mobile units staffed by doctors and
pharmacists who were supposed to meet the need of remote Entrance to the Qawaloon complex
communities. Baghdad was also known to have a separate hospital for which housed the notable Qawaloon
convicts since the early 10th century after the vizier ‘Ali ibn Isa ibn hospital in Cairo
Jarah ibn Thabit wrote to Baghdad’s chief medical officer that
"prisons must have their own doctors who should examine them
every day". The first hospital built in Egypt, in Cairo's Southwestern quarter, was the first documented facility
to care for mental illnesses. In Aleppo's Arghun Hospital, care for mental illness included abundant light, fresh
air, running water and music.[108]

Medical students would accompany physicians and participate in patient care. Hospitals in this era were the
first to require medical diplomas to license doctors.[110] The licensing test was administered by the region's
government appointed chief medical officer. The test had two steps; the first was to write a treatise, on the
subject the candidate wished to obtain a certificate, of original research or commentary of existing texts, which
they were encouraged to scrutinize for errors. The second step was to answer questions in an interview with
the chief medical officer. Physicians worked fixed hours and medical staff salaries were fixed by law. For
regulating the quality of care and arbitrating cases, it is related that if a patient dies, their family presents the
doctor's prescriptions to the chief physician who would judge if the death was natural or if it was by
negligence, in which case the family would be entitled to compensation from the doctor. The hospitals had
male and female quarters while some hospitals only saw men and other hospitals, staffed by women
physicians, only saw women.[108] While women physicians practiced medicine, many largely focused on
obstetrics.[111]

Hospitals were forbidden by law to turn away patients who were unable to pay.[109] Eventually, charitable
foundations called waqfs were formed to support hospitals, as well as schools.[109] Part of the state budget also
went towards maintaining hospitals.[108] While the services of the hospital were free for all citizens[109] and
patients were sometimes given a small stipend to support recovery upon discharge, individual physicians
occasionally charged fees.[108] In a notable endowment, a 13th-century governor of Egypt Al-Mansur
Qalawun ordained a foundation for the Qalawun hospital that would contain a mosque and a chapel, separate
wards for different diseases, a library for doctors and a pharmacy[112] and the hospital is used today for
ophthalmology.[108] The Qalawun hospital was based in a former Fatimid palace which had accommodation
for 8,000 people – [113] "it served 4,000 patients daily."[114] The waqf stated,

"...The hospital shall keep all patients, men and women, until they are completely recovered. All
costs are to be borne by the hospital whether the people come from afar or near, whether they are
residents or foreigners, strong or weak, low or high, rich or poor, employed or unemployed, blind
or sighted, physically or mentally ill, learned or illiterate. There are no conditions of consideration
and payment, none is objected to or even indirectly hinted at for non-payment."[112]

Pharmacies
By the ninth century, there was a rapid expansion of private pharmacies in many Muslim cities. Initially, these
were unregulated and managed by personnel of inconsistent quality. Decrees by Caliphs Al-Ma'mun and Al-
Mu'tasim required examinations to license pharmacists and pharmacy students were trained in a combination
of classroom exercises coupled with day-to-day practical experiences with drugs. To avoid conflicts of interest,
doctors were banned from owning or sharing ownership in a pharmacy. Pharmacies were periodically
inspected by government inspectors called muhtasib, who checked to see that the medicines were mixed
properly, not diluted and kept in clean jars. Violators were fined or beaten.[90]

Medicine

The theory of Humorism was largely dominant during this time. Arab physician Ibn Zuhr provided proof that
scabies is caused by the itch mite and that it can be cured by removing the parasite without the need for
purging, bleeding or other treatments called for by humorism, making a break with the humorism of Galen and
Ibn Sina.[111] Rhazes differentiated through careful observation the two diseases smallpox and measles, which
were previously lumped together as a single disease that caused rashes.[115] This was based on location and
the time of the appearance of the symptoms and he also scaled the degree of severity and prognosis of
infections according to the color and location of rashes.[116] Al-Zahrawi was the first physician to describe an
ectopic pregnancy, and the first physician to identify the hereditary nature of haemophilia.[117]

On hygienic practices, Rhazes, who was once asked to choose the site for a new hospital in Baghdad,
suspended pieces of meat at various points around the city, and recommended building the hospital at the
location where the meat putrefied the slowest.[91]

For Islamic scholars, Indian and Greek physicians and medical researchers Sushruta, Galen, Mankah, Atreya,
Hippocrates, Charaka, and Agnivesa were pre-eminent authorities.[118] In order to make the Indian and Greek
tradition more accessible, understandable, and teachable, Islamic scholars ordered and made more systematic
the vast Indian and Greco-Roman medical knowledge by writing encyclopedias and summaries. Sometimes,
past scholars were criticized, like Rhazes who criticized and refuted Galen's revered theories, most notably, the
Theory of Humors and was thus accused of ignorance.[91] It was through 12th-century Arabic translations that
medieval Europe rediscovered Hellenic medicine, including the works of Galen and Hippocrates, and
discovered ancient Indian medicine, including the works of Sushruta and Charaka.[119][120] Works such as
Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine were translated into Latin and disseminated throughout Europe. During the
15th and 16th centuries alone, The Canon of Medicine was published more than thirty-five times. It was used
as a standard medical textbook through the 18th century in Europe.[121]

Surgery

Al-Zahrawi was a tenth century Arab physician. He is sometimes referred to as the "Father of surgery".[122]
He describes what is thought to be the first attempt at reduction mammaplasty for the management of
gynaecomastia[122] and the first mastectomy to treat breast cancer.[111] He is credited with the performance of
the first thyroidectomy.[123]

Commerce and travel

Apart from the Nile, Tigris, and Euphrates, navigable rivers were uncommon in the Middle East, so transport
by sea was very important. Navigational sciences were highly developed, making use of a rudimentary sextant
(known as a kamal). When combined with detailed maps of the period, sailors were able to sail across oceans
rather than skirt along the coast. Muslim sailors were also responsible for reintroducing large, three-masted
merchant vessels to the Mediterranean. The name caravel may derive from an earlier Arab boat known as the
qārib.[124]
Many Muslims went to China to trade, and these Muslims began to
have a great economic influence on the country. Muslims virtually
dominated the import/export industry by the time of the Sung dynasty
(960–1279).[125] Muhammad al-Idrisi created the Tabula Rogeriana,
the best maps of the middle ages, used by various explorers such as
Christopher Columbus and Vasco Da Gama for their voyages in
America and India.[126]

Agriculture

The Arabs of Al-Andalus exerted a large impact on Spanish

agriculture, including the restoration of Roman-era aqueducts and
irrigation channels, as well as the introduction of new technologies
Introductory summary overview map
such as the acequias (derived from the qanats of Persia) and Persian
from al-Idrisi's 1154 world atlas (note
gardens (such as at the Generalife). In Spain and Sicily, the Arabs that South is at the top of the map).
introduced crops and foodstuffs from the Persia and India such as rice,
sugarcane, oranges, lemons, bananas, saffron, carrots, apricots and
eggplants, as well as restoring cultivation of olives and pomegranates
from Greco-Roman times. The Palmeral of Elche in southern Spain is
a UNESCO World Heritage site that is emblematic of the Islamic
agricultural legacy in Europe.

Arts and culture

The diffusion of sugarcane from the
Indian subcontinent to Spain during
Literature and poetry Islamic rule.

The 13th century Seljuq poet Rumi wrote some of the finest poetry in
the Persian language and remains one of the best selling poets in America.[127][128] Other famous poets of the
Persian language include Hafez (whose work was read by William Jones, Thoreau, Goethe, Ralph Waldo
Emerson and Friedrich Engels), Saadi (whose poetry was cited extensively by Goethe, Hegel and Voltaire),
Ferdowsi, Omar Khayyam and Amir Khusrow.

One Thousand and One Nights, an anthology of Middle Eastern folk tales compiled in the Arabic language
during the time of the Abbasid Caliphate, has had a large influence on Western and Middle Eastern literature
and popular culture with such classics as Aladdin, Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves and Sinbad the Sailor. The
folk-tale 'Sinbad the Sailor' even draws inspiration directly from Hellenistic literature like the Homeric epics
(translated from Greek to Arabic in the 8th century CE) and Alexander Romances (tales of Alexander the
Great popular in Europe, the Middle East and India).

Art

Manuscript illumination was an important art, and Persian miniature painting flourished in the Persianate
world. Calligraphy, an essential aspect of written Arabic, developed in manuscripts and architectural
decoration.

Music
The ninth and tenth centuries saw a flowering of Arabic music.
Philosopher and esthete Al-Farabi,[129] at the end of the ninth century,
established the foundations of modern Arabic music theory, based on
the maqammat, or musical modes. His work was based on the music
of Ziryab, the court musician of Andalusia. Ziryab was a renowned
polymath, whose contributions to western civilization included formal
dining, haircuts, chess, and more, in addition to his dominance of the
world musical scene of the ninth century.[130]

Marquetry and tile-top table, 1560

Architecture

The Great Mosque of Kairouan (in Tunisia), the ancestor of all the
mosques in the western Islamic world excluding Turkey and the Balkans,[131] is one of the best preserved and
most significant examples of early great mosques. Founded in 670, it dates in its present form largely from the
9th century.[132] The Great Mosque of Kairouan is constituted of a three-tiered square minaret, a large
courtyard surrounded by colonnaded porticos, and a huge hypostyle prayer hall covered on its axis by two
cupolas.[131]

The Great Mosque of Samarra in Iraq was completed in 847. It combined the hypostyle architecture of rows of
columns supporting a flat base, above which a huge spiralling minaret was constructed.

The beginning of construction of the Great Mosque at Cordoba in 785 marked the beginning of Islamic
architecture in Spain and Northern Africa. The mosque is noted for its striking interior arches. Moorish
architecture reached its peak with the construction of the Alhambra, the magnificent palace/fortress of
Granada, with its open and breezy interior spaces adorned in red, blue, and gold. The walls are decorated with
stylized foliage motifs, Arabic inscriptions, and arabesque design work, with walls covered in geometrically
patterned glazed tiles.

Many traces of Fatimid architecture exist in Cairo today, the most defining examples include the Al Azhar
University and the Al Hakim mosque.

Decline

Invasions

In 1206, Genghis Khan established a powerful dynasty among the

Mongols of central Asia. During the 13th century, this Mongol
Empire conquered most of the Eurasian land mass, including China in
the east and much of the old Islamic caliphate (as well as Kievan
Rus') in the west. The destruction of Baghdad and the House of
Wisdom by Hulagu Khan in 1258 has been seen by some as the end
of the Islamic Golden Age.[133]

The Ottoman conquest of the Arabic-speaking Middle East in 1516– Trade routes inherited by the Muslim
17 placed the traditional heart of the Islamic world under Ottoman civilization were ruined by invading
Turkish control. The rational sciences continued to flourish in the Mongols, which according to Ibn
Khaldun ruined economies
Middle East during the Ottoman period.[134]

Economics
To account for the decline of Islamic science, it has been argued that the Sunni Revival in the 11th and 12th
centuries produced a series of institutional changes that decreased the relative payoff to producing scientific
works. With the spread of madrasas and the greater influence of religious leaders, it became more lucrative to
produce religious knowledge.

Ahmad Y. al-Hassan has rejected the thesis that lack of creative thinking was a cause, arguing that science was
always kept separate from religious argument; he instead analyzes the decline in terms of economic and
political factors, drawing on the work of the 14th-century writer Ibn Khaldun. Al-Hassan extended the golden
age up to the 16th century, noting that scientific activity continued to flourish up until then.[3] Several other
contemporary scholars have also extended it to around the 16th to 17th centuries, and analysed the decline in
terms of political and economic factors.[1][2] More recent research has challenged the notion that it underwent
decline even at that time, citing a revival of works produced on rational scientific topics during the seventeenth
century.[135][136]

Current research has led to the conclusion that "the available evidence is consistent with the hypothesis that an
increase in the political power of these elites caused the observed decline in scientific output."[137]

Culture

Economic historian Joel Mokyr has argued that Islamic philosopher al-Ghazali (1058–1111) "was a key figure
in the decline in Islamic science", as his works contributed to rising mysticism and occasionalism in the Islamic
world.[138] Against this view, Saliba (2007) has given a number of examples especially of astronomical
research flourishing after the time of al-Ghazali.[139]

See also
Baghdad School
Christian influences in Islam
Dutch Golden Age
Emirate of Sicily
Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain
Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences
Islamic astronomy
Islamic studies
List of Iranian scientists
Ophthalmology in medieval Islam
Timeline of Islamic science and technology

Notes
1. "...regarded by some Westerners as the true father of historiography and sociology".[140]
"Ibn Khaldun has been claimed the forerunner of a great number of European thinkers,
mostly sociologists, historians, and philosophers".(Boulakia 1971)
"The founding father of Eastern Sociology".[141]
"This grand scheme to find a new science of society makes him the forerunner of many of
the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries system-builders such as Vico, Comte and Marx."
"As one of the early founders of the social sciences...".[142]
 2. "He is considered by some as a father of modern economics, or at least a major forerunner.
The Western world recognizes Khaldun as the father of sociology but hesitates in
recognizing him as a great economist who laid its very foundations. He was the first to
systematically analyze the functioning of an economy, the importance of technology,
specialization and foreign trade in economic surplus and the role of government and its
stabilization policies to increase output and employment. Moreover, he dealt with the
problem of optimum taxation, minimum government services, incentives, institutional
framework, law and order, expectations, production, and the theory of value".Cosma,
Sorinel (2009). "Ibn Khaldun's Economic Thinking". Ovidius University Annals of
Economics (Ovidius University Press) XIV:52–57 (https://web.archive.org/web/2012031109
1356/http://www.ovidius-stec.ro/html/anale/ENG/cuprins%20rezumate/2009%20vol2.pdf)

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Further reading
George Makdisi "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West".
Journal of the American Oriental Society 109, no.2 (1982)
Josef W. Meri (2005). Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-
96690-6. p. 1088.
Tamara Sonn: Islam: A Brief History. Wiley 2011, ISBN 978-1-4443-5898-8, pp. 39–79 (online
copy (https://books.google.com/books?id=cSK6g_9jclQC&pg=PA39), p. 39, at Google Books)
Maurice Lombard: The Golden Age of Islam. American Elsevier 1975
George Nicholas Atiyeh; John Richard Hayes (1992). The Genius of Arab Civilization (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=Nu2PQgAACAAJ). New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-
3485-5, 978-0-8147-3485-8. p. 306.
Falagas, M. E.; Zarkadoulia, Effie A.; Samonis, George (1 August 2006). "Arab science in the
golden age (750–1258 C.E.) and today". The FASEB Journal. 20 (10): 1581–86.
doi:10.1096/fj.06-0803ufm (https://doi.org/10.1096%2Ffj.06-0803ufm). PMID 16873881 (https://
pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16873881).
Starr, S. Frederick (2015). Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab
Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University. ISBN 978-0-691-16585-1.
Allsen, Thomas T. (2004). Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia. Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 978-0-521-60270-9.
Dario Fernandez-Morera (2015) The Myth of the Andalusian Paradise. Muslims, Christians,
and Jews under Islamic Rule in Medieval Spain. ISI Books ISBN 978-1-61017-095-6
(hardback)
Joel Epstein (2019) The Language of the Heart Juwal Publications ISBN 978-1070100906

External links
Islamicweb.com: History of the Golden Age (http://www.islamicweb.com/history/hist_golden.ht
m)
Khamush.com: Baghdad: Metropolis of the Abbasid Caliphate – Chapter 5 (http://www.khamus
h.com/sufism/golden.htm), by Gaston Wiet.
U.S. Library of Congress.gov: The Kirkor Minassian Collection (https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/
coll/160.html) – 'contains examples of Islamic book bindings.

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