PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 13- AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS

Category – B2

MODULE 13: AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,

STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS
Sub Module 13.1 – THEORY OF FLIGHT
Sub Module 13.2 – STRUCTURES-GENERAL CONCEPTS
Sub Module 13.3 – AUTO FLIGHT (ATA 22)
Sub Module 13.4
 13.4 (a) COMMUNICATION/ NAVIGATION
 13.4 (b) RADAR
Sub Module 13.5 – ELECTRICAL POWER (ATA 24)
Sub Module 13.6 – EQUIPMENT AND FURNISHING
Sub Module 13.7 – FLIGHT CONTROLS (ATA 27)
Sub Module 13.8 – INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS (ATA 31)
Sub Module 13.9 – LIGHTS (ATA 33)
Sub Module 13.10 – ON BOARD MAINTENANCE (ATA 45)

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MODULE 13: AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,

STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS
Sub Module 13.11 – AIR-CONDITIONING (ATA 21)
Sub Module 13.12 – FIRE PROTECTION (ATA 26)
Sub Module 13.13 – FUEL SYSTEM (ATA 28)
Sub Module 13.14 – HYDRAULLIC POWER (ATA 29)
Sub Module 13.15 – ICE AND RAIN PROTECTION (ATA 30)
Sub Module 13.16 – LANDING GEAR (ATA 32)
Sub Module 13.17 – OXYGEN (ATA 35)
Sub Module 13.18 – PNEUMATIC/VACCUM (ATA 36)
Sub Module 13.19 – WATER AND WASTE (ATA 38)
Sub Module 13.20 – INTEGRATED MODULAR AVIONICS (ATA 42)
Sub Module 13.21 – CABIN SYSTEM (ATA 44)
Sub Module 13.22 – ON BOARD INFORMATION SYSTEM (ATA 46)

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Category – B2

List of Amendments

Sub-Module &
Amendment No. Issue Date: Date Inserted: Inserted By: Date Removed: Removed By:
Pages:

Issue 01, Rev-00 All 31 March 2014

Issue 03, Rev-01 All 30 Nov 2017

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.1 - Theory of Flight

MODULE 13

Sub Module 13.1

THEORY OF FLIGHT

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.1 - Theory of Flight
SPEED BRAKES ................................................................................. 33
Contents OPERATION AND EFFECT OF TRIM TABS........................................... 34
13.1 (a) AEOROPLANE AEORODYNAMICS AND FLIGHT CONTROLS SERVO TABS ..................................................................................... 36
OPERATION AND EFFECT OF ROLL CONTROL ..................................... 8 CONTROL SURFACE BIAS .................................................................. 36
AILERONS AND SPOILERS ................................................................... 8 SPEED OF SOUND............................................................................. 39
OPERATION AND EFFECT OF PITCH CONTROL .................................. 14 SUBSONIC FLIGHT ............................................................................ 40
ELEVATORS...................................................................................... 14 TRANSONIC FLIGHT .......................................................................... 41
STABILATORS................................................................................... 14 SUPERSONIC FLIGHT ........................................................................ 42
VARIABLE INCIDENCE STABILISERS ................................................... 14 MACH NUMBER ............................................................................... 42
CANARD AIRCRAFT .......................................................................... 16 CRITICAL MACH NUMBER ................................................................ 43
OPERATION AND EFFECT OF YAW CONTROL .................................... 19 ROTARY WING AERODYNAMICS ....................................................... 46
RUDDERS......................................................................................... 19 TERMINOLOGY ................................................................................ 46
RUDDER LIMITER ............................................................................. 20 OPERATION AND EFFECT OF CYCLIC, COLLECTIVE AND ANTI-TORQUE
CONTROL USING ELEVON AND RUDDERVATORS.............................. 21 CONTROLS ....................................................................................... 49

ELEVONS ......................................................................................... 21
RUDDERVATOR................................................................................ 21
HIGH LIFT DEVICES........................................................................... 23
SLOTS AND SLATS ............................................................................ 24
FLAPS .............................................................................................. 27
DRAG INDUCING DEVICES................................................................ 33
SPOILERS AND LIFT DUMPERS ......................................................... 33
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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.1 - Theory of Flight

AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS AND FLIGHT CONTROLS The secondary control surfaces include flaps; trim tabs,
spoilers, and slats. The principles of the operation of flaps
and spoilers are discussed later in this module.
An airplane is equipped with certain fixed and movable
surfaces, or airfoils, which provide for stability and control The primary control surfaces are used to "steer" the airplane in
during flight. These are illustrated in Figures 1 and 2. Each of flight to make it go where the pilot wishes it to go and to cause
the named airfoils is designed to perform a specific function in it to execute certain maneuvers. The secondary control
the flight of the airplane. surfaces are used to change the lift and drag characteristics of
the aircraft or to assist the primary controls.
FIXED AIRFOILS Large turbine aircraft, gliders, and some other types of
aircraft are equipped with lift-control devices called spoilers (see
Figure (2), which may be used as or assist the primary roll
The fixed airfoils are the wings, the horizontal stabilizer, and the control.
vertical stabilizer (fin). The function of the wings has been
previously discussed. The tail section of the airplane, including
the stabilizers, elevators, and rudder, is commonly called the
empennage.

MOVABLE CONTROL SURFACES

Movable flight control surfaces are divided into two categories;

 Primary flight controls

 Secondary flight controls

The primary control surfaces of an airplane include the ailerons,

elevators, and rudder.

Figure 1
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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.1 - Theory of Flight

Figure 2

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.1 - Theory of Flight

CONTROL OF AN AIRPLANE
If the control column is moved to the left, the right aileron will
Whether an airplane is stable or unstable, it is necessary for depress and right wing will rise at the same time the left aileron
the pilot to be able to control it, so that he can maneuver it into will raise and left wing will lower causing airplane to bank left.
any desired position.

 Longitudinal control is provided by the elevators, i.e.

airfoils hinged behind the tail plane.

 Lateral control is provided by the ailerons, i.e. airfoils

hinged at the rear of the airfoils near each wing tip.

 Directional control is provided by the rudder, i.e. a

vertical airfoil hinged to trailing edge of vertical stabilizer.

The system of control is the same in each case, i.e. if the

control surface is moved it will, in effect, alter the angle of attack
and the camber of the complete surface to which it is hinged,
and therefore change the force upon it (see Fig 3).

The control surfaces are connected to controls in the pilot’s

cockpit. The elevators and ailerons are both moved by a single
column on a universal joint (or by a wheel or handle-bars)
and the rudder by two rudder pedals.

The control is instinctive, i.e. a forward movement of the control

column depresses the elevators, increases the lift on the tail,
and so causes the nose of the airplane to drop.

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.1 - Theory of Flight

Forwards and sideways movement of the control column can be

carried out simultaneously, causing both the nose and the left
wing to be depressed.

In many modern airplanes the control column can only move in

a fore-and-aft direction, Lateral control being provided by a
wheel similar to the steering wheel of a motorcar mounted on
the control column; an anti-clockwise rotation of the wheel will
cause the left wing to drop.

As an alternative to the wheel there may be some form of

"spectacles," or handle-bars," i.e. a horizontal bar fitted to the
top of the control column, a hand grip at each end so that it can
be tilted to right or left; this is a variation of the wheel system,
the principle being exactly the same.

On some modern airplanes a joystick mounted by the side of

the crew seats has replaced the control column but the
responses of the surfaces to stick movements remain the same.

In the case of the rudder, if the right foot is pressed forward the
rear of the rudder will be moved to the right (called "right
rudder") and the airplane turns to the right.

In each instance it will be noticed that the control surfaces are

placed as far as possible away from the center of gravity so as
to provide sufficient leverage to alter the position of the aircraft.

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.1 - Theory of Flight

Generation of aerodynamic force

Fig 3

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.1 - Theory of Flight

FIXED AIRFOILS
VERTICAL FINS
HORIZONTAL STABILIZERS

As has been discussed, the horizontal stabilizer is used to The vertical stabilizer for an airplane is the fixed airfoil section
provide longitudinal pitch stability and is usually attached to the forward of the rudder and is used to provide directional stability
aft portion of the fuselage. It may be located either above or (yaw) for the aircraft, as has been previously discussed. This
below the vertical stabilizer or at some midpoint of the unit is commonly called the fin.
stabilizer. Conventional tails (horizontal stabilizers) are placed
aft of the wing and set at a slight negative angle with respect to A problem encountered on single-engine airplanes where the
the wing chord line. This configuration gives a downward lift propeller is at the front of the aircraft is that as the propeller
force on the tail, as shown in Figure 4. turns clockwise, a rotating flow of air is moved rearward (see
Figure 5), striking the left side of the fin and rudder, which
The down-lift force is dependent on the size of stabilizer and results in a left-yawing moment.
the distance aft that it is placed from the C.G. the horizontal
stabilizer may be designed as a fixed surface attached to the To counteract this effect, many airplanes have the leading
tail or as a movable surface used to trim the aircraft or provide edge of the vertical fin offset slightly to the left, thereby allowing
pitch control. the slipstream to pass evenly around it.

Figure 4
Figure 5
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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.1 - Theory of Flight

OPERATION AND EFFECT OF ROLL CONTROL

AILERONS AND SPOILERS

The ailerons are the primary flight control surfaces used to The ailerons are moved by means of a control wheel or stick in
provide lateral (roll) control of the aircraft; that is; they control the cockpit. If a pilot wants to roll the airplane to the right, he or
aircraft movement about the longitudinal axis. They are usually she turns the wheel or stick to the right. After the desired
mounted on the trailing edge of the wing near the tip, as was degree of bank is obtained, the wheel is returned to neutral to
shown in Figure (6). They are rigged so that when one is stop the roll. During normal turns of an airplane, the movement
moving upward on one wing, the other is moving downward of the ailerons is coordinated with movements of the rudder and
on the opposite wing. This movement changes the camber of elevators to provide a banked horizontal turn without "slip' or
the respective wings, with the down-ward-moving aileron "skid."
increasing the camber and lift, and the upward-moving aileron
decreasing the camber and lift.  A slip, or sideslip, is a movement of an airplane
partially sideways. In a turn, the slip is downward and
Since the ailerons are located outboard of the roll axis, this inward toward the turn.
change in camber will result in a rolling motion. This action is
illustrated in Figure 6 and 7.  A skid in a turn is a movement of the airplane sideways
and outward from the turn.
Large turbine aircraft often employ two sets of ailerons, one set
being approximately mid-wing or immediately outboard of
the inboard flaps, and the other set being in the
conventional location near the wingtips, as is shown in Figure b.
The outboard ailerons become active whenever the flaps are
extended beyond a fixed setting (at low speeds). As the flaps
are retracted, the outboard aileron control system is "locked out"
and flairs with the basic wing shape. Thus, during cruise
flight at comparatively high speeds, only the inboard ailerons
are used for control. The outboard ailerons are active during
landings and other slow-flight operations. This is primarily to
reduce wing-bending moments. Fig. 6

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.1 - Theory of Flight

Figure 7

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.1 - Theory of Flight

ADVERSE YAW OTHER WAYS OF OVERCOMING ADVERSE YAW ARE;

Aileron control in an airplane is complicated somewhat by an “Frise," or other specially shaped ailerons (Fig 9). This is a
effect called adverse yaw. An aileron that moves down at the patented device, the idea being so to shape the aileron
trailing edge of a wing creates considerably more drag than the that when it is moved downwards the complete top surface
aileron on the opposite wing that moves upward the same of the main plane and the aileron will have a smooth,
amount. Also due to the induced turn the down-going wing will uninterrupted contour causing very little drag, but when it is
have a lesser speed than that of the up-going wing increasing moved upwards the aileron, which is of the balanced variety,
the drag on the up-going wing. Therefore, if the ailerons were will project below the bottom surface of the main plane and
rigged to move the same distance in response to the movement cause excessive drag.
of the cockpit control, the drag of the downward moving aileron
would cause the airplane to turn toward the side on which the This method has the great advantage of being simple, and it
downward-moving aileron is located. undoubtedly serves to decrease the adverse yawing effect of
the ailerons, and therefore it is often used.
Thus, a pilot wishing to make a left turn would move the
control to the left, causing the right aileron to move downward, Spoiler control (Fig 10). Spoilers are long narrow plates fitted on
but the drag caused by the aileron would cause the airplane the upper or lower surfaces of a wing, or both, sometimes
to turn to the right, except for strong rudder control. near to the leading edge, sometimes in front of the ailerons. In
the ordinary way they lie flush with the surface, or even inside it,
To overcome adverse yaw, the ailerons of an airplane are and have no effect on the performance of the aerofoil, but
rigged for differential movement. The differential control causes they can be connected to the aileron controls in such a way
the up- moving aileron to move a greater distance than the that when an aileron is moved up beyond a certain angle the
down-moving aileron. The amount of differential is sufficient spoiler is raised at right angles to the airflow, or comes up
to balance the drag between the ailerons, thus eliminating the through a slit, causing turbulence, decrease in lift and
yaw effect (Fig 8) increase in drag. This, means that the wing on which the
aileron goes down gets more lift, and very little extra drag, while
on the other wing the lift is 'spoilt" and the drag greatly
increased. Thus, we have a large rolling effect in the right
direction combined with a yawing effect, also in the right
direction.

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Fig. 9
Fig. 8

Fig. 10
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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.1 - Theory of Flight

This is what we aimed at, and there is the further advantage If the wheel is moved to the right, the right aileron must move
that the mechanical operation of the spoiler is easy, since the up and the left aileron must move down. Reverse movement of
forces acting upon it are small. This method of control feels control should then cause a reverse of position of the ailerons.
strange to the pilot who is unaccustomed to it because the loss
of lift caused by the spoiler will result in a decided drop of that
wing, which may be alarming when near the ground. But any AILERON REVERSAL
such strangeness can soon be overcome and the pilot begins
to realize the advantages of maintaining good lateral control, up If we want to increase lift on one wing in order to roll the aircraft
to and beyond the normal stalling angle. The improvement in we deflect the aileron down on the wing we want raised. But as
maneuverability is particularly noticeable when the airplane the wing C.G.is ahead of the aileron and the wing is flexible the
approaches its ceiling. But, whatever its merits, the spoiler took forces created on the aileron will have a negative moment
a long time to become popular as a means of control, around the C.G. of the wing The wing will twist and will result in
though it was, and is, used extensively as an air brake. a reduction of angle of attack for the wing.

It is rather curious that we have been describing the use of If ∆L2 is greater than ∆L1 there is a net reduction in lift rather
spoilers as an aid to lateral control at low speeds; and this than an increase and the aircraft will roll in the opposite
indeed was their original purpose, but in many types of modem direction than intended. This is known as aileron reversal (Fig
aircraft it is at high speed that the aileron control by itself is too 11)
slow in action and spoilers are used differentially being linked
to the ailerons to improve the control. They may even be To prevent this from happening the following methods could be
rendered inoperative at low speeds, and especially for used
maneuvering near the ground and for landing, because they are
too sensitive.  By placing ailerons inboard

The correct rigging of the ailerons is of primary importance.  Reducing the aerodynamic loading on the aileron by
After an airplane has been overhauled and during pre-flight using spoiler for lateral control
inspections, the direction of aileron movement with respect to
control-stick movement must be carefully noted.

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.1 - Theory of Flight

∆L1 - increase in lift due to increased

camber of the wing

∆L2 - reduction in lift due to reduced

angle of attack (∝) due to twisting of the
wing

Fig 11

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.1 - Theory of Flight
landing position.

OPERATION AND EFFECT OF PITCH CONTROL STABILATORS

ELEVATORS A special type of elevator that combines the functions of the

elevator and the horizontal stabilizer is called a stabilator.
The elevators are the control surfaces, which govern the
movement of the aircraft around the lateral axis (pitch). A stabilator is an all-moving tail that works by changing the
angle of attack of the stabilator and thereby changing the
They are normally attached to hinges on the rear spar of the amount of downward lift that is generated by the tail. When this
horizontal stabilizer. When the control column or stick in the type of control airfoil is installed on an airplane, there is no fixed
airplane is pulled back, the elevators are raised. The force of horizontal stabilizer. The stabilator is an airfoil that responds to
the relative wind on the elevator surfaces tends to press the tail the normal elevator control and serves as an elevator as well
down, thus causing the nose to pitch up and the angle of as a stabilizer. A stabilator is illustrated in Figure 13.
attack of the wings to increase. The reverse action takes
place when the control column or stick is pushed forward. The VARIABLE INCIDENCE STABILISERS
action of the elevators is illustrated in Figure 12
In sweptback wings when fuel is consumed by the engines the
During flight of an airplane the operation of the elevators is aircraft C.G. shifts greatly within the limits. Hence there is a
quite critical, especially at low speeds. When power is off and need to trim the aircraft by use of the elevators to prevent the
the airplane is gliding, the position of the elevators will aircraft pitching about. By deflecting elevators trim drag is
determine whether the airplane dives, glides at the correct increased and elevator authority is reduced. Instead of
angle, or stalls. Remember that an airplane will not necessarily deflecting elevators if the horizontal stabilizer itself could be
climb when the control is pulled back. It is the power developed moved to trim the aircraft we can reduce trim drag and retain
by the engine that determines the rate of climb of an airplane full authority of the elevators. Variable incidence stabilizers
rather than the position of the elevators. If the elevators are (Trimmable horizontal stabilizers) do just that.
held in a fixed position, the throttle alone can be used to make
the airplane climb, dive, or maintain level flight. Incorporating a conventional elevator control system, the
variable incidence horizontal stabiliser is often used for pitch
The position of the elevator is important, however, to trim. Normally a powerful electric motor is used to vary its angle
establish the most efficient rate of climb and a good gliding of attack when trim switches on the flight deck are operated. A
angle when power is off. It is also most essential for proper Variable incidence stabilizer is illustrated in Figure 14.
control when "breaking the glide" and holding the airplane in
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Figure 12 Figure 13

Figure 14
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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.1 - Theory of Flight

CANARD AIRCRAFT

The earliest powered aircraft, such as the Wright Flyer (see This is achieved by having the center of gravity well ahead of
Figure 15), had horizontal surfaces located ahead of the wings. the aft wing. The aft wing pitching moment also adds to the
This configuration, also on the Beech Starship (Figure 16), fore plane load.
which has two lifting surfaces, with the forward airfoil being
called a canard, is an appealing way to assist in carrying some
of the airplane weight to reduce drag and increase cruising In a well-designed canard, the forward wing must always stall
speed. at a lower angle of attack than the aft wing. If the aft wing were
to stall first, the aircraft would pitch up, deepening the stall.
Conventional airplane designs that have tail surfaces located With the canard stalling at a lower angle, the aircraft could be
behind the wing use the horizontal tail to balance the wing flown with the canard alternately stalling and un-stalling, the
pitching moment. This means a down load on the tail, as nose bobbing up and down gently. The CG location in a
previously discussed, and requires an increase in the lift canard-equipped aircraft is very critical, with the requirement
coefficient to support the added wing load. Since wing drag being that the CG always be located between the canard and
increases with wing lift, a climb-and-cruise penalty is paid for the main wing.
the stability offered by an aft-Located horizontal tail.

With the horizontal stabilizer being mounted forward, a nose-up

balancing moment is provided by an upward-Lifting force on the
canard. The canard airplane has no stabilizing down loads
because the canard, being mounted forward, shares the lifting
loads with the wing. This lift adds to the wings' lift and results
in a higher LID ratio for the airplane.

The canard design, with both surfaces providing lift, makes the
aircraft somewhat unstable. This instability is referred to as
relaxed static stability. The forward wing (canard) lifts a greater
share of the total weight per square foot of wing area (i.e., it
has a heavier wing loading) than the aft wing. Fig 15
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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.1 - Theory of Flight

Fig 16

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.1 - Theory of Flight

T-TAILS

The T -tail arrangement positions the stabilizer and elevator

at the top of the vertical fin. A T -tail is illustrated in Figure 17.
The use of a T -tail configuration not only makes the fin and
rudder more effective because of the end-plate action of the
stabilizer location which act similar to the addition of an end
plate on a wingtip, as was discussed in module 8, but it also
positions the horizontal tail above wing turbulence. A T -tail
structure will be somewhat heavier than a conventional tail
arrangement due to combined horizontal tail-and-fin bending
loads which must be carried by the fin and the fuselage.

With this type of arrangement there is a disadvantage of deep

stall since the tail plane is shielded by the main planes at large
angles of attack. But has the advantage of keeping clear of the
hot jets and prop wash of wing mounted engines.

There are many shapes and sizes of airplanes, most of

which are similar in appearance. In its traditional form, the
airplane is marked by an arrangement of clearly distinguishable
parts. The traditional design of the fuselage supported by wing
lift, stabilized by the tail surfaces, and propelled by the engine in Fig 17
the nose has worked well over the years. However, many
variations of the standard design appear to work equally well.

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.1 - Theory of Flight

OPERATION AND EFFECT OF YAW CONTROL same with an airplane. To prevent skidding in a turn, the
airplane must be banked.
RUDDERS

The rudder is a vertical control surface that is usually hinged to Too much of a bank without sufficient rudder in a turn will cause
the tail post aft of the vertical stabilizer and designed to apply slipping; that is, the airplane will slide down toward the inside of
yawing moments to the airplane, that is, to make it turn to the turn. It is therefore necessary that the proper amount of
the right or the left about the vertical axis. rudder and aileron be applied when entering a turn in order to
produce what is termed a coordinated turn. Usually, after the
The movement of the rudder is controlled by pedals operated airplane is placed in a turn, the rudder pressure is almost
by the feet of the pilot. The pedals are interconnected so that neutralized to hold the turn. Likewise, it is necessary to
when one is pressed the other one move in the opposite reduce the amount of aileron used to place the airplane in turn.
direction. When the right pedal is pressed, the rudder swings to
the right, thus bringing an increase of dynamic air pressure Another factor to note concerning turns is that the steeper the
on its right side. This increased pressure causes the tail of the turn, the more the elevator will have to be used. Thus, a
airplane to swing to the left and the nose to turn to the right. properly executed turn requires the use of all three of the
The operation of a rudder is shown in Figure 18. primary controls.

Although it appears that the rudder causes the airplane to turn, Rudder is also used for correcting asymmetry caused by
it must be pointed out that the rudder itself cannot cause the engine failure of a multi engine aircraft and for control (steering)
airplane to make a good turn. Newton's first law of motion of aircraft on ground at high speeds. For these reasons rudder
states that a moving body tends to continue moving in a is made large and placed at the tail so that it has a large
straight line unless some outside force changes its direction. moment arm.
When rudder is applied to an airplane in flight, the airplane will
turn, but it will continue to travel in the same direction as before
unless a correcting force is applied.

Thus, with rudder only, the airplane will turn sideways and
skid. In order to prevent this skid in a turn, the ailerons are used
to bank the airplane. In a car, a banked turn is much easier to
negotiate at comparatively high speeds than a flat turn. It is the
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RUDDER LIMITER

But because of its size and placement, at high speeds a little

movement of the rudder will cause the aircraft to yaw
dangerously. Therefore, as the speed of the aircraft increases
the rudder travel needs to be limited. This is achieved by
progressively mechanically limiting rudder travel when aircraft
speed is increased beyond a certain speed sometimes pedal
travel too may get limited. Some manufacturers even go to the
extent of limiting the rate of deflection of rudder with increasing
aircraft speed.

Fig 18

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CONTROL USING ELEVON AND RUDDERVATORS

ELEVONS With a ruddervator, when a pilot wants to increase the angle of
attack, he or she pulls back the control column or stick and both
Elevons are combination elevators and ailerons used on the ruddervators move upward and inward, as shown in Figure B.
outer tips of some delta wings. When used as elevators, they
both move in the same direction; when used as ailerons, they
move in opposite directions. Elevons are especially needed for When the wheel is pushed forward, the ruddervators move
delta wing airplanes. downward and outward, as illustrated.

RUDDERVATOR If a pilot wants to yaw an airplane with ruddervators and the

right rudder is applied, the right ruddervator moves downward
Some airplanes have been designed with special types of and outward while the left ruddervator moves upward and
control surfaces that do not fit into the descriptions of the inward.
conventional controls. One such control is the ruddervator.
These movements are in response to the movement of the
The ruddervator is used on airplanes with a V-tail, and the rudder pedals and provide the forces necessary to rotate the
surfaces serve both as rudders and as elevators. A V -tail has a airplane about the vertical axis. The turning action of the
slight drag reduction due to the reduction of interference drag, ruddervators is also illustrated in Figure 20.
since there is one less intersection than on a conventional tail.
However, since the total surface area must be the same as on
a conventional tail, there is no reduction in skin-friction drag. A
disadvantage of the V-tail is that the heavier tail structure
necessary to support combined horizontal and vertical surface
loading along with a somewhat heavier control system make
the V -tail generally as heavy as the conventional design it
would replace. The other disadvantage to a V-tail is that it is
susceptible to roll tendencies, and the stability characteristics
are somewhat less desirable, particularly in rough air.

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Fig 19 Fig 20

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The increase in CLmax afforded by flap deflection reduces stall

SECONDARY FLIGHT CONTROLS (AIRFLOW CONTROL speed in a certain proportion, the effect described by equation:
DEVICES)

You have seen that the way in which the air flows across a wing
has a direct result on the lift that is produced. Items such as
camber, aspect ratio, and laminar flow are all important in the
generation of lift. The ability to vary these characteristics
results in an aircraft that has more desirable aerodynamic
characteristics over a wider operating range. Vsf = stall speed with flaps down

There are many different types of devices that can either Vs = stall speed without flaps
increase or decrease lift, such as flaps, slots, slats, and
spoilers. There are also devices that affect the airflow as it CLm = maximum lift coefficient of the clean configuration
passes over the wing, such as wing fences and vortex
generators. CLmf = maximum lift coefficient with flaps down

HIGH LIFT DEVICES For example, assume the airplane described by the lift curves
of figure has a stall speed of 100 knots at the landing, weight
The primary purpose of high lift devices flaps, slots, slats, etc. in the clean configuration. If the flaps are lowered the reduced
is to increase the CLmax of the airplane and reduce the stall stall speed is reduced to:
speed. The takeoff and landing speeds are consequently
reduced. The effect of a typical high lift device is shown by the V = 100 x 1.5
airplane lift curves of figure and is summarized here: 2

= 86.5 knots

Thus, with the higher lift coefficient available, less dynamic

pressure is required to provide the necessary lift. Because of
the stated variation of stall speed with CLmax, large changes in
The principal effect of the extension of flaps is to increase the CLmax are necessary to produce significant changes in stall
CLmax and reduce the angle of attack for any given lift coefficient. speed.
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SLOTS AND SLATS

Another device that is used on the leading edge of a wing is a

slot. A slot is also a high-Lift device because it improves lift. It is The airfoil is shown in a stalling position because the burbling
a nozzle-shaped passage through a wing designed to improve of the air reaches almost the leading edge of the wing. The
the airflow conditions at high angles of attack and slow speeds. automatic slot has disadvantages as well as advantages. The
As the angle of attack of the wing increases, air from the high- number of moving parts and the weight of the wing are
pressure region below the wing flows to the low-pressure area increased. The slots must be installed properly and operate
above the wing, as shown in the bottom drawing of Figure equally well on both wings or they are useless. If a slot on one
a. This flow of air postpones the breakdown of streamline flow wing opens before the slot on the opposite wing does so,
that accompanies an increase in the angle of attack. A slot is disastrous results could occur. I.e. differential lift on the wings
normally placed very near the leading edge. Slots are could cause the aircraft to roll which if it happens at takeoff or
illustrated in Figures 20 and 21. landing could result in loss of aircraft.

There are two general types of slots: the fixed and the The usual location of slots is such that they are subjected to ice
automatic. When the fixed type is used, the airflow depends on formation, and in spite of any anti-icing or deicing
the angle of attack. The disadvantage of a fixed slot is that it equipment, they may fail to function. If any of these factors
adds excessive drag at low angles of attack. The automatic slot causes a lack of balance, lateral control may be impaired. For
is formed by having a lead.ng-edge airfoil that will separate these reasons, a device is usually provided for locking slots in a
from the main leading edge to form a slot. This auxiliary airfoil closed position if they do not function properly.
is commonly referred to as a slat. The automatic slot is nested
into the leading edge of the wing while the wing is at low angles Figure 23 illustrates the effect of a slot on the lift
of attack but is free to move forward a definite distance from the coefficient. Notice that at angles where the slot is opened, the
leading edge at high angles of attack. lift is greater and the maximum CL occurs at a much higher
angle of attack. This indicates that an airplane with a slotted
This forms a slot through which a portion of the airstream flows wing has a lower stalling speed than one without slots, other
and is deflected along the upper surface of the wing, thus things being equal.
maintaining a streamline flow around the wing. Figure (21) ;
shows the effect of the airstream diverted by a slot and the A slat is a movable auxiliary airfoil attached to the leading
advantage gained by its use. The top picture shows the airfoil edge of the wing which, when closed, falls within the original
with its slot closed at a high angle of attack. contour of the wing and which, when opened, forms a slot.
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Fig 21
Fig 22

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Slots and slats can produce significant increases in CL but the

increased angle of attack for maximum lift can be a
disadvantage. If slots were the only high lift device on the wing,
the high take-off and landing angles of attack may complicate
the design of the landing gear. For this reason, slots or slats are
usually used in conjunction with flaps since the flaps provide
reduction in the maximum lift angle of attack.

Figure illustrates the effect of having a combination of slots and

flaps. With this arrangement, it is possible to have a much
lower landing speed, better control of the flight path, and at
least a partial elimination of the nose heaviness that may result
from the use of flaps alone. It should be understood that Figure
is based upon a particular set of conditions and does not
illustrate the effect produced by various airfoils and
combinations of different flaps and slots.

Figure 23

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FLAPS
The split flaps shown in figure consist of plate deflected from
There are many different types of high lift devices used to the lower surface of the section and produces a slightly
increase the maximum lift co-efficient for low speed flight. The greater change in CLmax than the plain flap. However, a much
high lift devices applied to the trailing edge of a section consist larger change in drag results from the great turbulent wake
of a flap. produced by this type flap.

NASA defines a wing flap as a hinged, pivoted, or sliding airfoil, The greater drag may not be such a disadvantage when it is
usually near the trailing edge of the wing. It is designed to realized that it may be advantageous to accomplish steeper
increase the lift, drag, or both when deflected and is used landing approaches over obstacles or require higher power
principally for landing, although large airplanes use partial flap from the engine during approach (to minimize engine
deflection for takeoff. Most flaps are usually 15 to 25% of the acceleration time for wave-off).
airfoil's chord. The deflection of a flap produces the effect of
adding a large amount of camber well aft on the chord. The The slotted flap is similar to the plain flap but the gap
more camber that the airfoil has results in a greater pressure between the main section and flap leading edge is given
differential and the creation of more lift. This makes it specific contours. High-energy air from the lower surface is
possible for the airplane to have a steeper angle of descent for ducted to the flap upper surface. The high-energy air from the
the landing without increasing the airspeed. Flaps are normally slot accelerates the upper surface boundary layer and delays
installed on the inboard section of the wing trailing edge. airflow separation to some higher lift coefficient. The slotted flap
can cause much greater increases in CLmax than the plain or
The principal types of flaps are shown applied to a basic split flap and section drags are much lower.
section of airfoil. The effect of a 30° deflection of a 25 percent
chord flap is shown on the lift and drag curves of figure. The Fowler flap arrangement is similar to the slotted flap. The
difference is that the deflected flap segment is moved aft along
The plain flap shown in figure is a simple hinged portion of the a set of tracks, which increases the chord and affects an
trailing edge. The effect of the camber added well aft on increase in wing area. The Fowler flap is characterized by large
the chord causes a significant increase in CLmax. In addition, the increases in CLmax with minimum changes in drag.
zero lift angle changes to a more negative value and the drag
increases greatly.

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Fig 24

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Fig 25

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As shown in Figure 26, when the fowler flap opens, the One additional factor requiring consideration in a comparison of
small airfoil slides downward and backward on tracks until it flap types is the aerodynamic twisting moments caused by the
reaches the position desired, thus providing a wing with a flap. Positive camber produces a nose down twisting moment-
variable coefficient of lift and a variable area. especially great when large camber is used well aft on the
chord (an obvious implication is that flaps are not practical on a
With the Fowler flap, the wing area can be increased, causing flying wing or tailless airplane).
large increases in lift with minimum increases in drag, the exact
amount of increase of each depending upon the angle to which
the flap is lowered. The Fowler flap is one of the designs, which
are particularly well adapted for use at takeoff as well as landing. The deflection of a flap causes large nose down moments,
which create important twisting loads on the structure and
A variation, and improvement, to the basic Fowler and slotted pitching moments that must be controlled with the horizontal
flaps is the slotted Fowler flap. When such flaps are initially tail. Unfortunately, the flap types producing the greatest
extended, they move aft on their track. Once past a certain increases in CLmax usually cause the greatest twisting moments.
point on the track, further aft movement is accompanied by a The Fowler flap causes the greatest change in twisting
downward deflection, which opens up one or more slots. moment while the split flap causes the least. This factor-along
with mechanical complexity of the installation-may complicate
A triple-slotted Fowler flap is shown in Figure 26 and 27 the choice of a flap configuration.

The slotted fowler flap can provide much greater increases in The effectiveness of flaps on a wing configuration depends on
lift than the plain or split flap, and corresponding drag changes many different factors. One important factor is the amount of
are much lower. This type of flap requires the installation of a the wing area affected by the flaps. Since a certain amount of
rather complicated structure. The slotted Fowler flap is usually the span is reserved for ailerons, the actual wing maximum lift
used on the trailing edge of most turbine transport category properties will be less than that of the flapped two-dimensional
aircraft. section. If the basic wing has a low thickness, any type of
flap will be less effective than on a wing of greater thickness.
Sweepback of the wing can cause an additional significant
reduction in the effectiveness of flaps.

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Fig 26

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Fig 27

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DRAG INDUCING DEVICES

Secondly, the spoilers can be used in a symmetrical, part-
There are several situations where the aircraft must slow down deployed position, allowing the aircraft to slow down quickly in
fairly quickly. With slower, high drag, light aircraft, simply closing the cruise, or descend at a much steeper rate without
the throttle allows the high drag of the airframe and the idling accelerating. On some aircraft, the deployment angle of the
propeller to slow the aircraft down, to gliding speed prior to spoiler panels can be varied by changing the position of the
landing approach, for example modern airliner is an extremely control lever in the flight compartment.
smooth, low drag design which, if only the throttles are retarded,
will continue in level flight for many miles before slowing down. Lift dumpers are, as their name describes, are spoiler panels
Furthermore, if the nose were lowered more than a degree or incorporated solely to dump lift. They are normally deployed
so, the aircraft will begin to accelerate again. after landing, destroying the lift of the wing and producing high
drag, to assist in stopping the aircraft efficiently and thereby
In order to overcome the problems of low drag on large aircraft allowing the wheel brakes to be operated more effectively.
with high momentum, the designers have introduced a variety of
drag inducing devices. These include spoilers, lift dumpers,
speed brakes and in unusual circumstances, lowering the SPEED BRAKES
landing gear and operating in-flight thrust reversers.
Whilst it is true that the in-flight use of spoilers may be referred
to as selecting the 'speed brakes', the term more accurately
SPOILERS AND LIFT DUMPERS describes devices which are solely for the production of drag
without any change of trim. The rear fuselage mounted
Spoilers and Lift Dumpers are usually hinged panels located 'clamshell-type’ doors are true speed brakes (or air brakes) and
about mid-chord position on the upper surface of the wing. have the following major advantage over the use of spoilers for
Hydraulically operated, they produce a large amount of producing drag.
turbulence and drag when deployed, resulting in a reduction of
lift. When the wing mounted spoilers are deployed, vibration or
rumble is often felt in the passenger cabin, which some people
Spoilers, have a variety of uses, all of which involve spoiling the may find disturbing. The aft mounted speed brakes not only
lift of the wing. Some of the following facilities can be combined, produce high drag at any airspeed, but their selection is virtually
so that one set of panels can have more than one job. Firstly, vibration free. Also, lift will be completely unaffected, thus
they can be the primary roll control of the aircraft.
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permitting their deployment on approach and making a go
around much safer.

Fig – 28 SPOILERS AND LIFT DUMPERS

Fig - 29 SPEED BRAKES

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OPERATION AND EFFECT OF TRIM TABS CONTROLLABLE TRIM TABS

During a flight an aircraft will develop a tendency to deviate from A controllable trim tab is adjusted from the flight deck, with its
a straight and level ‘hands-off’ attitude. This may be due to position being transmitted back to a flight deck indicator
changes in fuel state, speed, load position or flap/landing gear showing trim units, left and right of neutral.
selection and could be countered by applying a continuous
correcting force to the primary controls. This would be fatiguing Flight deck controls are trim-wheel, lever, switch, etc., with the
for the crew and difficult to maintain for long periods, so trim actuation of the tab by mechanical, electrical or hydraulic
tabs are used for this purpose instead. means. Trim facilities are normally provided on all three axes

Trim tabs move the primary control surface aerodynamically in Note: Aircraft with hydraulic fully powered controls do not have
the opposite direction to the movement of the tab. To correct an trim tabs. Since fully powered controls are termed irreversible,
aircraft ‘nose down’ out of trim condition, the elevator tab is trim tabs if fitted, would be aerodynamically ineffective. With
moved down, resulting in the elevator moving up, the tail of the these systems, trimming is achieved by moving the primary
aircraft moving down, so that the nose comes up, correcting the control surface to a new neutral datum.
fault.

FIXED TRIM TABS

A fixed trim tab may be a simple section of sheet metal attached

to the trailing edge of a control surface. It is adjusted on the
ground by simply bending it up or down, to a position resulting
in zero control forces during cruise. Alternatively, the tab is
connected to the primary control by a ground-adjustable
connecting rod. Finding the correct position for both types is by
trial and error.

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Fig – 30 FIXED TRIM TAB Fig – 31 CONTROLLABLE TRIM TAB

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SERVO TABS CONTROL SURFACE BIAS

Sometimes referred to as the flight tabs, servo tabs are True control surface bias is achieved in manually operated
positioned on the trailing edge of the primary control surface controls by the use of fixed or adjustable trim tabs, as previously
and connected directly to the flight deck control inputs. They act discussed. In power operated controls the input signal to the
as a form of ‘power booster’, since pilot effort is only required to hydraulic servo valve is adjusted to offset the primary control
deflect the relatively small area of the servo tab into the air surface.
stream.
However, in order to overcome the high stick forces on larger
Movement of the flight deck control input moves the tab up or aircraft at higher speeds, the surfaces themselves are used to
down and the aerodynamic force created on the tab, moves the lighten the forces.
primary control, until the aerodynamic load on the control
surface balances that on the tab. Moving the tab down will This is referred to as Aerodynamic Balancing and the three
cause the primary control to move up and vice-versa. principal ways of achieving it are: horn balance, inset hinge and
pressure balancing

Fig – 32 SERVO TAB

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enables one to understand certain peculiarities in aircraft
behavior.
INTRODUCTION
AIR PRESSURE
Developments in aircraft and power plants have produced high
performance airplanes with capabilities for very high-speed At standard sea-level temperature, individual molecules of
flight. The study of aerodynamics at these very high flight air are in constant motion in random directions at a speed of
speeds has many significant differences from the study of about 1,700 ft.p.s.(1,000 knots). Air pressure is thus the total
classical low speed aerodynamics. Therefore, it is quite effect of the impact of air molecules on any surface exposed to
necessary that the aircraft technician be familiar with the their movements. The speed of the molecules depends on their
nature of high-speed airflow and the characteristics of high temperature, the higher the temperature the greater the speed.
performance airplane configurations. Thus a small balloon, which is warmed, expands as the
molecular speed rises with temperature and so increases the
NATURE OF COMPRESSIBILITY pressure.

At low flight speeds the study of aerodynamics is greatly

simplified by the fact that air may experience relatively small
changes in pressure with only negligible changes in density.
This airflow is termed incompressible since the air may
undergo changes in pressure without apparent changes in
density. Such a condition of airflow is analogous to the flow of
water, hydraulic fluid, or any other incompressible fluid.

However, at high flight speeds the pressure changes that take

place are quite large and significant changes in air density
occur. The study of airflow at high speeds must account for
these changes in air density and must consider that the air is
compressible and that there will be 'Compressibility effects."

The compressible nature of air makes itself evident in a

number of ways, which have a marked effect on aircraft in flight.
Knowledge of the fundamental changes in the airflow brought
about the compressibility of air and their effects on aircraft

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HIGH SPEED FLIGHT

Advancement in modern aircraft and engine design has

produced very large airliners capable of cruising at 87% of the
speed of sound. Typically, at an altitude of 11,000 metres
(approximately 36,000feet), this will amount to an airspeed of
about 575 miles per hour.

Earlier in the course the effects of subsonic air were considered.

As airspeed increases, the aerodynamic effects of airflow
passing over an aircraft, go through a series of changes, which
will now be considered.

SPEED OF SOUND

One of the most important measurements in high speed

aerodynamics is based on the speed of sound and so called
mach number.
Fig 1
Mach number is named after the Austrian physicist Ernst Mach
(1838-1916) and is the ratio of true airspeed of an aircraft to the
local speed of sound at that altitude.

Sound waves, like those produced by a stationary object

vibrating at certain frequencies, will cause a continuous series
of pulses or pressure waves, to radiate outwards equally in all
directions from the point of origin and travel in exactly the same
manner as the ripples on a pond.

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Additionally, in any one of the fluids, speed will vary with a Consequently, anyone standing ahead of the aircraft, would
change in temperature. As temperature increases, the speed of hear it coming and be able to detect the change in the nature of
sound will increase and vice-versa, so that in Air on a standard the pressure waves as the aircraft passed by. It would be similar
day at sea level (15oC approx), the waves will travel at 761mph to the change in the pitch of the siren of a passing emergency
(661.7 knots), whereas at 11,000 metres altitude, the speed will road vehicle.
fall to 661mph, since the temperature has dropped to -56oC at
this altitude.
This is often referred to as Doppler shift or Doppler effect.
Note: At altitudes above 11,000 metres and up to about 27,000
metres, the temperature and hence the speed of sound, will
remain constant.

SUBSONIC FLIGHT

The propagation of the pressure waves from a stationary object

has been discussed above.

When an aircraft begins to move through the air at subsonic

speeds, (a speed less than pressure wave propagation speed)
the waves still travel forward and it is as if a message is sent
ahead of the aircraft to warn of its approach.

On receipt of this message, the air streams begin to divide to

make way for the aircraft but there is very little, if any change in
Fig 2
the density of the air as it flows over the aircraft. This warning
message can be detected perhaps 100metres in front of the
aircraft.

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 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 13- AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS
Category – B2 Sub Module 13.1 - Theory of Flight

TRANSONIC FLIGHT

At subsonic speeds, the study of aerodynamics is simplified by

the fact that air passing over a wing experiences only very small
changes in pressure and density. The airflow is termed
incompressible as, when it passes through a venturi, the
pressure changes without the density changing

At higher speeds, the change in air pressure and density

becomes significant and is called the compressibility effect.
When air enters a venturi at supersonic speeds, the airflow
slows down and must compress in order to pass through its
throat. Once a fluid compresses, its pressure and density will
both increase.
Fig 3

Fig 4

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.1 - Theory of Flight

The transonic flight range encompasses sound wave velocity SUPERSONIC FLIGHT
and consequently is the most difficult realm of flight since some
of the air flowing over the aircraft, particularly the wings, is Once the aircraft is supersonic, all parts of it are considered to
subsonic and some is supersonic. As the aircraft approaches be above the speed of sound and therefore travelling faster than
the speed of sound, the pressure waves ahead of it will be the rate of propagation of the pressure waves. An infinite
travelling at the same speed as the aircraft and are therefore number of pressure waves are produced and form a cone, the
relatively stationary. They accumulate to form a continuous inclination of which will change as the aircraft speed changes.
pressure wave and consequently will result in the removal of
any advance warning of the approach of the aircraft. MACH NUMBER

At these speeds other pressure waves, or shock waves form Mach number is the ratio of the true airspeed of the aircraft and
wherever the airflow reaches the speed of sound. These waves the local speed of sound at that altitude. An aircraft travelling at
will upset the aerodynamic balance of the wing and this exactly the speed of sound is said to be travelling at Mach 1.

It follows therefore that an aircraft travelling at twice the speed

of sound would be travelling at Mach 2 and at half the speed of
sound, Mach 0.5, etc,

The following definitions regarding airflow and mach number

apply:

Subsonic Flow Mach Numbers below Mach 0.75

Transonic Flow Mach Numbers between Mach 0.75 and 1.2

Supersonic Flow Mach Numbers between Mach 1.2 and 5.0

Hypersonic Flow Mach Numbers above Mach 5.0

Fig 5
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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.1 - Theory of Flight

This means that although the aircraft itself may be travelling at

airspeed well below Mach 1, the airflow over the thickest part of
the wing chord, may have already reached Mach 1.

As will be discussed later, many unwanted effects occur when

the wing approaches and reaches Mach 1. Therefore, the
designers may either incorporate features that will lessen the
unwanted effects, or limit the aircraft to a predetermined
maximum airspeed, that will ensure the wing speed remains
below Mach 1 and thus avoids the unwanted effects altogether.

For each aircraft type therefore, a unique maximum aircraft

forward speed will be calculated, corresponding to a wing speed
of Mach 1. This aircraft speed (always be less than Mach 1) is
called the Critical Mach Number or M.crit and non-supersonic
aircraft flying in the transonic flight range, will normally be
Fig 6 limited to a maximum speed set below the Critical Mach
CRITICAL MACH NUMBER number.

At any constant aircraft forward speed, the speed of the airflow

will vary over the curves and cambers on the different areas of
the airframe. The behaviour of the airflow over the wing will be
particularly significant, since this is the major lift provider for the
aircraft.

As air flows over the camber on the upper surface of the wing,
its speed will increase as it flows rearwards from the leading
edge, reaching a maximum at the thickest part of the wing
chord. Fig 7
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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.1 - Theory of Flight

NOTES

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ROTARY WING AERODYNAMICS

TERMINOLOGY Airfoil sections are of two basic types:

Helicopters are extremely versatile vehicles that have many Symmetrical and nonsymmetrical: Symmetrical airfoils have
unique capabilities unavailable to fixed wing aircraft. However, identical upper and lower surfaces. They are suited to rotary-
helicopters are inefficient in forward flight relative to a fixed wing wing applications because they have almost no centre of
aircraft. The fastest production helicopter, the Westland Lynx, pressure travel. Travel remains relatively constant under varying
holds the helicopter speed record of 216 knots, or about 250 angles of attack, affording the best lift-drag ratios for the full
mph, while commercial airliners regularly cruise efficiently at range of velocities from rotor blade root to tip. However, the
velocities over 600 mph. One of the challenges to efficient symmetrical airfoil produces less lift than a nonsymmetrical
forward flight in helicopters is the rapid rise in induced power at airfoil and also has relatively undesirable stall characteristics.
high speed; in part due to the requirement to maintain roll trim. The helicopter blade must adapt to a wide range of airspeeds
and angles of attack during each revolution of the rotor. The
AIRFOILS symmetrical airfoil delivers acceptable performance under those
alternating conditions. Other benefits are lower cost and ease of
construction as compared to the nonsymmetrical airfoil.
A helicopter flies for the same basic reason that any Nonsymmetrical (cambered) airfoils may have a wide variety of
conventional aircraft flies, because aerodynamic forces upper and lower surface designs.
necessary to keep it aloft are produced when air passes about
the rotor blades. The rotor blade, or airfoil, is the structure that Advantages of the nonsymmetrical airfoil are increased lift-drag
makes flight possible. Its shape produces lift when it passes ratios and more desirable stall characteristics. Nonsymmetrical
through the air. Helicopter blades have airfoil sections designed airfoils were not used in earlier helicopters because the centre
for a specific set of flight characteristics. Usually the designer of pressure location moved too much when angle of attack was
must compromise to obtain an airfoil section that has the best changed. When centre of pressure moves a twisting force is
flight characteristics for the mission the aircraft will perform. exerted on the rotor blades. Rotor system components had to
be designed that would withstand the twisting forces. Recent
design processes and new materials used to manufacture rotor
systems have partially overcome the problems associated with
use of nonsymmetrical airfoils.

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.1 - Theory of Flight
camber line. These quantities are expressed as fractions
or percentages of the basic chord dimension.

AIRFOIL SECTIONS:  Thickness and thickness distribution of the profile are

important properties of an airfoil section. The maximum
Rotary-wing airfoils operate under diverse conditions, because thickness and its location help define the airfoil shape
their speeds are a combination of blade rotation and forward and are expressed as a percentage of the chord.
movement of the helicopter. An intelligent discussion of  The leading-edge radius of the airfoil is the radius of
the factors affecting the magnitude of rotor blade lift and drag curvature given the leading-edge shape.
requires knowledge of blade section geometry. Blades are  Angle of attack is an aerodynamic angle and is
designed with specific geometry that adapts them to the varying illustrated below:
conditions of flight. Cross-section shapes of most rotor blades
are not the same throughout the span. Shapes are varied along
the blade radius to take advantage of the particular airspeed
range experienced at each point on the blade, and to help
balance the load between the root and tip. The blade may be
built with a twist, so an airfoil section near the root has a larger
pitch angle than a section near the tip.

 The chord line is a straight line connecting the leading

and trailing edges of the airfoil.
 The chord is the length of the chord line from leading
edge to trailing edge and is the characteristic
longitudinal dimension of the airfoil.
 The mean camber line is a line drawn halfway between
the upper and lower surfaces. The chord line connects
the ends of the mean camber line.
 The shape of the mean camber is important in
determining the aerodynamic characteristics of an airfoil
section. Maximum camber (displacement of the mean
camber line from the chord line) and the location of
maximum camber help to define the shape of the mean

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.1 - Theory of Flight

FIG 8

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.1 - Theory of Flight

controls and the point where the desired change is manifest in

OPERATION AND EFFECT OF CYCLIC, COLLECTIVE AND the rotor blades flight. This difference is caused by gyroscopic
ANTI-TORQUE CONTROLS precession.
Cyclic Control
The cyclic control is usually located between the pilot's legs and Collective Control:
is commonly called the cyclic stick or just cyclic. On most The collective pitch control, or collective lever, is normally
helicopters, the cyclic is similar in appearance to a joystick in a located on the left side of the pilot's seat with an adjustable
conventional aircraft. The control is called the cyclic because it friction control to prevent inadvertent movement. The collective
changes the pitch angle of the rotor blades cyclically. That is, changes the pitch angle of all the main rotor blades collectively
the pitch or feathering angle of the rotor blades changes (i.e., all at the same time) and independent of their position.
depending upon their position as they rotate around the hub so Therefore, if a collective input is made, all the blades change
that all blades will have the same incidence at the same point in equally, and the result is the helicopter increases or decreases
the cycle. The change in cyclic pitch has the effect of changing its total lift derived from the rotor. In level flight this would cause
the angle of attack and thus the lift generated by a single blade a climb or descent, while with the helicopter pitched forward an
as it moves around the rotor disk. This in turn causes the blades increase in total lift would produce acceleration together with a
to fly up or down in sequence, depending on the changes in Lift given amount of ascent.
affecting each individual blade.
Anti-torque Control:
The result is to tilt the rotor disk in a particular direction, The anti-torque pedals are located in the same position as
resulting in the helicopter moving in that direction. If the pilot the rudder pedals in an airplane, and serve a similar purpose,
pushes the cyclic forward, the rotor disk tilts forward, and the namely to control the direction in which the nose of the aircraft
rotor produces a thrust vector in the forward direction. If the pilot is pointed. Application of the pedal in a given direction changes
pushes the cyclic to the right, the rotor disk tilts to the right and the pitch of the tail rotor blades, increasing or reducing the
produces thrust in that direction, causing the helicopter to move thrust produced by the tail rotor and causing the nose to yaw in
sideways in a hover or to roll into a right turn during forward the direction of the applied pedal. The pedals mechanically
flight, much as in a fixed wing aircraft. change the pitch of the tail rotor altering the amount of thrust
produced.
On any rotor system there is a delay between the points in
rotation where a change in pitch is introduced by the flight

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.1 - Theory of Flight

Fig 9

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