PIA Training Centre Module 13 – AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS

Category – B2 Sub Module 13.4(a) – Communication / Navigation

MODULE 13
Sub Module 13.4

COMMUNICATION / NAVIGATION (ATA 23/34)

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.4(a) – Communication / Navigation

Contents

13.4.1 FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (FMS) ......................... 1 13.4.4.5 INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM ............................ 181

13.4.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMMUNICATION ..................... 17 13.4.4.5(A) MLS SYSTEM DESCRIPTION ............................... 197

13.4.2.1 TRANSMITTER................................................................. 21 13.4.4.6 VLF AND HYPERBOLIC NAVIGATION ..................... 201

14.2.2 RADIO RECEIVERS ........................................................... 31 13.4.4.7 DOPPLER NAVIGATION .............................................. 205

13.4.2.3 TRANSMISSION LINES .................................................. 36 13.4.4.8 AREA NAVIGATION; RNAV SYSTEM ....................... 211

13.4.2.4 ANTENNAS ....................................................................... 45 13.4.4.9 FLIGHT DIRECTOR SYSTEMS .................................. 215

13.4.2.5 RADIATION AND PROPAGATION OF WAVES ......... 57 13.4.5 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM (INS) ...................... 226

13.4.3 AIRCRAFT COMMUNICATION......................................... 67

13.4.3.1 VHF COMMUNICATIONS............................................... 69
13.4.3.2 HF COMMUNICATIONS ................................................. 79
13.4.3.3 AUDIO INTEGRATING SYSTEMS (AIS)...................... 91
13.4.3.4 COCKPIT VOICE RECORDER .................................... 109
13.4.3.5 ARINC COMMUNICATION, ADDRESSING &
REPORTING SYSTEM (ACARS) ................................................ 113
13.4.3.6 EMERGENCY LOCATOR TRANSMITTER ............... 122
13.4.4 RADIO NAVIGATION ........................................................ 128
13.4.4.1 NAVIGATION FUNDAMENTALS................................. 128
13.4.4.2 VHF OMNI RANGES (VOR): ........................................ 138
13.4.4.3 AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER SYSTEM ........... 151
13.4.4.4 GLOBAL POSITIONG SYSTEM (GPS) ...................... 169

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13.4.1 FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (FMS)

The FMC contains a large nonvolatile memory that stores performance
A Flight Management System (FMS) is a computer-based flight and navigation data along with the necessary operating programs.
control system and is capable of four main functions: Portions of the nonvolatile memory are used to store Information
concerning:
- Automatic Flight Control.
- Performance Management. - Airport
- Navigation and Guidance. - Standard Flight Routes.
- Status and Warning Displays. Nav Aid Data.

The FMS utilizes two Flight Management Computers (FMC) for Since this information changes, the FMS incorporates a “Data
redundancy purposes. During normal operation both computers Loader”. The data loader is either a tape or disk drive that can be
cross-talk; that is, they share and compare information through plugged into the FMC. This data is updated periodically every 28 days.
the data bus. Each computer is capable of operating
completely independently in the event of one failed unit.

The FMC receives input data from four sub-system computers:

- Flight Control Computer (FCC).

- Thrust Management Computer (TMC).
- Digital Air Data Computer (DADC).
- Engine Indicating & Crew Alerting System (EICAS).

The communication between these computers is typically ARINC

429 data format. Other parallel and serial data inputs are
received from flight deck controls, navigation aids and various
airframe and engine sensors.

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Fig 1 FMC Memory

Locations

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MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF FMS

- Capability to automatically tune or manually select VOR/DME
The major functions of a FMS are as follows: stations that will yield the most accurate estimate of airplane
position and tune the receivers automatically.
- Storage of navigation, aerodynamic, and engine
data with provisions for routine updating of the navigation - Capability to transmit pitch, roll, and thrust commands to the
database on a 28-day cycle. ‘ autopilot, auto throttle, and flight director to fly an optimum
vertical flight profile for climb, cruise, descent, and approach
- Provision for automatic data entry for alignment of the while automatically controlling the lateral portion of the flight plan.
inertial reference units.
- Capability for pilot input of up to 20 waypoints and 20 NAVAIDs
- Means for entry, storage, and in-flight into the navigation database.
modification of a complete flight plan from the departure
runway to the destination runway via company routes,
Standard Instrument Departure (SID) and Standard Arrival
Route (STAR) airways and named or pilot- defined
waypoints.

- Means for entry of performance optimization

and reference data including gross weight, fuel on board,
cruise temperature and wind, fuel reserves, cost index,
and computations of the optimum vertical profile utilizing
this data plus the entered route.

- Transmission of data to generate a map of the

route on the Navigation Display (ND), including relative
positions of pertinent points such as NAVAIDs, airports,
runways, etc.

- Calculation of the aircraft's position and

transmission of this information for display on the ND map
and Control and Display Unit (CDU).

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CONTROL AND DISPLAY UNIT (CDU)

The CDU is the interface between the pilot and the Flight
Management Computer (FMC). It provides the means for
manually inserting system control parameters and selecting
modes of operation. In addition, it provides FMC readout
capability as well as verification of data entered into memory.
Flight plan and advisory data is continuously available for display
on the CDU.

The CDU keyboard assembly provides a full alphanumeric

keyboard combined with mode, function, data entry, slew
switches, and advisory annunciator. In addition, the keyboard
assembly contains two integral automatic light sensors and a
manual knob to control display brightness. Figure shows a
typical FMS Control Display Unit.

Fig. 2 Control and Display

Unit

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FMS COMPUTER

The computer is of the hybrid type, and the inputs, outputs and
unit interfaces are as shown in Fig. 1. Program storage is by
means of a PROM and an additional non-volatile memory for
retaining all entered data during any interruption of the power
supply. Built-In Test Equipment (BITE) circuits and software
operate continuously to check all critical circuits of the system.
The fuel summation unit, which is a component of the PDCS,
develops an AC voltage signal that is proportional to the total
fuel on board the aircraft, the signal being a combination of
those produced by the fuel quantity indicating system, sensing
probes, which are located in the fuel tanks.

Fig 3 FMC interface

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OPERATION
MIN FUEL - The MIN Fuel speed/mach targets are calculated with a
During pre-flight the flight crew first enters all the flight plan cost index of zero, thus ignoring the cost of time.
information. The initial latitude and longitude of the aircraft,
navigational waypoints, destinations, alternates, and flight
altitudes are all entered and the FMC generates a flight plan for MIN TIME - The MIN TIME speed/mach targets are based on
display on the CDU. The flight crew checks the configuration operation at maximum flight envelope speeds.
and if correct, it is confirmed to put the data into the active
memory. During normal flight, the FMS sends navigational data to the (EFIS),
which then displays a route map on the EHSI. If the flight plan is
Performance data is selected in a similar way. This data altered during flight, then the EHSI map display will automatically change
contains takeoff, climb, cruise and ascent parameters. This to display the new route.
function optimizes the aircraft’s vertical profile for three, pilot
selected, strategic flight modes: Since there are two CDUs in a FMS, during normal operation one
unit is commonly used to display performance data and the other is
- Economy (ECON). used to display navigational information.
- Minimum Fuel (MIN FUEL).
- Minimum Time (MIN TIME).

Speed targets associated with these modes are:

ECON - The ECON climb, cruise and descent phase

speed/mach targets are calculated to obtain the minimum
operating cost per mile travelled enroute. Some factors
considered in these calculations are cost index, cruise flight
level, gross weight, temperature, and current or predicted winds.

Note; cost index accounts for the cost of time in addition to fuel
cost.

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Fig 4 FMS Block Schematic Diagram

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PERFORMANCE MODES
The FMC will provide speed targets to the AFCS during climb.
Performance modes are split into four phases: Generally, speed is controlled by pitch, except where level off is required
to observe altitude constraints, in which case speed
1. Take-off Phase.
2. Climb Phase.
3. Cruise Phase. will be controlled through the throttles.
4. Descent and Approach Phase.
CRUISE PHASE
TAKEOFF PHASE
The cruise phase extends from the T/C point to the top of descent
The takeoff phase extends to the thrust reduction altitude where (T/D). Cruise could include a steep climb as well as a steep descent.
takeoff go around (TOGA) thrust is reduced to climb thrust. If The FMC will calculate the optimum step climb or descent point for the
the FMS PROF mode is armed prior to takeoff, profile flight crew. Initiation of the steep climb or step descent requires a
coupling to the Automatic Flight Control System (AFCS) and correct setting of a new altitude target on the Flight Mode Panel (FMP).
Auto Throttle System (ATS) for thrust reduction will be
automatic at the thrust reduction altitude. DESCENT & APPROACH PHASE

If the FMS NAV mode is armed prior to takeoff, navigation The descent and approach phases extend from the T/D to the
coupling to the autopilot will be automatic when the aircraft is destination airport.
more than 30 feet above origin altitude.
The FMC will calculate the appropriate point for the start of the
CLIMB PHASE descent and will initiate the descent automatically, provided the FMP
altitude has been previously lowered and the aircraft is coupled to the
The climb phase extends from the thrust reduction altitude to the PROF mode.
top of climb (T/C).
However, the flight crew may command an immediate descent, which
The climb mode will provide guidance for accelerating the defaults to 1000 ft/min and is changeable if required by ATC.
aircraft when the aircraft climbs above the terminal
area, speed restriction zone. The mode will observe FMS PROF Guidance is terminated when the ILS glide-slope is
speed/altitude constraints that have been stored in the FMC intercepted; automatic NAV guidance is terminated when ILS localizer
database or have been inserted by the flight crew. is intercepted.

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NAVIGATION

Short-period position and velocity information from the Inertial

Reference System (IRS) is combined with long-period range and The FMC has automatically selected STR and AUG because these
bearing information from VOR/DME stations to form an accurate stations meet the figure of merit distance requirement.
and stable estimate of the aircraft’s position and ground speed
(GS). The FMC also has the capability to tune stations for display on the
EFIS, which do not necessarily correspond to the stations being used
The primary mode of operation is to combine range from two internally by the FMC for aircraft position determination.
DME stations as well as position and ground speed information
from the three Inertial Reference Units (IRU). Each FMC independently computes the IRS position as a weighted
average of all three IRUs.
If two DME stations are not available, range and bearing from a
single VOR/DME station is used with the IRS data. As the If, at any time, latitude or longitude data from one IRU differs from the
aircraft progresses along its route, the FMC uses a current previous average by ½° or more, that IRU will not be used in the
estimate of the aircraft’s position and the inertial navigation averaging process until the output of that IRU is within ½° of the
database to tune the VOR/DME receivers to the stations that will previous average. When only two valid IRUs are available, each FMC
yield the most accurate estimate of position. will use one valid IRU for its independent calculation of the aircraft’s
position.
The FMC database contains information on the class and
figure of merit of the available Nav-aids. The classes of a Nav-
aid are defined as VOR, DME, VOR/DME, VORTEC, or LOC.

The figure of merit is based on usable distance and altitude of

the station relative to the aircraft. In Figure three frequencies
are being tuned by the FMC.

These are TRA (114.70 MHz), STR (115.60 MHz) and AUG
(115.90MHz). TRA is being used for displaying the bearing and
range to the next waypoint; STR and AUG are being used for
FMC internal calculation of the aircraft’s present position from
DME data.

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Fig. 5 FMC Nav aid Auto Tune Function

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PERFORMANCE GUIDANCE

The performance function includes the computation of optimal The guidance function implemented as part of the FMS provides
speeds; estimates of fuel consumption and gross weight; and commands for controlling aircraft roll, pitch, speed and engine thrust.
predictions of time, fuel and distances at all flight plan
waypoints. It also covers the computations of reference Fully automatic, performance-optimized guidance along flight paths in
parameters such as optimum altitude, maximum altitude, two or three dimensions is available. This is achieved using NAV/PROF
approach speed, data base recall and FMC calculation of the modes of the FMS and AFCS controlled via the FMP. NAV and
operational speed envelope. PROF may be used separately or together. NAV provides lateral
guidance, and PROF provides vertical guidance and speed/thrust
Flight path predictions are computed by the FMC using an control.
origin to destination trajectory along the lateral flight plan. The
parameters used in this calculation include; gross weight, cost
index, predicted cruise winds, speed/altitude/time constraints at
specific waypoints, specified speed modes for climb, cruise and
descent, allowances for takeoff, approach, and
acceleration/deceleration segments between the legs with
different speed targets. The predictions are updated
periodically as the flight progresses incorporating aircraft
performance and groundspeed.

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LATERAL GUIDANCE

The primary flight plan provides lateral guidance with automatic

route leg sequencing. The NAV guidance function compares the
aircraft’s actual position with the desired flight path and
generates steering commands to the autopilot and flight director
systems. These cause the aircraft to fly along the desired flight
path. Direct guidance from the aircraft’s present position to any
waypoint is also available. Figure shows two lateral flight plans.
These routes may be selected via the CDU by inserting specific
waypoints on the route, or by inserting a code for individual
company routes, which enhance all waypoints required.

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FMS Lateral Flight Plans

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VERTICAL GUIDANCE

The vertical guidance encompasses the climb, cruise and

descent phases of the flight. The flight planning capability of the
FMS includes means to enter a published departure, arrival and
approach segments and individual waypoints that include
speed/altitude constraints. These constraints, as well as the
entered cruise altitude and cost index, define the vertical
profile for which FMS provides guidance.

In the climb portion of the profile, the AFCS will control thrust
and speed through PROF thrust and pitch targets. The aircraft
will climb at climb limit thrust to each altitude constraint, fly level
until past the constraining waypoint and then resume the climb at
climb limit thrust. Automatic level off will also occur as a function
of the clearance altitude setting on the FMP.

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FMS Lateral Flight Plans

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MS Vertical Profile

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13.4.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMMUNICATION INFORMATION

Information itself is that which is conveyed. The amount of information

In its basic electrical sense, the term communications refer to contained in any given message is measured in bits or in digits, and
the sending, receiving and processing of information by electric depends on the number of choices that must be made.
means.

COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS TRANSMITTER

Before investigating individual systems, we have to define and A transmitter is required to process, and possibly encode, the
discuss important terms such as information, message and incoming information so as to make it suitable for transmission and
signal, channel, noise and distortion, modulation and subsequent reception.
demodulation, and finally encoding and decoding. To correlate
these concepts, a block diagram of a general communications Eventually, in a transmitter, the information modulates the carrier, i.e.,
system is shown here. is impressed on a high-frequency sine wave. The actual method of
modulation varies from one system to another.

Fig. 1 Communication System Block Diagram

Fig. 2 Transmitter

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CHANNEL

the term channel is often used to refer to the frequency range

allocated to a particular service or transmission, such as a
television channel.

RECEIVER

The receiver is required to amplify signal received and decode it

to acquire information signal. Its most important function is
demodulation (Acquire information from high frequency signal).
Fig. 3 Receiver
As stated initially, the purpose of a receiver and the form of its
output influence its construction as much as the type of BANDWIDTH REQUIREMENTS
modulation system used. Thus, the output of a receiver may be
variously fed to a loudspeaker, video display unit, teletypewriter, It is reasonable to expect that the frequency range (i.e. bandwidth)
various radar displays, television picture tube, pen recorder or required for a given, transmission should depend on the bandwidth
computer; in each instance different arrangements must be occupied by the modulation signals themselves. Before trying to
made, each affecting the receiver design. estimate the bandwidth of a modulated transmission, it is essential to
know the bandwidth occupied by the modulating signal itself. If this
Note: also, that the transmitter and receiver must be in consists of sinusoidal signals, the occupied bandwidth will simply be
agreement with the modulation and coding methods used (and the frequency range between the lowest and the highest sine-wave
also timing or synchronization in some systems). signal.

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NOISE NOISE FIGURE

Noise may be defined, in an electrical sense, as any unwanted SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO

form of energy tending to interfere with the proper and easy
reception and reproduction of wanted signals. It is defined as the ratio of signal power to noise power at the same
point. Thus
External noise is difficult to treat quantitatively, and furthermore
there is often little that can be done about it, short of moving the
system to another location. E.g. Atmospheric noise,
Extraterrestrial noise, industrial noise etc.
DEFINITION OF NOISE FIGURE
Internal noise is both more quantifiable and capable of being The noise figure F is defined as the ratio of the signal-to-noise power
reduced by appropriate receiver design. E.g. Thermal agitation, supplied to the input terminals of a receiver or amplifier to the signal-
Shot noise, Transit noise etc. to-noise power supplied to the output or load resistor. Thus

The noise figure will be 1 for an ideal receiver, which introduces no

noise of its own.

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MODULATION NEED FOR MODULATION

DESCRIPTION For efficient radiation and reception, the transmitting and receiving
antennas would have to have heights comparable to a quarter-
wavelength of the frequency used. This is 75 meters (75 m) at 1
In the process of modulation, some characteristic of a high- megahertz (1 MHz), in the broadcast band, but at 15kHz it has
frequency sine wave (the carrier) is varied in accordance with increased to 5000 m (or just over 16,000 feet)! A vertical antenna of
the instantaneous value of the (modulating) signal. Such a sine this size is unthinkable.
wave may be represented by the equation:
Note: f = Cλ .................antenna physical length on aircraft = λ/4
e = E sin (ωt+φ), where

where f is frequency
e is the instantaneous value of the sine wave, called the carrier; C is speed of light
E is its maximum amplitude, and λ is wavelength
ω is the angular velocity or angular frequency,
while φ is the phase relation with respect to some reference. There is an even more important argument against transmitting signal
frequencies directly: all sound is concentrated within the range from 20
Any of these last three characteristics, or parameters, of the Hz to 20 kHz, so that all signals from the different sources would be
carrier may be varied by the modulating signal, giving rise to hopelessly and inseparably mixed up. In any city, the broadcasting
amplitude, frequency or phase modulation, respectively. stations alone would completely blanket the "air," and yet they
represent a very small proportion of the total number of transmitters in
use.

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13.4.2.1 TRANSMITTER

Radio transmitters generate energy at a selected frequency and While the simple oscillator, aerial arrangement illustrates the principals
convey this energy to the transmitting aerial for radiation. To involved, most practical transmitters will use several stages of RF
obtain a signal containing useful intelligence it is necessary to amplification to obtain a stronger signal or to multiply the oscillator
superimpose information on the radio waves. In continuous- frequency. One popular combination that provides more power than
wave (CW) transmitters used for radio telegraphy, the desired the simple single stage transmitter is the master-oscillator, power
information is added by interrupting the radio-frequency amplifier (MOPA) transmitter. As its name implies, this arrangement
oscillations in accordance with a code such as Morse code. In consists of a master oscillator stage which may be crystal controlled,
radio-telephone (R/T) transmitters the information is added by followed by one or more stages of RF amplification as shown in Fig. 5
the process of modulating either the amplitude or the frequency on the next page.
of the radio-frequency carrier wave with the speech or music to
be transmitted.

Continuous-wave Transmission
KEY
An oscillator capable of generating radio frequencies may be
connected to a suitable aerial in order to radiate a useful signal.
The RF output of such a simple one-stage transmitter may be
interrupted in code by simply switching the oscillator supply on
and off with a switch or key. The output of the transmitter then
consists of interrupted continuous RF waves, which may be
intercepted by a receiver fitted with a beat frequency oscillator
and made audible. A typical Morse coded symbol for the letter
'0' consisting of a dash and two dots is shown in Fig. 4

DAS DOT DOT Fig 5 Continuous Wave Transmitter

Fig. 4
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The Radio Telephony Transmitter

For R/T transmission, the audio intelligence is superimposed The block schematic includes an alternative modulating signal in the
onto the RF transmission by variation of the amplitude or the form of an audio tone, produced by a tone oscillator and keyed for the
frequency of the RF carrier. The modulation of the carrier wave transmission of Morse Coded signals. For reception of such tone
by an audio wave is not accomplished by adding the two modulated carrier wave (MCW) a receiver need not be fitted with a
together, as simple addition would mean that the aerial would beat frequency oscillator
virtually have to radiate both frequencies, one of which it cannot
handle with any appreciable degree of efficiency. In both
amplitude and frequency modulation therefore, the modulation
process results in only radio frequencies being fed to the aerial
for radiation. Fig. 6 below illustrates a typical amplitude AMPLITUDE MODULATED
modulated R/T transmitter in block schematic. RF CARRIER

RF CARRIER AERIAL

AUDIO SIGNAL

MIC
TO ALL STAGES

KEY

Fig 6 R/T Transmitter

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AMPLITUDE MODULATION
Let the carrier voltage and the modulating voltage, VC and Vm,
THEORY OF AMPLITUDE MODULATION respectively, be represented by

From the definition of AM, it follows that the (maximum) amplitude Vc

of the unmodulated carrier will have to be made proportional to the
instantaneous modulating voltage Vm sinωmt when the carrier is
amplitude-modulated.

Amplitude Modulated Waveform

AM is defined as a system of modulation in which the amplitude

of the carrier is made proportional to the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating voltage.
(Modulating signal)

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Modulation Index
This equation may be expanded, by means of the trigonometrically
It also shows that something unusual (distortion, as it happens) relation: sin x sin y = 1/2 [cos (x - y) - cos (x + y)], to give
will occur if Vm is greater than Vc. This, and the fact that the ratio
Vm / Vc often occurs, leads to the following definition of the
modulation index:

The modulation index is a number lying between 0 and 1, and it

is very often expressed as a percentage and called the
percentage modulation. From the two expressions above, it is
possible to write an equation for the amplitude of the amplitude-
modulated voltage. It has thus been shown that the equation of an amplitude-modulated
wave contains three
Thus, we have terms. Frequency Spectrum of DSB – AM

 The first term represents the unmodulated carrier. It is thus

apparent that the process of amplitude modulation has the
effect of adding to the unmodulated wave, rather than changing
it.
The instantaneous voltage of the resulting amplitude-modulated
wave is  The two additional terms produced are the two sidebands
outlined. The frequency of the lower sideband (LSB) is fc-fm,
and the frequency of the upper sideband (USB) is fc+fm.

The very important conclusion to be made at this stage is that the

bandwidth required for amplitude modulation is twice the frequency of
the modulating signal

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SINGLE-SIDEBAND TECHNIQUES SUPPRESSION OF CARRIER

The theory of AM showed that a carrier and two sidebands are THE BALANCED MODULATOR
produced in AM generation. But it will be seen that it is not
necessary to transmit all those signals to provide the receiver The circuit of the balanced modulator are shown in Figure 7. The
with enough information to reconstruct the original modulation. modulation voltage v2 is fed in push-pull, and the carrier voltage v1 in
Thus, it will be seen, the carrier may be removed or attenuated, parallel, to a pair of identical diodes. The modulated output currents of
and so can one of the two sidebands. The resulting signals will the two Diodes are combined, as shown, in the center-tapped primary
require less transmitted power and will occupy less bandwidth, of the push-pull output transformer.
and yet perfectly acceptable communications will be possible.
They therefore subtract, as indicated by the direction of the arrows in
Figure (b). If this system is made completely symmetrical, the carrier
Advantages of SSB over DSB frequency will be completely canceled.
:
 Ability to transmit good communications-quality signals
E.g. selective fading
 Very narrow bandwidth only one side band
 Low total power = power of single sideband

Fig 7

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SUPPRESSION OF UNWANTED SIDEBAND

As stated earlier, the practical method of SSB generation use

the balanced modulator to suppress the carrier, but uses a
different method of removing the unwanted sideband.

THE FILTER SYSTEM

The filter system is the simplest system, after the balanced

modulator the unwanted sideband is removed (actually heavily
attenuated) by a filter. The filter may be LC, crystal, ceramic or
mechanical, depending on the carrier frequency and other
requirements. A block diagram of an SSB transmitter employing
Fig 8
this system is shown below.

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FREQUENCY MODULATION THEORY OF FREQUENCY AND PHASE MODULATION

FM is a form of angle modulation, of which phase modulation is Frequency modulation is a system in which the amplitude of the
another, tantalizingly similar form. But frequency modulation is modulated carrier is kept constant, while its frequency is varied by the
the preferred form for most applications. Frequency and modulating signal.
amplitude modulation are the most widely used practical
systems. DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEMS

Unlike amplitude modulation, FM can be made, relatively The general equation of an unmodulated wave, or carrier, may be
immune to the effects of noise. Processing of the modulating written as
signals, known as pre-emphasis and de-emphasis plays an
important part in making FM relatively immune to noise.

Note: This boosting of the higher modulating frequencies, in

accordance with a prearranged curve, is termed pre-emphasis,
and the compensation at the receiver is called de-emphasis

Note that ωt represents an angle in radians.

If anyone of these three parameters is varied in accordance with

another signal, normally of a lower frequency, then the second signal
is called the modulating signal, and the first is said to be modulated by
the second. If the frequency of the carrier is made to vary, frequency
modulated waves are obtained.

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By the definition of frequency modulation, the amount by which

the carrier frequency is varied from its unmodulated value,
called the deviation, is made proportional to the instantaneous
value of the modulating voltage. The rate at which this
frequency variation or oscillation takes place is naturally equal
to the modulating frequency.

Instantaneous value of FM is given by,

It is important to note that as the modulating frequency

decreases and the modulating voltage amplitude (that is, δ)
remains constant, the modulation index increases. This, will be
the basis for distinguishing frequency modulation from phase
modulation. Note also that mf, which is the ratio of two
frequencies, is measured in radians.

mf = δ / ᴓf

Fig 9

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PHASE MODULATION INTERSYSTEM COMPARISONS

If the phase φ in the equation v = A sin (ωct + φ) is varied so FREQUENCY AND PHASE MODULATION
that its magnitude is proportional to the instantaneous amplitude
of the modulating voltage, the resulting wave is phase- The difference is shown by comparing the definition of PM, which
modulated. states in part that the modulation index is proportional to the
modulating voltage only, with that of the FM, which states that the
The expression for a PM wave is modulation index is also inversely proportional to the modulation
frequency. This means that under identical conditions FM and PM are
v = A sin (ωct + φm sin ωmt) indistinguishable for a single modulating frequency. When the
modulating frequency is changed, however, the PM modulation index
where φm is the maximum value of phase change introduced by will remain constant, whereas the FM modulation index will increase
this particular modulating signal and is proportional to the as modulation frequency is reduced, and vice versa.
maximum amplitude of this modulation. For the sake of
uniformity, this is rewritten as

v = A sin ωct + mp sin ωmt)

where mp = φm = modulation index for phase modulation.

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14.2.2 RADIO RECEIVERS

The receiver must first amplify the received signal. Also, as the
signal is likely to be accompanied by lots of other (unwanted)
signals, probably at neighboring frequencies, it must be
selected and the others rejected. Finally, since modulation took
place in the transmitter, the reverse process of demodulation
must be performed in the receiver.

It is apparent that a receiver has the function of selecting the

desired signal from all the other unwanted signals, amplifying
and demodulating it, and displaying it in the desired manner.
This outline of functions that must be performed shows that the
major difference between receivers of various types is likely to
be in the way in which they demodulate the received signal. In
turn, this will depend on the type of modulation employed, be it
AM, FM, SSB, or any of the forms treated in later chapters.

RECEIVER TYPES

The various forms of receivers proposed at one time or another,

only two have any real practical or commercial significance: the
tuned radio-frequency (TRF) receiver and the super heterodyne
receiver

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TUNED RADIO-FREQUENCY (TRF) RECEIVER

Receiver of the TRF type, whose block diagram is shown. The

TRF receiver is a simple "logical" receiver; a person with just a
little knowledge of communications would probably expect all
radio receivers to have this form. The virtues of this type, which
is now not used except as a fixed-frequency receiver in special
applications, are its simplicity and high sensitivity.

Two or perhaps three RF amplifiers, all tuning together, were

employed to select and amplify the incoming frequency and
simultaneously to reject all others. After the signal was amplified Fig 10
to a suitable level, it was demodulated (detected) and fed to the
loudspeaker after being passed through the appropriate audio
amplifying stages.

Such receivers were simple to design and align at broadcast

frequencies (535 to 1640 kHz), but they presented difficulties at
higher frequencies. This was mainly because of the risks of
instability associated with high gain being achieved at one
frequency by a multistage amplifier. In addition, the TRF
receiver suffered from a variation in bandwidth over the tuning
range. Also, it was unable to achieve sufficient selectivity at high
frequencies, partly as a result of the enforced use of single-
tuned circuits.

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SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER

In the super heterodyne receiver, the signal voltage is combined

with the local oscillator voltage and normally converted into a
signal of a lower fixed frequency. The signal at this
intermediate frequency contains the same modulation as the
original carrier, and it is now amplified and detected to
reproduce the original information. The super heterodyne thus
has the same essential components as the TRF receiver, in
addition to the mixer, local oscillator and intermediate-frequency
(IF) amplifier.

A constant frequency difference is maintained between the local

oscillator and the RF circuits, normally through capacitance
tuning, in which all the capacitors are ganged together and
operated in unison by one control knob.

The IF amplifier generally uses two or three transformers, each

consisting of a pair of mutually coupled tuned circuits. With this
large number of double-tuned circuits operating at a constant, Fig 11
specially chosen frequency, the IF amplifier provides most of
the gain (and therefore sensitivity) and bandwidth requirements
of the receiver. Since the characteristics of the IF amplifier are
independent of the frequency to which the receiver is tuned, the
selectivity and sensitivity of the super heterodyne are usually
fairly uniform throughout its tuning range and not subject to the
variations that beset the TRF receiver. The RF circuits are now
used mainly to select the wanted frequency, to reject
interference such as the image frequency and (especially at
high frequencies) to reduce the noise figure of the receiver.

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RECIEVER PARAMETERS SELECTIVITY

SENSITIVITY The selectivity of a receiver is its ability to reject (adjacent) unwanted

signals. It is expressed as a curve, such as the one here, which shows
The sensitivity of a radio receiver is its ability to amplify weak the attenuation that the receiver offers to signals at frequencies near to
signals. It is often defined in terms of the voltage that must be the one to which it is tuned.
applied to the receiver input terminals to give a standard output
power, measured at the output terminals. For professional Selectivity varies with receiving frequency if ordinary tuned circuits are
receivers, there is a tendency to quote the sensitivity in terms of
signal power required to produce a minimum acceptable output used in the IF section, and becomes somewhat worse when the
signal with a minimum acceptable signal-to-noise ratio. receiving frequency is raised. In general, it is determined by the
Sensitivity is often expressed in microvolt’s or in decibels below response of the IF section, with the mixer and RF amplifier input
1V. circuits playing a small but significant part. It should be noted that it is
selectivity that determines the adjacent-channel rejection of a receiver.
The most important factors determining the sensitivity of a super
heterodyne receiver are the gain of the IF amplifier(s) and that
of the RF amplifier, if there is one. It is also obvious from the
foregoing that the noise figure plays an important part. Figure
shows the sensitivity plot of a rather good domestic or car radio.

Fig 13

Fig 12

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13.4.2.3 TRANSMISSION LINES

In many communications systems, it is often necessary to

interconnect points that are some distance apart from each
other. The connection between a transmitter and its antenna is
a typical example of this.

Wire systems, which have properties that cannot be dismissed,

are generally called transmission lines. Figure 14

BASIC PRINCIPLES

Transmission lines are a means of conveying signals or power

from one point to another.

FUNDAMENTALS OF TRANSMISSION LINES

There are two types of commonly used transmission lines. The

parallel-wire (balanced) line is shown in Figure 15 and the Figure 15
coaxial (unbalanced) line in Figure 14.

The parallel-wire line is employed where balanced properties

are required: for instance, in connecting a folded-dipole antenna Any system of conductors is likely to radiate if the conductor
to a TV receiver or a rhombic antenna to an HF transmitter. On separation approaches a half-wavelength at the operating frequency.
the other hand, the coaxial line is used when unbalanced This is far more likely to occur in a parallel-wire line than in a coaxial
properties are needed, as in the interconnection of a broadcast line, whose outer conductor surrounds the inner one and is invariably
transmitter to its grounded antenna. It is also employed, as will grounded.
be seen, at UHF and microwave frequencies, to avoid the risk of
radiation from the transmission line

Balun balanced to unbalanced modulator is used to connect

unbalanced line to balanced antenna.

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EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT REPRESENTATION

Figure 15b

Figure 15a At radio frequencies, the inductive reactance is much larger than the
resistance. The capacitive susceptance is also much larger than the
Since each conductor has a certain length and diameter, it must shunt conductance. Thus both, R and G may be ignored, resulting in a
have resistance and inductance; since there are two wires close line that is considered loss less (as a very good approximation for RF
to each other, there must be capacitance between them. Finally, calculations). The equivalent circuit is simplified as shown in Fig. 15b.
the wires are separated; by a medium called the dielectric,
which cannot be perfect in its insulation; the current leakage
through it can be represented by a shunt conductance. The
resulting equivalent; circuit is as shown in Fig. 15a. Note that all
the quantities shown are proportional to the length of the line,
and unless measured and quoted per unit length, they are
meaningless.

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CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE LOSSES IN TRANSMISSION LINES

By definition, the characteristic impedance of a transmission Types of losses

line, Z0, is the impedance measured at the input of this line
when its length is infinite. Under these conditions the type of There are three ways in which energy, applied to a transmission line,
termination at the far end has no effect, and consequently is not may become dissipated before reaching the load: radiation, conductor
mentioned in the definition. heating and electric heating.

 Radiation losses arise because a transmission line may act

as an antenna if the separation of the conductors is an
appreciable fraction of a wavelength. They increase with
frequency for any given transmission line, eventually ending
that line's usefulness at some high frequency.

 Conductor heating, or I2R loss, is proportional to current and

therefore inversely proportional to characteristic impedance. It
Figure also increases with frequency, this time because of the skin
effect.

 Dielectric heating is proportional to the voltage across the

dielectric and hence inversely proportional to the characteristic
impedance for any power transmitted. It again increases with
frequency (for solid dielectric lines) because of gradually
worsening properties with increasing frequency for any given
dielectric medium.

Figure 16 characteristics impedance

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Velocity factor

The velocity of light and all other electromagnetic waves

depends on the medium through which they travel. It is very
nearly 3 x 108 m/s in a vacuum and slower in all other media.
The velocity of light in a medium is given by

Where,

v = velocity in the medium

vc = velocity of light in a vacuum
k dielectric constant of the medium (1 for a vacuum and very
nearly 1 for air)

The velocity factor of a dielectric substance, and thus of a cable,

is the velocity reduction ratio and is therefore given by

Note also that since v = fλ and f is constant, the wavelength λ is

also reduced by a ratio equal to the velocity factor.

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RESONANT / NON-RESONANT TRANSMISSION LINES

If a lossless transmission line has infinite length or is terminated

in its characteristic impedance, all the power applied to the line
by the generator at one end is absorbed by the load at the other
end.

A line terminated in its characteristic impedance is called a non-

resonant, or flat, line. The voltage and current in such a line
are constant throughout its length if the line is lossless or are
reduced exponentially (as the load is approached) if the line has
losses.

Conversely, if a finite piece of line is terminated in an

impedance not equal to the characteristic impedance, it can be
appreciated that some (but not all) of the applied power will be
absorbed by the termination. The remaining power will be
reflected.

When a line is terminated in a short circuit or an open circuit,

none of the power will be dissipated in such a termination, and
all of it will be reflected back to the generator. -If the line is
lossless, it should be possible to send a wave out and then
quickly replace the generator by a short circuit. The power in the
line would shunt back and forth, never diminishing because the
line is lossless. The line is then called resonant because of its
similarity to a resonant LC circuit, in which the power shunts
back and forth between the electric and magnetic fields.

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STANDING WAVES
Much the same conditions apply if the load is an open circuit, except
If ZL = Z0, the load absorbs all the power, and none is reflected. that the first current minimum (and voltage maximum) is now at the
The only waves then present are the voltage and current load, instead of a quarter-wavelength away from it. Since the load
traveling waves from generator to load. determines the position of the first current node, the type of load may
be deduced from the knowledge of this position.

If ZL is not equal to Z0, some power is absorbed, and the rest is  3 / / 0

reflected. We thus have one set of waves, V and I, traveling
t=
toward the load, and the reflected set traveling back to the 0
generator. These two sets of traveling waves, going in opposite
directions, set up an interference pattern known as standing
waves, i.e., beats, along the line.

t=
This is shown in the Figure for a short-circuited line. It is seen T
that stationary voltage and current minima (nodes) and maxima
(antinodes) have appeared. They are separated by half the
wavelength of the signal, as will be explained. Note that voltage t=
nodes and current antinodes coincide on the line, as do current T
nodes and voltage antinodes.

Consider only the forward traveling voltage and current waves t=

for the moment. At the load, the voltage will be zero and the 3T
current a maximum because the load is a short circuit.

Standing waves all the nodes are permanently fixed minima,

and all antinodes are maxima whose positions are constant (but REFLECTED
they do have amplitudes which vary sinusoidally, just like the INCIDENT
applied signal). RESULTANT

Fig 17 voltage Standing Waves

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STANDING-WAVE RATIO (SWR)

The ratio of maximum current to minimum current along a Amplitude

AMPLIYU
transmission line is called the standing-wave ratio, as is the DE (V OR
ratio of maximum to minimum voltage, which is equal to the I)
current ratio. The SWR is a measure of the mismatch between
the load and the line, and is the first and most important quantity
calculated for a particular load. The SWR is equal to unity (a
highly desirable state of affairs) when the load is perfectly
matched. When the line is terminated in a purely resistive load,
the standing-wave ratio is given by

SWR = Z0/RL or SWR =RL/Z0 DISTANC

(whichever is larger) E
Where, Fig 18 standing Wave Ratio
RL is the load resistance.

If the load is purely reactive, SWR will be infinity; the same can
be seen to apply for a short-circuit or an open-circuit
termination. Since in all three cases no power is absorbed, the
reflected wave has the same size as the forward wave.
Somewhere along the line complete cancellation will occur,
giving a voltage zero, and hence SWR must be infinite. When
the load is complex, SWR can still be computed, but it is much
easier to determine it from a transmission-line calculator, or to
measure it.

The higher the SWR, the greater the mismatch between line
and load or, for that matter, between generator and line. In
practical lines, power loss increases with SWR, and so a low
value of standing-wave ratio is always sought, except when the
transmission line is being used as a pure reactance or as a
tuned circuit.
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REACTANCE PROPERTIES OF TRANSMISSION LINES Open- and short-circuited lines as tuned circuits

Just as a suitable piece of transmission line may be used as a The input impedance of a quarter-wave piece of transmission line,
transformer, so other chosen transmission-line configurations short-circuited at the far end, is infinity, and the line has transformed a
may be used as series or shunt inductive or capacitive short circuit into an open circuit. As just discussed, however, this
reactance’s. This is very advantageous indeed; not only can applies only at the frequency at which the piece of line is exactly λ/4 in
such circuits be employed at the highest frequencies, unlike LC length. At some frequency near this, the line will be just a little longer
circuits, but also, they are compatible with transmission lines. or shorter than λ/4, so that at this frequency the impedance will not be
infinity. The further we move, in frequency, away from the original, the
lower will be the impedance of this piece of line. We therefore seem to
have a parallel-tuned circuit, or at least something that behaves as
one. Such a line is often used for this purpose at UHF, as an oscillator
tank circuit or in other applications.

If the quarter-wave line is open-circuited at the far end, then, by a

similar process of reasoning, a series-tuned circuit is obtained.
Similarly, a short-circuited half-wave line will behave as a series-tuned
circuit, in the manner described in the preceding section. Such short-
or open-circuited lines may be employed at high frequencies in place
of LC circuits. In practice, however, short-circuited lines are used by
preference, since open-circuited lines tend to radiate.

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Properties of lines of various lengths

Restating the position, we know that a piece of transmission line

λ/4 long and short-circuited at the far end (or λ/2 long and open-
circuited at the far end) looks like an open circuit and behaves 3 / / 0
exactly like a parallel-tuned circuit. If the frequency of operation /4 2 4
is lowered, the shunt inductive reactance of this tuned circuit is
lower and the shunt capacitive reactance is higher. Inductive
current predominates, and therefore the impedance of the
circuit is purely inductive. Now, this piece at the new frequency
is less than λ/4 long, since the wavelength is now greater and
the length of line is naturally unchanged. We thus have the
important property that a short-circuited line less than λ/4 long
behaves as a pure inductance. Similarly, an open-circuited line
less than λ/4 long appears as a pure capacitance. The various
possibilities are shown, which is really a table of various line
lengths and terminations and their equivalent LC circuits.

Stubs

If a load is connected to a transmission line and matching is

required, a quarter-wave transformer may be used if ZL is
purely resistive. If the load impedance is complex, one of the
ways of matching it to the line is to tune out the reactance with
an inductor or a capacitor, and then to match with a quarter-
wave transformer. Short-circuited transmission lines are more
often used than lumped components at very high frequencies; a
transmission line so used is called a stub

Fig 19 Properties of various

Length Transmission Lines

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13.4.2.4 ANTENNAS

In order to couple to space the output of a transmitter or the

input of a receiver, some sort of interface is essential. A
structure must be provided that is capable of radiating
electromagnetic waves or receiving them, as the case may be.
An antenna is such a structure. It is generally a metallic object,
often a wire or collection of wires, used to convert high-
frequency current into electromagnetic waves, and vice versa.
Apart from their different functions, transmitting and receiving
antennas behave identically. That is, their behavior is reciprocal.

BASIC CONSIDERATIONS

Upon examining the behavior of RF current in a wire, it is found

that not all the energy applied at one end finds its way to the
other; some escapes, i.e., is radiated.

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THE RADIATION MECHANISM

Figure 20

Consider the open-circuited transmission line shown. It is seen

not all the forward energy is reflected by the open circuit. As
shown, a small portion of the electromagnetic energy escapes
from the system and is thus radiated. This occurs because the
lines of force, traveling toward the open circuit, are required to
undergo a complete phase reversal when they reach it. Not all
of them are able to do this, because they possess the
equivalent of mechanical inertia, and thus some do escape.

It must be added that the proportion of waves escaping the

system to those remaining is very small, for two reasons.

1. If we consider the surrounding space as the load for the

transmission line, we see that a mismatch exists, and The cure for this problem seems to be an "enlargement" of the open
thus very little power is dissipated in this "load." circuit, i.e., spreading of the two wires, as in Fig. 20(a). There is now
less likelihood of cancellation of radiation from the two wire tips. By the
2. Since the two wires are close together, it is apparent that same token, the radiating transmission line is now better coupled to
the radiation from one tip will just about cancel that from the surrounding space. This is another way of saying that more power
the other. This is because they are of opposite polarities will be "dissipated" in the surrounding space, i.e., radiated.
and at a distance apart that is tiny compared to a
wavelength. Conversely, this is also the reason why low-
frequency parallel-wire transmission lines do not radiate.

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The radiation efficiency of this system is improved even more

when the two wires are bent so as to be in the same line, as in
Fig. (b). The electric (and also the magnetic) field is now fully
coupled to the surrounding space, instead of being confined
between the two wires, and the maximum possible amount of
radiation results. This type of radiator is called a dipole.

When the total length of the two wires is a half-wavelength, the

antenna is called a half-wave dipole. It has the form indicated in
Fig. (c), and now even greater radiation occurs. The reason for
this increase is that the half-wave dipole may be regarded as
having the same basic properties (for the point of view of
impedance particularly) as a similar length of transmission line.
Accordingly, we have the antenna behaving as a piece of
quarter-wave transmission line bent out and open-circuited at
the far end. This results in the high impedance at the far ends of
the antenna reflected as a low impedance at the end connected
to the main transmission line. This, in turn, means that a large
current will flow at the input to the half wave dipole, and efficient
radiation will take place.

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RESONANT ANTENNAS

A resonant antenna corresponds to a resonant transmission

line, and the dipole antennas described so far have been
resonant. Such an antenna can be described as an opened-out
transmission line, open-circuited at the far end and of resonant
length, i.e., a multiple of quarter-wavelengths so that the length
of the antenna is a multiple of half-wavelengths).

The radiation pattern of a wire radiator in free space depends

mainly on its length. For a half-wave dipole, it is like that of the
elementary doublet, but somewhat flattened: plotting would
result in the pattern of Fig. 20-i.

When the length of the antenna is a whole wavelength, the 20-i 20-ii
polarity of current on one half of the antenna is opposite to that
on the other half, as shown in Fig. (b). It is obvious; as a result,
that radiation at right angles from this antenna will be zero
because the field due to one half fully cancels the field due to
the other half of the antenna. A direction of maximum radiation
still exists, but it is no longer at right angles to the antenna; for a
full-wave dipole it happens to be at 54° to the antenna. The
pattern has now acquired lobes, and there are four in this case.

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Vertical and Horizontal Polar Diagrams

Fig. 21 shows the polar diagrams, (a) in the plane containing

the dipole, and (b) in a plane perpendicular to the dipole. The
length of a vector drawn from the centre of the aerial to the end
of the polar diagram represents the electric field intensity
transmitted (or received) in that particular direction. For
example, maximum radiation will occur along OQ, slightly less
along OA. The complete three-dimensional radiation patterns
are obtained by combining these polar diagrams and the result
is similar to the shape of a ring doughnut.

A
P
Q

(a) IN THE PLANE (b) PREPENDICULAR TO

OF THE DIPOLE THE PLANE OF THE

Fig 21 vertical and horizontal Polar diagrams

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NONRESONANT ANTENNAS

A non-resonant antenna, like a non-resonant transmission line,

is one on which there are no standing waves. These, in both
cases, are suppressed by the use of a correct termination to
ensure that no power is reflected, so that only a forward
traveling wave will exist. In a correctly matched transmission
line, all the transmitted power is dissipated in the terminating
resistance. When an antenna is terminated as in Fig. 1(a),
about two-thirds of the forward power is radiated; the remainder
is dissipated in the antenna, and none is reflected to the input.

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TERMS AND DEFINITIONS DIRECTIVITY AND POWER GAIN

The directive gain was defined in any direction at all. Generally

ANTENNA GAIN speaking, the maximum directive gain is meant by this term, i.e., the
gain in the direction of one of the major lobes of the radiation pattern.
All antennas concentrate their radiation in some direction, to a The correct name for maximum directive gain is directivity and,
greater or lesser extent. It follows that the power density in that indeed, the figures quoted for wire antennas were directivities, rather
direction must be greater than it would have been if the antenna than just simply directive gains.
were omnidirectional. Another way of looking at this
concentration of radiation in some directions is to say that Another form of gain used in connection with antennas is power gain.
antennas have gain. A number of terms have been originated Once again, the power that must be radiated by an isotropic antenna
over the years referring to the "gain" of antennas. To avoid to develop a certain field strength at a certain distance is divided by a
confusion, standards have been laid down, and the definitions practical power to yield a ratio.
given here follow those standards.

DIRECTIVE GAIN However, this time the practical power is that power which must be fed
to the directive antenna to develop the same field strength at the same
Directive gain is defined, in a particular direction, as the ratio of distance, in its direction of maximum radiation.
the power density radiated in that direction by the antenna to
the power density that would be radiated by an isotropic If this definition is contrasted with the definition for directivity, only one
antenna. Both power densities are measured at the same difference is seen: for directivity the radiated power is considered for
distance, and both antennas radiate the same total power. Note the directive antenna, whereas for power gain the power fed to the
that the directive gain is a ratio of power densities and is antenna is taken. Thus, the two terms are identical except that power
therefore a power ratio. gain takes into account the antenna losses. This may be written as

Ap = ηD
Directive Gain = Power Density Directional Where,
Power Density Isotropic
Ap = power gain
D = directivity (maximum directive gain)
η = antenna efficiency = 1 for a lossless antenna

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ANTENNA RESISTANCE
If the radiation resistance is Rr the sum of the two is the total
The resistance of an antenna has two components: resistance of the antenna and also the total impedance for antennas of
 Its radiation resistance, which it has because of the resonant length. The antenna efficiency then becomes
power that it converts into electromagnetic waves,
 and loss resistance, the resistance due to actual losses
in the antenna.

Radiation Resistance Low- and medium-frequency antennas are the least likely to be very
efficient, because making them of resonant length often means having
Radiation resistance is defined as the ratio of the power impossibly high structures.
radiated by the antenna to the square of the current at the feed
point. It is not a d.c. resistance, but rather an a.c one, like the
equivalent resistance of a parallel-tuned circuit. It is a very
convenient quantity. Defining it somewhat differently, we may
say that this is the resistance, which, if it replaced the antenna,
would dissipate precisely the same power as the antenna
radiates.

Antenna Losses And Efficiency

In addition to the energy which is radiated by an antenna, power

may be dissipated as a result of antenna and ground resistance;
discharge or corona effects; losses in imperfect dielectrics very
near to the antenna; and eddy currents induced in metallic
objects within the induction field of the antenna, such as wires
and other antennas. It is usual to represent all these by a
lumped resistance Rd, the total loss resistance of the antenna.

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BANDWIDTH, BEAMWIDTH AND POLARIZATION BEAMWIDTH

Bandwidth, beam width and polarization are three important The beam width of an antenna is the angular separation between the
terms, dealing respectively with the operating frequency range two half-power points on the power density radiation pattern. It is also,
of an antenna, the degree of concentration of its radiation, and of course, the angular separation between the two 3-dB down points
the space orientation of the waves that it radiates. They will now on the field strength radiation pattern of an antenna and is illustrated in
be introduced in turn. Figure.22 The term is used more frequently with narrow-beam
antennas than with others and refers to the main lobe. Beam width is
quoted in degrees.
BANDWIDTH

It refers to the frequency range over which operation is

satisfactory and is generally taken between the half-power B
points.

There are actually requirement for large bandwidths (in excess

of 10 percent) from antennas.
Q P  = BEAMWIDTH
1. Antennas, which are required to operate at a number of
separate frequencies within a fairly wide frequency
range. High-frequency antennas are often of this type, in
which the required operation is helped by the fact that
when the antenna is switched to a new frequency, C
compensating circuits can be switched in also. Thus
matching to the feeder transmission line is maintained, Fig 22 Beam Width
with the proviso that the pattern bandwidth must not
have deteriorated unduly.

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POLARIZATION

As already discussed, polarization refers to the direction in

space of the electric vector of the electromagnetic wave
radiated from an antenna and is parallel to the antenna itself. As
previously mentioned, antennas are also referred to as vertically
or horizontally polarized, rather than vertical or horizontal. All
VLF, LF and MF antennas, as well as many HF antennas, are
made vertically polarized because of the proximity of the
ground. However, there are advantages in using horizontally
polarized antennas at higher frequencies, especially since most
man-made noise has vertical polarization.

Fig 22-i Polarization

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GROUNDED ANTENNAS

If an antenna is grounded, the earth still acts as a mirror and

becomes part of the radiating system. However, whereas the
ungrounded antenna with its image forms an array, the bottom
of the grounded antenna is joined to the top of the image; the
system acts as an antenna of double size. Thus, as shown in
Fig. 23a, a grounded quarter wave vertical radiator effectively
has a quarter-wavelength added to it by its image. The voltage
and current distributions on such a grounded λ/4 antenna,
commonly called the basic Marconi antenna, are the same as
those of the half-wave dipole in space and are shown in Fig.
23b.

The Marconi antenna has one important advantage over the

ungrounded, or Hertz, antenna: to produce any given radiation Fig 23-a Fig 22-b
pattern, it need be only half as high. On the other hand, since
the ground here plays such an important role in producing the
required characteristics, the ground conductivity must be good.
Where it is poor, an artificial ground is used.

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SELECTION OF FEED POINT VOLTAGE AND CURRENT FEED

The half-wave dipole antennas presented so far have always When a dipole has an effective length than is resonant, the impedance
been drawn with the feeding generator connected to the center. at its center will be purely resistive. This impedance will be high if
Although many practical antennas are fed in this way, the there is a current node at the center, as with a full-wavelength
arrangement is by no means essential. The point at which a antenna, or low if there is a voltage node at the center, as with a half-
particular antenna is fed is determined by several wave dipole. According to common jargon, an antenna is said to be
considerations, of which perhaps the most important is the current fed if it is fed at a point of current maximum; thus, a center-fed
antenna impedance. This, as has been shown, varies from point half-wave dipole or Marconi antenna is current-fed. Conversely, a
to point along the antenna, so that some investigation of the centered full-wave antenna is said to be voltage fed.
options is necessary.
FEED-POINT IMPEDANCE

In a practical antenna the voltage or current values will be low (not

zero) so that the antenna impedance will be finite at those points.
Thus, we have several thousands of ohms at the ends, and 72 Ω in
I the center, both values purely resistive. As a result, broadcast
antennas are often center-fed in practice, 72 Ω being a useful
impedance from the point of view of transmission lines.
λ/2

ANTENNA COUPLERS

All antenna couplers must fulfill these requirements:

V 1. Impedance matching
2. Phase matching

There are still individual differences among them, governed by how

each antenna is fed. This, in turn, depends on whether a transmission
line is used, whether it is balanced or unbalanced and what value of
Fig 23-ii voltage and current on antenna standing-wave ratio is caused by the antenna.

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13.4.2.5 RADIATION AND PROPAGATION OF WAVES FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

The section is divided into two distinct parts. Electromagnetic waves are oscillations that propagate through free
space with the velocity of light, which is Vc = 299,792,500 ± 300 m/s
The first is electromagnetic radiation; which deals with the (for most purposes approximated to 3 x 108 m/s).
nature and propagation of radio, waves, as well as the
attenuation and absorption they may undergo along the way. Electromagnetic waves are transverse (oscillation perpendicular to the
direction of propagation). Also, the direction of the electric field, the
The second part treats in some detail the practical aspects of magnetic field and propagation are mutually perpendicular in
the propagation of waves. It is quickly seen that the frequency electromagnetic waves, as shown.
used plays a significant part in the method of propagation, as do
the existence and proximity of the earth.

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

Any power escaping into free space is governed by the

characteristics of free space. If such power "escapes on
purpose," it is said to have been radiated, and it then
propagates in space in the shape of what is known as an
electromagnetic wave.

Free space is the space that does not interfere with the normal
radiation and propagation of radio waves. Thus, it has no Fig 23 – iii Electromagnetic waves
magnetic or gravitational fields, no solid bodies and no ionized
particles.

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Radiation and reception

Antennas radiate electromagnetic waves, or, putting it The wave of the above Figure is, of course, linearly polarized and is
differently, radiation will result from the flow of high-frequency also said to be vertically polarized, since all the electric intensity
current in a suitable circuit. How much of it leaves the conductor vectors are vertical. Vertical antennas radiate vertically polarized
depends on the relation of its length to the wavelength of the waves, and similarly horizontal antennas produce waves whose
current. polarization is horizontal.

Polarization Reception

Polarization refers to the physical orientation of the radiated Since the process of reception is exactly the reverse of the process of
waves in space. Waves are said to be polarized (actually transmission, transmitting and receiving antennas are basically
linearly polarized) if they all have the same alignment in space. interchangeable. Apart from power-handling considerations, the two
types of antennas are virtually identical.

ATTENUATION AND ABSORPTION

Attenuation is normally measured in decibels

Spatial attenuation

Electromagnetic waves are attenuated as they travel outward from

their source, and this attenuation is proportional to the square of the
distance traveled.

Fig 23 – iv Absorption attenuation

Vertically polarized electromagnetic wave
Atmosphere tends to absorb some radio waves, because some of the
energy from the electromagnetic waves is transferred to the atoms and
molecules of the atmosphere.

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INTERFERENCE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Interference occurs when two waves that left one source and
traveled by different paths arrive at a point. Waves reach the
receiving point not only directly but also after being reflected
from the ground. This is shown in Figure 23-V.

It is obvious that the direct path is shorter the path with

reflection. For some combination of frequency and height of
antenna above the ground, the difference between paths 1 and
1' is bound to be exactly a half-wavelength. There will thus be
complete cancellation at the receiving point P Fig 23 – V
Another receiving point, Q, may be located so that the path
difference between 2 and 2' is exactly one wavelength. In this
case reinforcement of the received waves will take place at this
point and will be partial or total, depending on the ground
reflectivity. A succession of such points above one another may
be found, giving an interference pattern consisting of alternate
cancellations and reinforcements. A pattern of this form is
shown in Figure 2.

The "flower petals" of the pattern are called lobes. They

correspond to reinforcement points such as Q of Figure 1,
whereas the nulls between the lobes correspond to
cancellations such as P of Figure 1.

Fig 23 – Vi

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PROPAGATION OF WAVES

The various methods of propagation depend largely on

frequency:

 Frequencies above the HF generally travel in straight

lines. They propagate by means of so-called space
waves.

 Frequencies below the HF range travel around the

curvature of earth, sometimes right around globe. The
means are probably a combination of diffraction and a
type of waveguide effect,

 Waves in the HF range, and sometimes frequencies just

above or below it, are reflected by the ionized layers of
the atmosphere and are called sky waves.

Fig 24 Propagation of Electromagnetic waves

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GROUND (SURFACE) WAVES PROPAGATION

Ground waves progress along the surface of the earth and, as

previously mentioned, must be vertically polarized to prevent
short-circuiting the electric component. A wave induces currents
in the ground over which it passes and thus loses some energy
by absorption

As the wave propagates over the earth, it tilts over more and
more, and the increasing tilt causes greater short-circuiting of
the electric field component of the wave and hence field
strength reduction. Eventually, at some distance (in
wavelengths) from the antenna, as partly determined by the
type of surface over which the ground wave propagates, the
wave "lies down and dies."

Fig 25 Ground waves

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SKY WAVES PROPGATION

The sky waves have frequency range between 2MHz to 30MHz.

These radio waves have the ability to pass through earth’s

atmosphere. The ionosphere of our earth reflects these rays
very efficiently. When these rays move along the atmosphere
then their movement is from transmitter towards the receiver
antenna. This is called as sky wave propagation of the waves.

In the figure, 26 the name assigned to the path of the sky wave
propagation. These waves can have medium as well as high
frequencies. So, due to this reason these waves can be used
for long distance transmissions. The other name basically used
instead of sky wave propagation is ionosphere propagation.
This is called so because these waves after reflecting from the
earth’s ionosphere, reach the receiver antenna.
Fig 26 sky waves

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Fig 26 -i sky waves

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS The critical frequency (fc) for a given layer is the highest frequency
that will be returned down to earth by that layer after having beamed
The terminology that has grown up around the ionosphere and straight up at it.
sky-wave propagation includes several names and expressions.
The maximum usable frequency, or MUF, is also a limiting
The virtual height of an ionosphere layer is best understood frequency, but this time for some specific angle of incidence other than
with the aid of the figure bellow. This figure shows that as the the normal. Thus, MUF is defined in terms of two such points, rather
wave is refracted, it is bent down gradually rather than sharply. than in terms of the angle of incidence at the ionosphere, it is defined
However, below the ionized layer, the incident and refracted as the highest frequency that can be used for sky-wave
rays follow paths that are exactly the same as they would have communication between two given points on earth
been if reflection had taken place from a surface located at a
greater height, called the virtual height of this layer. If the virtual The highest working frequency between a given pair of points is
height of a layer is known, it is then quite simple to calculate the naturally made less than the MUF (typically 80% of MUF), to make
angle of incidence required for the wave to return to ground at a safe transmission.
selected spot.

The skip distance is the shortest distance from a transmitter,

measured along the surface of the earth, at which a sky wave of fixed
frequency (more than fc) will be returned to earth.

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Fig 26 -ii sky waves Fig 26 -iii sky waves

Fading is the fluctuation in signal strength at a receiver and

may be rapid or slow, general or frequency-selective. In each
case it is due to interference between two waves, which left the
same source but arrived at the destination by different paths.

Fading can occur because of interference between the lower

and the upper rays of a sky wave; between sky waves arriving
by a different number of hops or different paths; or even
between a ground wave and a sky wave especially at the lower
end of the HF band.

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SPACE WAVES

Space waves generally behave with merciful simplicity; they The same formula naturally applies to the receiving antenna. Thus, the
travel in (more or less) straight lines! However, since they total distance will be given by addition, as shown in the figure, and by
depend on line-of-sight conditions, space waves are limited in the empirical formula
their propagation by the curvature of the earth, except in very
unusual circumstances. Thus, they propagate very much like
electromagnetic waves in free space. Such a mode of behavior
is forced on them because their wavelengths are too short for
reflection from the ionosphere, and because the ground wave
disappears very close to the transmitter, owing to tilt.

Radio horizon

The radio horizon for space waves is about four-thirds as far as

the optical horizon. This beneficial effect is caused by the
A simple calculation shows that for a transmitting antenna height of
varying density of the atmosphere, and because of diffraction
225 m above ground level, the radio horizon is 60 km. If the receiving
around the curvature of the earth.
antenna is 16 m above ground level, the total distance is increased to
76 km. Greater distance between antennas may be obtained by
The radio horizon of an antenna is given, with good
locating them on tops of mountains, but links longer than 100 km are
approximation, by the empirical formula
hardly ever used in commercial communications.

Where,

dt = distance from transmitting antenna, km

ht = height of transmitting antenna above ground, m

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Large commercial transport aircraft usually come with a triple
13.4.3 AIRCRAFT COMMUNICATION redundant installation of VHF COMM and a dual redundant installation
of HF COMM.
INTRODUCTION
Selective calling (SELCAL) is an additional feature coupled to VHF
Aircraft communications can be broadly categorized into two and HF communications in view of getting the attention of the pilots’
parts: attention for a without the need for constant
monitoring by the crew.
External communications
Internal communications INTERPHONE AND PASSENGER CABIN SYSTEMS

External communications are necessarily radio links. The most Typical interphone systems and miscellaneous cabin systems
important aspect of the radio communications is the exchange available on a large commercial aircraft are:
of messages between the flight crew and the air traffic
controllers (ATC). 1. Flight interphone
2. Cabin interphone
Internal communications are wired links, which include various 3. Service interphone
intercom systems plus a few miscellaneous items such as in- 4. Passenger address system
flight entertainment systems. 5. Cockpit-ground call system
6. Passenger entertainment system
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 7. Passenger service system

The available radio links between the aircraft and the outside AUDIO INTEGRATING SYSTEM
world are:
Audio integrating system (AIS) combines the audio frequency part of
1. VHF radio all communication and navigation systems and provides the crew with
2. HF radio a convenient interface.
3. Satellite communication (SATCOM)
COCKPIT VOICE RECORDER
VHF communication is used in the short range and HF
communication in the long range. SATCOM is a satellite link Cockpit voice recorder (CVR) records cockpit communications and
that provides telephone facilities round the globe, background noises for the purpose of accident investigation.

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13.4.3.1 VHF COMMUNICATIONS

An aircraft VHF communication transceiver is comprised of

either a single or double conversion superheat receiver or an
AM transmitter. The mode of operation is single channel
simplex, i.e. one frequency and one antenna for both receiver
and transmitter. The signals are vertically polarized.

FREQUENCIES

The frequency range allocated for aircraft VHF communications

is 117.975 MHz – 136 MHz Historically, the channel spacing
was at 50 kHz, but with the growth of demand for channels, the
spacing was halved and that resulted in 720 channels at 25 kHz
spacing.
Fig 1
A further reduction in channel spacing to 8.33 kHz in the recent
years has made the number of channels three fold. The 8.33
kHz channel separation applies only to voice communications,
the data communications still remain at 25 kHz separation.
Each frequency in the 8.33 kHz separation system is identifies
with a ‘channel number’. Owing to the fact that both 25 kHz
spacing systems and 8.33 kHz spacing systems are in use, the
terminology ‘frequency’ is used in the former and ‘channel’ is
used in the latter, to avoid confusions.

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RANGE

VHF waves use line-of-sight propagation of space waves.

The range available can be approximated by

1.23 (√hr + √ht) NM

where

hr is the height, in feet, above sea level of the receiver

ht is the same for the transmitter. Thus, with the ground station
at sea level, the approximate maximum range for aircraft at
10000 and 1000 ft (30000 and 3000m) would be 123 and 40 nm
respectively.

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o The COMM TEST switch disables transceiver squelch. When

CONSTRUCTION pressed, an audio tone or an increase in background noise is
heard over the interphone headset.
A single VHF installation consists of three parts:

1. Control unit o The TFR switch allows one frequency to be preselected while
2. Transceiver operating on a different frequency. A bar will appear across the
3. Antenna. inactive frequency.

Light aircraft VHF COMM systems usually have a panel-

mounted combined transceiver and control unit.

The antenna can take various forms: whip, blade or

suppressed. In a triple VHF COMM installation these may be
two top-mounted blades antennas and one bottom-mounted; an
alternative would be two blades and one suppressed within the
fin cap dielectric. The whip antenna is to be found on smaller
aircraft. All antennas are mounted so as to receive and transmit
vertically polarized waves.

Control Panel

 The VHF control panel provides frequency selection and

indication. Fig 2

 On the front of the VHF control panel are two sets of

concentric frequency select knobs, two frequency displays,
a transfer (TFR) switch, and (if installed) a COMM TEST
switch.

o The frequency selector knobs are two concentric knobs

used to select them desired frequency. The outer knob
varies the ones, tens, and hundreds of MHz The inner knob
varies the tenths and hundredths of MHz
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TRANSCEIVER

 The VHF transceiver is a solid-state transceiver. The VHF

transceiver provides 2-way voice and data communications
in the 118.000- through 135.975-MHz frequency range for
the -3 transceivers and in the 116.000 MHz through
151.975 MHz frequency range for the -3A transceivers.

 The front panel of the VHF transceiver is fitted with a

SQUELCH DISABLE switch, a TRANSMIT POWER light, a
PHONE jack, and a MIC jack.

 The SQUELCH DISABLE switch disables the transceiver

squelch circuits and provides a test of the receiver section.

 The TRANSMIT POWER light comes on when the

transmitter output is greater than 10 watts.

 The PHONE and MIC jacks are provided to connect a

microphone and headset directly to the VHF transceiver.

Fig 3

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RECEIVER

The illustrated receiver is a single conversion superheat. The

The detected audio is fed via the squelch gate low-pass filter, volume
RF stage employs varactor diode tuning, utilizing the tuning
control and audio amplifier to the rear panel connector. A minimum of
voltage from the stabilized master oscillator (SMO). Both the RF
100mW audio power into a 500Ω load is provided. The detector and
amplifier and mixer are dual gate field-effect transistors (FET). squelch gate utilize transistors on an integrated circuit transistor
The RF amplifier FET has the input signal applied to gate 1 array. A further array is used for the squelch-control circuitry. Noise
while the AGC voltage is applied to gate 1 while the AGC. at 8 KHz from the detector output is sampled and used to close the
Voltage is applied to gate 2. The mixer connections are: gate 1, squelch gate if its amplitude is as expected from the receiver
signal; gate, 2 SMO. The difference frequency from the mixer, operating at full gain. When a signal is received, the noise output
11.4 MHz is passed by a crystal filter, providing the desired from the detector decreases due to the AGC action; as a
narrow band pass, to the IF amplifiers. Two stages of AGC consequence, the squelch gate opens allowing the audio signal to
controlled IF amplification is used; the first of which is a linear pass. The squelch can be disabled by means of a switch
integrated circuit. incorporated in the volume control. When the received signal has
excessive noise on the carrier, the noise-operated squelch would
keep the squelch gate closed were it not for carrier-operated or
backup squelch. As the carrier level increases, a point is reached
where the squelch gate is opened regardless of the noise level.
The mean detector output voltage is used to determine the IF AGC
voltage. As the IF AGC voltage exceeds a set reference the RF AGC
voltage decreases.

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Fig. 4 Receiver Block Diagram

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TRANSMITTER

The transmitter feeds 16 W of AM RF to the antenna.

Modulation is achieved by superimposing the amplified mic
audio on the transmitter chain supply. The carrier frequency
corresponds to the in-use display.

Radio frequency is fed from the SMO to an RF amplifier. This

input drive is switched by the transmit-receive switching circuits,
the drive being effectively shorted to earth when the press-to-
transmit (PTT) button is not depressed. The transmitter chain
comprises a pre-driver, driver and final stage all broad band’s
tuned, operated in Class C and with modulated collectors. The
AM RF is fed via a low pass filter, which attenuates harmonics,
to the antenna. On receive the TR diode is forward biased to
feed the received signal from the antenna through the low-pass
filter to the receive RF amplifier.

The modulator chain comprises microphone pre-amplifier, diode

limiting, an FET switching stage, integrated circuit modulator
driver and two modulator transistors connected in parallel. The
pre-amp output is sufficient to subsequently give at least 85 per
cent modulation, the limiter preventing the depth of modulation
exceeding 100 per cent. The mic audio line is broken by the
FET switch during receive.

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Fig. 5 Transmitter Block Diagram

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SYSTEMS
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VHF ANTENNA

o The VHF antenna is a blade-type antenna with an omni

directional radiation pattern. The purpose of the VHF
antenna is to transmit and receive radio signals in the VHF
frequency range.

 VHF No. 1 antenna is at station 627.5, top centerline of the

fuselage. 737-300/400;

o The VHF No. 2 antenna is located at station 511, bottom

centerline of the fuselage.

Fig. 6 VHF Antenna

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SUMMARY

TRANSMITTER

Stability

Carrier frequency within ± 0.005 per cent under prescribed

conditions.

Power Output

25-40 W into a 52 Ω load at the end of a 5 ft transmission line.

Side tone

With 90 per cent AM at 1000 Hz the side tone output shall be at

least 100 mW into either a 200 or 500 Ω load.

Mic Input

Mic Audio input circuit to have an impedance of 150 Ω for use

with a carbon mic or a transistor mic operating from the
(approx.)
20 V DC carbon mic supply

Antenna

 Vertically polarized and Omni-directional

 To match 52 Ω with VSWR ≤1.5: 1.

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13.4.3.2 HF COMMUNICATIONS

A typical large aircraft HF installation consists of two systems,

each of which comprises a transceiver, controller, antenna o Each HF system includes an HF control panel, HF transceiver, HF
tuning unit and antenna. Each of the transceivers is connected antenna coupler, coupler status annunciator panel, and HF
to the AIS for mic and PTT provision. In addition, outputs to antenna. The HF control panel is installed on the aft electronics
SELCAL decoders are provided. control stand. The flush-mounted HF antenna is part of the vertical
fin leading edge. The HF antenna coupler is installed inside the
o Two high frequency (HF) communication systems are vertical fin leading edge approximately under the HF antenna.
installed in the airplane.
o In dual HF system installations, the HF-1 and HF-2 systems share
o The HF communication system (referred to as the HF the HF antenna.
system) provides amplitude modulated and single sideband  The HF control panel enables the desired communication
voice communication between airplane and ground or other channel to be selected and the HF system to be turned on or
airplane. Communication is in the 2.800 to 26.999 MHz off. Side tone is connected to the HF system audio switch in
frequency range on any of 24,200 channels at 1 kHz the flight interphone system.
spacing. Propagation characteristics of the HF band are
most suitable for long distance communications.  The HF antenna coupler matches the characteristic antenna
impedance to the impedance of the HF transceiver at the
The long range is achieved by use of sky waves, which are particular frequency on which the HF system is operating. The
refracted by the ionosphere to such an extent that they are bent tuner control unit and tuner will automatically keep the voltage
sufficiently to return to earth. The HF ground wave suffers quite standing wave ratio (VSWR) to a level between 1.3 and 1.0
rapid attenuation with distance from the transmitter. Ionosphere thus assuring good power transfer. Communications are
attenuation also takes place, being greatest at the lower HF completed through the flight interphone system (AMM 23-51-
frequencies. A significant feature of long-range HF transmission 00/001).
is that it is subject to selective fading over narrow bandwidths
(tens of cycles). o The HF systems use 3 phase, 115-volt, 400Hz AC power

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CONTROL PANEL HF TRANSCEIVER

Figure 1 HF CONTROL PANEL

The HF control panel can select any one of 28,000 channels,

spaced 1 kHz apart in the 2.000- to 29.999-MHz range.

The HF control panel contains four frequencies select knobs, a

Figure 2 HF TRANCIEVER
frequency display, RF SENS knob and a mode select switch.

o The RF SENS knob controls RF gain in the receiving section o Each HF transceiver panel contains:
of the HF transceiver.
 R/T light that comes on as a result of HF transceiver faults.
o The mode select switch (referred to as the mode switch)
turns the system off (OFF), selects upper/lower sideband  KEY INTERLOCK light that is activated as a result of HF
(USB/LSB), and amplitude modulation (AM). antenna coupler faults.

 SQL/LAMP TEST switch which tests the above indicator lights

and disables squelch of receiver audio.

 PHONE jack, a 600-ohm headset plug-in to monitor test audio.

MIC jack, a carbon microphone plug-in to enable voice
modulation tests at the HF transceiver.

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AMPLITUDE MODULATED TRANSMISSION Frequency translation is by a mixing process rather than a

multiplicative process since if the USB (fc + fm) were multiplied by N
The frequency selected on the controller determines the output we would radiate a frequency of N (fc + fm) rather than ft + fc + fm.
from the frequency synthesizer to the RF translator, which shifts The amount by which the USB is translated, ft is determined by the
the frequency up and provides sufficient drive for the power frequency selected on the controller. Final amplification takes place in
amplifier. The mic Input, after amplification, feeds the the power amplifier prior to feeding the RF to the ATU.
modulator, which produces high-level amplitude modulation of
the RF amplified by the power amplifier. The RF signal is fed to To obtain side tone from the power amplifier stage a carrier would
the ATU via the antenna transfer relay contact. need to be re-inserted. A simpler method, which nevertheless confirms
that a signal has reached the p.a., is to use the rectified RF to operate
The power amplifier output signal is sampled by the side tone a side tone relay. When energized the contact of this relay connects
detector which feeds side tone audio via the contact of the de- the amplified mic audio to the output audio amplifier.
energized side tone relay and the side tone adjust
potentiometer to the audio output amplifier. AMPLITUDE MODULATED RECEPTION

SINGLE SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION The received signal passes from the ATU via the de-energized
antenna transfer relay contact to an RF amplifier and thence to the
Low-level modulation is necessary since there is no carrier to translator. After the translator normal AM detection takes place, the
modulate at the power amplifier stage; hence the mic input (fm) audio so obtained being fed to the output stage. A variety of AGC and
is fed to a balanced modulator together with a fixed carrier squelch circuits may be employed.
frequency (fc) from the frequency synthesizer. The balanced
modulator output consists of sidebands fc + fm and fc - fm, he SINGLE SIDEBAND RECEPTION
carrier being suppressed. The required sideband is passed by a
filter to the RF translator after further amplification. The circuit action on SSB is similar to that on AM until after the
translator when the translated RF is fed to the product detector along
with the re-inserted ‘carrier’ fc. The output of the product detector is
the required audio signal, which is dealt with in the same way as
before.

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A typical HF transceiver is illustrated here.

Figure 3 HF TRANCIEVER BLOCK DIAGRAM

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ANTENNA TUNING UNIT

The RF signal on the input feed is monitored by a loading servo

system and a phasing servo system. If the load impedance is high
then the line current IL is low and the line voltage VL is high. This is
detected by the loading servo discriminator which applies the
appropriate amplitude and polarity DC signal to a chopper/amplifier
which in turn provides the control phase for the loading servo motor.
The autotransformer tap is driven until the load impedance is 50 Ω.

Should IL and VL not be in phase, this is detected by the phasing

servo discriminator, which applies the appropriate amplitude and
polarity DC signal to a chopper/ amplifier, which in turn provides the
control phase for the phasing servo motor. The reactive elements,
inductance and capacitance, are adjusted until IL and VL are in phase.

As a result of the action of the two servo systems a resistive

Figure 4HF ANTENNA TUNING UNIT load of 50Ω is presented to the co-axial feed from the transceiver.
When both servos reach their null positions the control circuits remove
the signals listed previously.
On selecting a new frequency a retune signal is sent to the ATU
control circuits which then:

1. Keys the transmitter

2. Inserts an attenuator in transceivers output line

3. Switches on the tuning tone signal generator and drives a

tune warning lamp (optional)

4. Switches on reference phases for servomotors

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HF COMMUNICATION ANTENNA

The antenna used varies greatly, depending on the type of A probe antenna, which is aerodynamically acceptable, may be fitted
aircraft. For low-speed aircraft, a long wire antenna is popular at either of the wing tips or on top of the vertical stabilizer. Again series
although whip antennas may be found on some light aircraft tuning provides the necessary driving force for radiation. The probe
employing low-powered HF systems. The aerodynamic antenna, as well as the wire antenna is liable to suffer lightning strikes,
problems of wire antennas on aircraft which fly faster than, say so protection in the form of a lightning.
400 knots, have led to the use of notch and probe antennas
which effectively excite the airframe so that it becomes a Arrester (spark gap) is fitted. Any voltage in excess of approximately
radiating element. 16 kV on the antenna will cause an arc across the electrodes of the
hydrogen-filled spark gap, thus prevention discharge through the HF
equipment. Build-up of precipitation static on antennas, particularly
The HF system transmits and receives thru a flush-mounted probes, is dealt with by providing a high resistance static drain (about
shunt-fed slot type of HF antenna. The HF antenna is located in 6 MΩ) path to earth connected between the antenna feed point and
the vertical fin leading edge. The antenna dielectric portion is the ATU.
constructed of fiberglass. The HF antenna is the metal leading
edge of the vertical fin.

Notch antennas consist of a slot cut into the aircraft structure,

often at the base of the vertical stabilizer. The inductance of the
notch is series-resonated by a high-voltage variable capacitor
driven by a phase –sensing servo. Signal injection is via
matching circuitry driven by a SWR sensing servo. Since the
notch is high ‘Q’ the input is transformed to a voltage across the
notch, which is of the order of thousands of volts. This large
provides the driving force for current flow in the airframe, which
serves as the radiator.

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Figure 5 HF ANTENNA

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SIDETONE

The normal method of obtaining side tone would be to detect

the Tx power output, thus giving speech which is then fed to the
final Rx audio amplifier. This method is unsuitable for SSB since AT
there is no carrier present. Instead a rectifier produces a mean MIC BAL
MOD PA
AMP
d.c. proportional to envelope level. This d.c. is then used to
energize a relay. The contacts of the relay switch the speech as
it leaves the microphone amplifier, thus feeding audio to the
final Rx audio stage. The advantage, especially for the radio SM
SIDETON
Engineer, is that the presence of side tone confirms that RF is E RELAY
being transmitted. See Fig. below.

Fig. 6 SIDETONE IN SSB TX

Again, variations of detailed operations will exist from one equipment

type to another - refer to the relevant Manuals.

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HF INTERLOCK SYSTEM

This technique is a requirement on any aircraft that has two HF

transceivers, though the largest aircraft seem to manage
without an interlock.

FUNCTIONS OF HF INTERLOCK

The most important function - often the only function – is for the
'other man's' press-to-transmit to be disabled, thus preventing
'the other' HF from transmitting. Thus if the Captain wants to
transmit on HF No.1, when he hits the key (R/T switch) then the
First Officer cannot key HF2.

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SUMMARY

CHARACTERISTICS

The following brief list of characteristics is those of a system,

which conforms to ARINC 559A.

FREQUENCY SELECTION

 An RF range of 2.8-24 MHz covered in 1 kHz

increments

 Method: re-entrant frequency selection system.

 Channeling time less than 1 s.

MODE OF OPERATION

Single channel simplex – upper single sideband.

TRANSMITTER

Power output:

400W p.e.p (200 W p.e.p operational).

Absolute maximum power output:

650 W p.e.p

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SELCAL
Although five reset leads will be provided they may be connected
The selective calling (SELCAL) system allows a ground station individually, all in parallel to a single reset switch or to the PTT circuit
to call an aircraft or group of aircraft using HF or VHF COMM of the associated transmitter. In this latter case isolation diodes (within
without the flight crew having continuously to monitor the station the decoder) prevent ‘sneak’ circuits, i.e. keying one transmitter
frequency. A coded signal is transmitted from the ground and causing one or more others to be keyed.
received by the VHF or HF receiver tuned to the appropriate
frequency. The output code is fed to a SELCAL decoder, which
activates aural and visual alerts if and only if the received code
corresponds to the code selected in the aircraft. The lamp and chime supplies shown can be changed at the operator’s
option. Possibilities are to reverse the situation and have steady lights
Each transmitted code is made up of two RF bursts (pulses) and multi-stroke chimes, or to have steady
each of 1±0.25 s duration separated by a period of 0.2 ± 0.1 s. lights and single-stroke chime, in which case the interrupt circuit
During each pulse the transmitted carrier is 90 per cent is not used.
modulated with two tones, thus there are a total of four tones
per call; the frequencies of the tones determine the code.

The tones available are given by the formula:

FN = antilog [0.054(N-1) + 2.0]

where, N = 12, 13, ….27 giving a total of sixteen tones between

312.6 and 1479.1 Hz. The tones are designed by letters A to S
committing, I, N and O so a typical code might be AK-DM.
There are 2970 codes available for assignment using the first
twelve tones, the addition of tones P, Q, R and S (1976) bring to
total to 10920. Codes or blocks of codes are assigned on
request to air carrier organizations that in turn assign codes to
their aircraft either on a flight number or aircraft registration
related basis.

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13.4.3.3 AUDIO INTEGRATING SYSTEMS (AIS)

The function of the audio system is to provide an interface

between the pilot’s mic and the selected receiver and
transmitter; In contrast a large multi-crew passenger aircraft has
several sub-systems making up the total audio system.

It is unusual to consider all the systems and sub-systems which

follow as part of AIS, a term which should perhaps be restricted
to the system which provides for the selection of radio system
audio outputs and inputs and crew intercommunications.
However a brief description of all systems, which generate,
process or record audio signals will be given.

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SERVICES PROVIDED

The following services are normally provided by a typical multi 5. Passenger Address or Cabin Address: (PA or CA). This
crew passenger aircraft:- permits both cabin crew and flight deck crew to communicate
to the passengers. Usually a priority system of communication
1. Service Selection: This provides the means for the flight is included.
crew to communicate with the ground stations, each
ASP operating quite independently of the others. 6. Passenger Entertainment: In a simple system this provides
taped music to the passengers. In large aircraft,
2. Flight Interphone: This permits the flight deck crew to
communicate with each other.
The AIS installations found in light aircraft are very much simpler than
3. Cabin Interphone: This allows the flight and cabin crews the above. The fundamental difference being that with only one ASP
to communicate with each other. all aircrew share the same facility. See Booklet No.3.

4. Service Interphone: This provides the ground crew with

the means to talk directly with each other and to
communicate with the flight or cabin crews at the same
time.

A call system is usually included to attract the necessary

attention.

In some aircraft all the interphone system may operate

through a single amplifier individual amplifiers unit,
though are used.

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Figure 1 RADIO JUNCTION BOX

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1. FLIGHT INTERPHONE SYSTEM

The flight interphone system provides the flight crew with

capabilities to communicate with each other and provides the
means for them to transmit and receive on airplane
communication radio systems and receive on airplane
navigation radio systems.

The flight interphone system consists of audio selector panels,

an audio accessory unit, jack panels, push-to-talk (PTT)
switches, handheld microphones, headsets, boom
microphone/headsets, oxygen mask microphones,
loudspeakers.

The captain and first officer each have an audio selector panel,
a cockpit speaker, a control wheel PTT switch, a boom
microphone headset and oxygen mask microphone, plus jacks
for a headset and a handheld microphone.

The flight interphone system receives power from the dual

power source of 28v dc battery bus and 28v dc bus

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THE AUDIO SELECTOR PANEL

Figure 2 AUDIO SELECTOR PANEL

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 The audio selector panel enables the flight

crewmembers to transmit and receive on the radio Volume Control Switches
communication systems, communicate using the flight
and service interphone systems, and make
announcements over the PA system. Airplane navigation o The volume control switches are located directly below each
system can also be monitored.
o Microphone selector switch. The switches are turned
 Three audio selector panels are located in the flight ON/OFF by pushing the switch knob. The switches control
compartment. Two are on the captain's and first officer's the selection and volume level of the received audio. The
sidewall auxiliary panels and one is on the P5 aft control switches turn clockwise for increasing volume and
overhead panel for the observer. counterclockwise for decreasing volume.

 The front panel of the audio selector panel has the  The PTT switch on the ASP is connected in parallel to the
following switches: PTT
o switch on the control wheel which serves a similar function.
 Microphone Selector Switches
o The microphone selector switches are used to  The flight deck speakers are muted when the microphone with
connect the boom, oxygen mask, or hand the exception of the oxygen mask microphone is keyed at the
microphone to the interphone, passenger audio selector panel, at the control wheels, or at the hand
address (PA), or any of the selectable microphone.
transmitters.
 Navigation Selector Switches
o The microphone selector switches are The navigation selector switches are rotary/pushbutton
momentary contact switches. The switches are switches. These switches are used to select the navigation
mechanically and electronically interlocked to system for monitoring. Any number of the switch may be
permit only one switch to be selected at a time. A selected at the same time permitting the monitoring of more
light in each switch comes on when the switch is than one system. Clockwise rotation of the switch increases
selected, and the related receive audio channel the volume level for monitoring. Counterclockwise rotation of
will become active. the switch decreases the volume level.

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 BOOM/MASK Switch

o The BOOM/MASK select switch is a two-position

locking toggle.

o The switch connects the boom mic (headset) or

the mask (oxygen mask) to the input.

o When the oxygen mask is selected, the flight

deck speakers cannot be muted.

 V-B-R Filter Switch

The V-B-R filter switch control filtering of the received

o Navigation system audio. In the V (Voice)

position, only voice

o Audio will be heard. In the R (Range) position,

only range

o audio (Morse code identifier) will be heard. In the

B (Both) position, both voice and range audio will
be heard.

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RADIO ISOLATION

The AIS installation in a light aircraft uses one ASP only, this
leads to the creation of a situation known as mic. isolation. This From the diagram it can be seen that the resistor attenuator ratios are
will be explained in Booklet No.3. not the same. The attenuators from the receiver outputs into the
amplifier inputs have ratios of 100:1. The attenuator between the
In large multi crew aircraft three or four ASPs are included and amplifier input and the output of the second receiver has a ratio of
these are connected in parallel at the radio junction panel. This 21:1. This means that the total crosstalk attenuation ratios are 100:1,
means that all radio facilities must be available at each ASP. A 21:1, and 100:1 respectively. This gives an attenuation of 40 dBs, 26.4
problem therefore arises of how to prevent one radio facility dBs and 40 dBs, making a total attenuation of 106.4 dBs.
being present at an ASP at which it is not selected. This
phenomenon is referred to as CROSSTALK. It is eliminated by Unfortunately, the presence of the first attenuator network reduces the
the inclusion of an 'anti-crosstalk' network. desired signal by 40 dBs which necessitates the inclusion of an
isolation amplifier to provide a gain of 40 dBs to restore the signal level
Consider Fig. It can be seen that though ASP 1 has two radio to its original level.
receivers selected and ASP 2 has only one ASP 2 can still
receive the output from the second radio receiver, the signal
traveling along the lines of the first ASP through the radio
junction panel. To eliminate this crosstalk an anti-crosstalk
network has been introduced. This consists of resistor
attenuator networks which reduce the crosstalk signal.

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(ANTI CROSSTALK NETWORK)

Figure 3 ANTI CROSS TALK NETWORK

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EMERGENCY OPERATION

(a) To bypass the isolation amplifier to the headsets or

loudspeakers.

(b) To bypass the normal PTT and mic. relay to the selected
transmitter.

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SERVICE INTERPHONE SYSTEM

 The service interphone system provides interphone

communications between the flight crew, the attendants, The OFF position disconnects the microphone lines to isolate the
and ground crew personnel. The system includes: the audio external service interphone jacks during flight.
accessory unit, the service interphone switch, the attendants
handsets, and the service interphone jacks.

 Handsets are installed in the forward and aft attendant

panels for communication between attendants. Switched
service interphone jacks located throughout the airplane are
for use by ground crew personnel during servicing and
maintenance. Personnel in the control cabin can
communicate with the attendants or ground crew personnel
through the audio selector panels and the headphones and
microphones of the flight interphone system.
Figure 4
 The service interphone system gets power from the 28v dc
battery bus. Handsets

Service Interphone Switch The handset may be of the press-to-use or press-to-talk type. The
button on a press-to-use type handset completes both microphone
The service interphone switch is located on the aft overhead and receiver audio circuits when the handset button is pressed. The
panel. button on a press-to-talk type handset completes only the microphone
circuits when it is pressed; receiver circuits are connected directly to
In the ON position, the switch connects the microphone lines the system.
from the external service interphone jacks to the input of the
interphone amplifiers. The service interphone amplifier provides the necessary voltage for
operation of carbon or transistorized handsets. Handset impedance is
approximately 150 ohms.

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3. PASSENGER ADDRESS SYSTEM

The passenger address (PA) system provides voice announcements,

boarding music and chime signals to the passengers.

The passenger address system consists of a PA amplifier, tape

reproducer (when installed), and loudspeakers. The speakers are
located in the PSU, lavatory, and attendant areas.

Power to the system is provided by 115v ac and 28v dc

Passenger Address Amplifier

The passenger address amplifier provides high-quality audio power to

the speaker system of the airplane. It includes microphone inputs for
use by the pilot and cabin attendants.

Tape Reproducer

Figure 5 The tape reproducer provides high-fidelity monaural audio

entertainment while in flight or on the ground. The equipment is
designed for remote operation.

Passenger Address Speakers

A 6.5 inch diameter speaker with matching transformer is installed in

the PSU assembly for approximately every other row of seats. These
speakers provide PA announcements and boarding music to the
passengers.

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The various PA messages have an order of priority assigned to

them: pilot’s announcement, attendant’s announcements, pre-
recorded announcements and finally boarding music. All PA audio is
broadcast over the speaker system and also, except for boarding
music, overrides entertainment audio fed to the passenger
stethoscope headsets. A pre-recorded emergency announcement may
be initiated by the pilot or an attendant, or automatically in the event of
cabin decompression. A chime is generated when the pilot turns on
‘fasten seat-belt’ or ‘no smoking’ signs

Figure 6

Figure 7
Figure 8

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1. CABIN INTERPHONE SYSTEM

The cabin interphone is a miniature automatic telephone

exchange servicing several subscribers: the cabin attendants
and the captain. In addition, the system interfaces with the PA
to allow announcements to be made. Numbers are dialed by
pushbuttons on the telephone type handsets or on the pilot’s
control unit. Eleven two-figure numbers are allocated to the
subscribers, plus additional numbers for PA in various or all
compartments, and ‘all –attendants’ call and an ‘all-call’. Two
dialing codes consist of letters: P-P is used by an attendant to
alert the pilot (call light flashes on control unit and chime sounds
once) while PA-PA is used by the pilot to gain absolute priority
over all other users of the PA system. The directory is listed on
the push-to-talk switch incorporated in each handset to
minimize ambient noise.

All dialing code decoding and the necessary trunk switching is

carried out in the central switching unit, CSU (automatic
exchange). The CSU also contains three amplifiers, one of
which is permanently allocated to the pilot on what is effectively
a private trunk of the five other available trunks, two are
allocated to the attendants, two to the PA system and one for
dialing (Note a trunk is simply a circuit which can connect two
subscribers.)

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The Pilot's Control Unit

The Attendant's Handset

Fig. 9 PILOT'S CONTROL UNIT

Fig. 9 has five lighted dialing push buttons and a PA lighted

dialing push button for using the PA system. It also has an
ON/FLT INT button which connects the flight and cabin
interphones in parallel. A 'call' indicator which tells the pilot Fig. 10 CABIN ATTENDANT HANDSET
when he is being called and a 'PA in use' indicator are provided
to give the pilot warning that the system is in use.
Fig. 10 shows a cabin attendant's handset, containing a noise
canceling microphone, a telephone type earpiece, six dialing push
buttons, a reset button and a PTT button. The reset button permits
consecutive calls without replacing the handset.

The pilot's handset is similar to the attendant's, but has no dialing

buttons as these are on the control unit.

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2. PASSENGER ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEM: Alternate zone sub multiplexers are used as back up in the event of
prime sub multiplexer failure (class priorities exist if failures mean
aircraft has a variety of services that will be available for some passengers must have the entertainment service discontinued).
passengers since different operators will offer different
entertainment in a bid to capture more customers. In view of the The controls necessary for activation of the entertainments system are
above comments, the following description is particularly brief located on attendants’ control panels.
and does not do justice to the complexity involved.

Movies and music provided, the movie audio being fed to

individual seats via the music portion of the system. Ten tape-
deck channels, four movie audio channels and one p.a. channel
(total fifteen) are provided using time multiplexing. A time
interval, termed a frame, is divided into fifteen channel times
during which the signal amplitude of each channel is sampled.

The audio signal amplitudes are binary coded (twelve bits) and
transmitted, together with channel identification, clock and sync
pulses, over a co-axial cable running through the aircraft.

The music channels (five stereo, ten monaural or a mixture) are

multiplexed in the main multiplexes, the resulting digital signal
being fed to six sub multiplexes in series, the final one being
terminated with a suitable load resistor. Movie and PA audio are
multiplexed with the music channels in the zone sub multipliers,
each of which feed three or four columns of seat de multiplexes.
Channel selection is made by the passenger who hears the
appropriate audio over his stethoscope headset after digital to
analogue conversion in the de multiplexer.

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13.4.3.4 COCKPIT VOICE RECORDER

INTRODUCTION

A C.V.R. is fitted to large aircraft and its purpose is to record

and to play back audio messages transmitted or received by the
aircraft crew.

(a) Where C.V.R. signals originate

(b) How C.V.R.'s are controlled

(c) How 'hot' microphones work and what they are

(d) How to test a C.V.R.

CVR capsule is located in black box. Black Box is placed in aft

(tail section) of aircraft for it is part which receives the lowest
damage in air crash.

In order to locate Black box.

 It is painted in orange color for day

 It has day glow strips for night operation

 It has ULB (underwater locator beacon) for under water

detection using medium frequency.

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FIG. 1 BLOCK DIAGRAM - SSCVR PIC

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An endless tape is used to provide 30 minutes recording time Test facilities are provided for all four channels either separately or all
on four separate channels; the four channels accept the Flight together. The playback head and amplifier provide a suitable level to
Engineers, First Officers and Captain’s transmitted and received be seen in the test meters or to be heard in a headset plugged into
audio signals and the cockpit area conversation. In an aircraft one of the jack sockets. Pressing the test button on the control panel
certified to fly with two crew members, passenger address audio allows the C.V.R. to be monitored in sequence
may be used in lieu of the flight engineer's audio. Permanently
live microphones called 'hot mics' are used in the three crew Power supplies come from the essential flight instrument bus bar at
positions, which means that the microphones are permanently 115 volts 400 Hz a.c. or 28 volts d.c. Electromagnetic microphones are
connected to the C.V.R. amplifiers irrespective of the control usually fed to the C.V.R. via summing amplifiers which combine the
column or audio selection panel switches. crew microphones output and connect them to channel No.1. The area
microphone will be connected to channel No. 4 and the audio output
The area microphone is fitted in the aircraft cockpit to pick up from the Captain's ASP to channel No.3. The co-pilot's ASP audio and
flight deck conversations and cockpit sounds. It is sometimes the first officer's ASP audio are both connected to channel No. 2.
separately mounted or sometimes part of the C.V.R. controller
but always in the cockpit of the aircraft. You will realize that as the C.V.R. may be used to provide a record of
audio immediately before an aircraft accident, it is essential that the
The audio recording may be erased if the landing gear and C.V.R. must be able to withstand severe mechanical shock and very
parking brake interlock relay contacts are closed. A delay circuit high temperatures in the case of a fire.
is included in the bulk erase circuit to delay erasure for two
seconds after the erase switch has been pressed. This is The normal mechanical shock specification for a. C.V.R. is 15g for 10
included to prevent accidental erasure. milliseconds. The tape capsule should be able to withstand
mechanical shock of 100g for 11 milliseconds and fire of 11000c for 30
minutes. From these figures you can see how the extra protection
affects the protection of the tape

The C.V.R. is painted orange with 'day glow' stripes on the case to
help recovery. The tape capsule is separately protected to give extra
protection from impact shock and fire.

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13.4.3.5 ARINC COMMUNICATION, ADDRESSING &

REPORTING SYSTEM (ACARS)

The ACARS is a digital data link for either ground-air or air-

ground connections. The system reduces the flight crew’s
workload because it transmits routine reports automatically and
simplifies other reporting. The ACARS network is made up of
three sections:

 Airborne System.
 Ground Network.
 Airline Operations Centre.

The airborne system has an ACARS Management Computer

(MU) which manages the incoming and outgoing messages,
and a Multi-Purpose Interactive Display Unit (MPIDU) which is
used by the flight Crew to interface with the ACARS system. A
printer can also be installed to allow incoming messages to be
printed for future reference.

ACARS operates using the VHF 3 communications system on a

frequency of 131.55 MHz since ACARS only operates on one
frequency; all transmitted messages must be as short as
possible. To achieve a short message, a special code block
using a maximum of 220 characters is transmitted in a digital
format. If longer messages are required, more than one block will
be transmitted. Each ACARS message takes approximately 1
second of airtime to be sent. Sending and receiving data over
the ACARS network reduces the number of voice contacts
required on any one flight, thereby reducing communication
workload.

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Figure 1 ACARS SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM

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OOOI REPORT - PIC ADD

A typical communication channeled through this the aircraft

movement report known as Out-Off-On-In (OOOI).

This automatically informs the airline of the following events:

Out – movement out of the gate, which may be detected

by the engine start

Off – take off, which may be detected by landing gear

shock absorber extension

On – touchdown or weight-on-wheels, which may be

detected by landing gear shock absorber compression

In – movement into the gate, which may be detected by

engine shutdown

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THE COMMUNICATION LINK

The aircraft typically downlinks ACARS data on a VHF

transmission. The transmission is received by a remote ground
station (RGS) operated by a service provider. The two
prominent service providers are SITA and ARINC. The service
provider transmits the data to the AOC on the public switched
telephone network (PSTN).
ACARS operates in two modes:

 Demand Mode.
 Polled Mode.

DEMAND MODE

The demand mode allows the flight crew of airborne

equipment to initiate communications. To transmit a
message, the MU determines if the ACARS channel is free
from other communications from other

ACARS, if it is clear, the message is sent. If the ACARS

VHF channel is busy, then the MU waits until the
frequency is available.

The ground station sends a reply to the message

transmitted from the aircraft. If an error reply or no reply is
received, the MU continues to transmit the message at the
next opportunity. After six attempts (and failures), the
airborne equipment notifies the flight crew.

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POLLED MODE

In the polled mode, the ACARS only operates when

interrogated by the ground facility. The ground facility More recent ACARS installations have been connected to the
routinely uplinks “questions” to the aircraft equipment and “Flight Management Computer” (FMC), permitting flight plan
when a channel is free the MU responds with a transmitted updates, predicated wind data, take-off data and position
message. The MU organizes and formats flight data prior reports to be sent over the ACARS network.
to transmission and upon request, the flight information is
transmitted to the ground facility. The ACARS in use vary greatly from one airline to another and
are tailored to meet each airline’s operational needs. When
The ground station receives and relays messages or satellite communication systems are adopted, ACARS will take on
reports to the ARINC ACARS Control Centre. The control a truly global aspect.
centre sorts the
messages and sends them to the operator's control centre
(several airlines participate in the ACARS network).

The ACARS also reduces the congestion of the VHF

communication channels because transmissions of
ACARS take fractions of a second while the same
report/message in aural form may have taken in excess of
ten seconds.

ACARS may be connected to other airplane systems

such as the “Digital Flight Data Acquisition Unit” (DFDAU).
The DFDAU collects data from many of the aircraft’s
systems such as Air Data Computer, Navigation and
Engine monitoring systems, and in turn makes this data
available to ACARS.
Figure 1 ACARS SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM

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DESCRIPTION
MANAGEMENT UNIT (MU) -NOT INTERCHANGABLE
The ACARS is operational as soon as the electrical power is
supplied and does not have an ON/OFF switch. The ACARS has The Management Unit (MU) converts the data from and to the
the following components: VHF-COMM. Requests from ground-stations for communication
or reports go from the MU to the MIDU or Flight Data
 ACARS Management Unit (MU). Acquisition Unit (FDAU). Most of the reports are generated in
 Multi-Purpose Interactive Display Unit (MPIDU). the FDAU. The MU itself makes the report. The unit uses
 Ident plug. information from the FWS for this message (parking brake and
 Program pins. ground/flight for example). The interface wiring between MU and
 Thermal Printer. FDAU/MIDU is ARINC 429. The MU codes the messages for
VHF-COM. The messages contain the aircraft's registration and
the airline code. This information comes from the ident plug.
The MU also decodes the messages from the VHF-COMM.
When there is a message for the crew, the MIDU shows a
message annunciation, while the MU also makes a discrete for
Flight Warning System (FWS) to make alert.

The VHF-COMM can be used for data transmissions for the

ACARS or normal communication. You can select the voice or
data mode on the MIDU.

MULTI-PURPOSE INTERACTIVE DISPLAY UNIT (MPIDU)

Displays messages, reports and communication requests to the

crew. It incorporates touch-screen control in lieu of external
pushbuttons and knobs. The touch-screen control is made
possible by the use of infrared sensors along the sides of the
display. Control inputs are made from menus displayed on the
MIDU.
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FIG. 2 ACARS Schematic Diagram

FIG. 3 MIDU (Multi Purpose Interactive Display Unit)

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ACARS PRINTER

A thermal printer is provided for the printing of ACARS

messages. Operation of the printer is optional as all
printed information can be viewed on the MIDU. Weather
report information is sent directly to the printer from the
ACARS ground-station. The printer uses rolls of 4.25”
thermal paper. A red stripe appears along the edge of the
paper when the supply is low.

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13.4.3.6 EMERGENCY LOCATOR TRANSMITTER

Emergency locator transmitters (ELT) are carried in aircraft in

view of locating its position in a search and rescue situation.

ELTs are also known as Emergency Locator Beacon-Aircraft

(ELBA).

ELT TRANSMISSION

ELT transmission frequencies are:

1. 121.5 MHz (VHF)

2. 243 MHz (UHF)
3. 406 MHz (UHF – satellite-aided tracking)

Note that the first two frequencies are harmonically related, 243
MHz is the second harmonic of 121.5 MHz frequency. This
feature simplifies the design of a two-frequency radio
transmitter. Figure 1 ELT''S

The transmitter is amplitude modulated to be compatible with

receives in the VHF communication band. The modulation is a
tone that sweeps down in frequency from about 1600 Hz to 300
Hz at two sweeps per second.

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ELT ACTIVATION

ELT can be made to transmit with:

1 A Manually activated switch

2 An impact activated switch (9g)
3 A water activated switch

The third mode of activation is incorporated in the beacons used

in over-water operations.

The ELT must operate for 24 hours with power output in excess
of 100 mW.

Figure 2 IMPACT TYPE ELT

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SATELLITE AIDED TRACKING

Having received a distress signal, a satellite transmits it to a ground
There are two satellite systems monitoring distress signals over station when one is in view. There are ground stations
emergency frequencies. located worldwide for monitoring emergency frequencies
directly or through satellites.
SARSAT – Search and rescue satellite-aided tracking
Once the whereabouts of the radio beacon has been
COSPAS – Space system for search of vessels in distress determined, the information is automatically forwarded to a
control centre. The control centre sounds alarm, alerting the
SARSAT is operated by Canada, France, and the United States search and rescue authorities.
and COSPAS by Russia. Today both systems work together as
a single system providing global coverage for distress signal
detection and localization.

The COSPAS-SARSAT satellites circle the earth in polar orbit

about every 100 minutes. The position of the transmitting ELT
can be located within two kilometers worldwide.

Satellites can detect the first generation ELTs transmitting on

VHF and UHF emergency frequencies. The second
generation’s emergency radio beacons developed to be more
readily detected by satellites transmit on 406 MHz The codes
transmitted by these beacons can include the identification of
the beacon, vehicle and its country of registration etc.

It is expected that all satellites will monitor only 406 MHz

frequency from year 2009 onwards.

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Figure 3 COSPAS-SARSAT

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ELT Operating Instructions

The 3 way toggle switch has 3 settings:

OFF: Will not activate
ARM: Will activate in the event of a accident.
ON: Transmitting.

ELT TESTING

For avoiding confusion in case of ELT transmissions during

testing, the tests are carried out during the first 5 minutes of an
hour.

Off to arm: long flashes of led indicate operational ELT.

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13.4.4 RADIO NAVIGATION

13.4.4.1 NAVIGATION FUNDAMENTALS

GREAT CIRCLE
Before going into details of the principles involved in the
operation of these systems, it is useful at this juncture to This is a circle on the surface of a sphere whose centre and radius are
consider some aspects relating to the form of the earth, and those of the sphere itself.
also to define some of the terms associated with navigation over
its surface. SMALL CIRCLE

FORM OF THE EARTH This is a circle on the surface of a sphere whose centre and radius are
not those of the sphere.
The earth is not a true sphere; its equatorial diameter of 6884
nautical miles exceeds its polar diameter by about 23 nautical LONGITUDE AND LATITUDE.
miles. The `flattening' at the Polar Regions gives rise to a more
precise definition of the earth's form, which is known as an the datum is established by a great circle through the north and south
oblate spheroid. For practical navigation purposes, however, the poles, which passes through Greenwich. That half of the circle, which
earth can be considered as a sphere. passes through Greenwich, is known as the prime or Greenwich
meridian and is 000°. The other half is called the antemeridian and is
DIRECTION ON THE EARTH 180°.

This is measured in degrees clockwise from north, and when

the datum is the direction of the north end of the earth's axis, it
is referred to as true direction. North is one of four points known
as cardinal points; the other three are south, east and west.

North and south define the axis about which the earth rotates
from west to east. To avoid ambiguity, a three-figure group is
always used to indicate direction, e.g. north - 000°; south - 180°;
east - 090° and west - 270°.

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Longitude: The longitude of any point is the shortest distance

in the arc along the equator between the prime meridian and the
meridian through the point. It is expressed in degrees and
minutes and is annotated east or west according to whether the
point lies east or west of the prime meridian.

Latitude: The latitude of any point is the arc of the meridian

between the equator and the point. It is also expressed in
degrees and minutes, and is annotated north or south according
to whether the point lies north or south of the equator.

The whole network of meridians (longitude and parallels of

latitude), imagined to cover the earth, is called a graticule. Thus,
as shown in Fig. 2, meridians or lines of longitude start from the
prime meridian or 0° and go right round up to 180° E and 180°
W. Similarly, the parallels of latitude start from the equator as 0°
and go up to 90° N and 90° S.

When giving a position, it is always quoted in the sequence

latitude and longitude; e.g. the latitude of London Heathrow is
the arc of the meridian between the equator and Heathrow, and
is 51 degrees and 28 minutes N. Its longitude is the shorter arc
of the equator between the prime meridian and Heathrow, and
is 00 degrees and 27 minutes W. It is expressed as: 51° 28' N
00° 27' W.

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CONVERGENCY

Because the meridians converge towards each other to the

poles, then any line or track cutting successive meridians will do
so at different angles; this inclination is called convergence

Convergence is 0 at the equator (the meridians cutting it at 90°)

and increases to maximum at the poles. (See fig.3)

CHANGE OF LONGITUDE

This is the smaller arc of the equator intercepted between the

meridians of the reference points, and is named east or west
according to the direction of the change. It is abbreviated as 'ch
long' (E or W).

CHANGE OF LATITUDE

This is the arc of the meridians intercepted between the

parallels of the two places and is named north or south
according to the direction of the change. It is abbreviated as `ch
lat' (N or S).

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RHUMB-LINE

The ideal line to fly would be a great circle, since the shortest
distance between any two places is along the circle. There are,
however, two disadvantages:

 The great circle from one point to another will cross the
converging meridians at different angles,

 Because meridians form the basis of track angle

measurements, continuous alterations to these angles
would be necessary as a flight progressed.

A curved line which joins points along it and crosses each

meridian at a constant angle; such a line is called a rhumb-line.
Distances between points along this line are greater than those
along a great circle. (See fig. 4)

The meridians and the equator are the only examples of great
circles, which are also rhumb-lines. °.

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DISTANCES ON THE EARTH

NAUTICAL MILE

The distance on the earth's surface which subtends an angle of

one minute of arc at the centre of the earth.

One nautical mile (nm) equals one minute of latitude and is an

average distance of 6080 ft. 1° latitude = 60 nm. A change of
latitude from the equator to a pole is therefore equal to 90 x 60
= 5400 nm.

STATUTE MILE:

Equal to 5280 ft

KILOMETER:

1
10000th of the average distance from the equator to either pole
and is accepted as being equal to 3280 ft

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NAVIGATION TERMS
GROUND SPEED (G/S):
The following definitions are of navigation terms associated with
INS/IRS operation; they are also shown pictorially in Fig. 5. The actual speed (in knots) of an aircraft over the ground,

HEADING (HDG):
WIND DIRECTION (W/D):
The direction in which the nose of an aircraft is pointing;
it is measured in degrees (000-360) clockwise from true, The angle, measured in degrees clockwise from true north,
magnetic, or compass north, with respect to the direction from which the wind is blowing.
Track (TK):
WIND SPEED (W/S):
The direction in which, an aircraft is moving over the
earth; it is also measured in degrees from true r The speed, in knots, at which the air is moving relative to the
magnetic north. Only true TK is plotted. If there were no ground.
wind, there would be no drift and TK would be the same
as HDG; also the case with a direct head wind or tail POSITION
wind.
 Air: The position of an aircraft relative to the air at a
DESIRED TRACK (DSR TK): particular time.

The planned direction over the earth in which it is  Ground: the position of an aircraft relative to the ground
intended the aircraft shall move. directly beneath it at a particular time.

DRIFT ANGLE (DA):

The angle between HDG and TK due to the effect of

wind.

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CROSS
TRACK
DISTANCE (XTK)

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TRACK ANGLE ERROR (TKE):

The angle (left or right) between the DSR TK and the

actual TK of an aircraft. It is always measured from
DSRTK to TK.

WAYPOINT (WPT):

This is a point of Navigational significance on an air

route

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13.4.4.2 VHF OMNI RANGES (VOR): BASIC PRINCIPLES

The VOR system operates in the 108-118 MHz band with A simple analogy to VOR is given by imagining a lighthouse, which
channels spaced a, 50 kHz. This band is shared with ILS emits an Omni directional pulse of light every time the beam is
localizer, the VOR being allocated to 160 of the 200 available pointing due north. If the speed of rotation of the beam is known, a
channels. of these 160 channels 120 are allocated to VOR distant observer could record the time interval between seeing the
stations intended for enroute navigation while the other forty are Omni directional flash and seeing the beam, and hence calculate the
for terminal VOR stations (TVOR). bearing of the light house.

The output power of an enroute station will be about 200 W In reality a VOR station radiates VHF energy modulated with a
providing a service up to 200 nautical miles, its frequency will
within the band 112-118 MHz A TVOR will have an output • Reference phase signal - the Omni directional light, and
power of about 50 W providing a service of up to about 25
nautical miles, its frequency will be within the band 108 - 112 • A variable phase signal - the rotating beam
MHz, this being the part of the total band shared with ILS
localizer. The bearing of the aircraft depends on the phase difference between
reference and variable phases - time difference between light and
To obtain a position fix from VOR one needs bearings to two beam.
separate stations; when used in this way VOR can be
considered a theta-theta system. If a VOR station is co-located
with a DME station an aircraft can obtain a fix using the pair as
a rho-theta system.

The VOR/DME system is currently the international short-range

navigation standard.

Figure 1 VOR FREQUENCIES

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Figure 2 VOR CHANGE OF VARIABLE PHASE

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GROUND STATION OF VOR:

The radiation from a conventional VOR (CVOR) station is a

horizontally polarized VHF wave modulated as follows:

1. 30 Hz a.m.: the variable phase signal.

2. 9960 Hz a.m.: this is a sub carrier frequency, frequency

modulated at 30 Hz with a deviation of ± 480 Hz. The 30
Hz signal is the reference phase.

3) 1020 Hz a.m.: identification signal keyed to provide Morse

code identification at least three times each 30 s. Where a VOR
and DME are co-located .the identification transmissions are
synchronize

The 30 Hz variable phase is amplitude modulated with the main

carrier, in that the necessary amplitude variation in the received
signal at the aircraft is achieved by radiating a cardioids pattern
rotating at 1800 r.p.m. The 9960 Hz sub carrier is frequency
modulated with a 30 Hz reference phase signal, and this
frequency modulated signal is then amplitude modulated with
the main VOR carrier frequency.

It is arranged that an aircraft due north of the beacon will

receive variable and reference signals in phase, for an aircraft
at X0 magnetic bearing from the station the variable phase will
lag the reference phase by X0. Figures a and b illustrate the
basic principles.

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Figure 3 VOR GROUND TRANSMITTER BLOCK DIAGRAM

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The airborne equipment receives the composite signal radiated
by the station to which the receiver is tuned. After detection the
various modulating signals are separated by filters. The 30 Hz
reference signal is phase compared with the variable signal, the
difference in phase giving the bearing from the station. The
actual reading presented to the pilot is the bearing to the station
rather than from, so if the difference in phase between variable
and reference signal is 135° the 'to' bearing would be 135 + 180
= 315°, as shown in Fig. a.

If compass information (heading) is combined with the VOR

derived bearing, the relative bearing of the station can be
presented to the pilot. The relative bearing to the station is the
difference between the magnetic bearing to the station and the
aircraft heading. An RMI is used to display the information. At
the same time a pointer is driven to a position determined by the
difference between the bearing to the station and the heading. A
differential synchro or resolver is used to give 'the required
angular difference. Figure ‘b’ shows the RMI presentation
corresponding to the situation diagram shown in Fig. a. Only
one pointer is shown, for clarity.

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AUTOMATIC VOR:
In automatic VOR the pilot only needs to switch on and tune in to The left or right deviation of deviation Bar is determine by the Ø
an in-range station in order to obtain bearing information. Relationship of VØ and SRØ +90˚ at the phase comparator input such
that when the inputs are in phase quadrature the deviation bar is
MANUAL VOR: centered indicating on the course situation. When VØ and SRØ +90˚
'Manual' VOR requires the pilot to select a particular radial on are less than 90˚ out of phase, the deviation bar deflects to the right,
which he wants to position his aircraft. The actual radial on advising the pilot to fly right, and when they are more than 90˚out of
which the aircraft is flying is compared with the desired radial. phase, the bar deflects left, advising fly left to join the selected radial.

If the two are different the appropriate fly-Left or fly-right signals When VØ and SRØ +180˚are in phase Quadrature at the To-FROM
are derived and presented to the pilot. phase Comparator input, there will be no flag, When VØ and SRØ
+180˚ are less than 90 out of phase there will be To flag, and a FROM
flag will show when the inputs are more than 90 out of Phase.
when an aircraft is on course, i.e. the steering command is
nulled; the aircraft may be heading either toward or away from
the station on the selected radial. A TO/FROM indication
removes the ambiguity. With the aircraft heading, roughly,
towards (away from) the station and the TO/FROM indicator
indicating TO (FROM), the steering information gives the most
direct path in order to intercept the selected radial.

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Figure ‘4A’ shows two possible situations. In both cases the

selected course is 042, i.e. the pilot wishes to fly towards the
station on the 222 radial or away from the station on the 042
radial. With aircraft A we have a fly-left and a TO indication; with
aircraft B we have a fly-right and a FROM indication.

Fig. 4A . TO/FROM Magnetic Bearing and Relative Bearing

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Note that if the headings of the aircraft were reversed, the

indications would be the same, so sending them the 'long way
round'. Figure ‘4B’ shows an electronic deviation indicator
corresponding to aircraft B. The indication at top right shows the
aircraft to be on the 022 radial from a second VOR station

Fig. 4B . RMI presentation

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DOPPLER VOR (DVOR): DIFFERENCES

The method of modulation is completely different DVOR is

compatible with CVOR in that airborne equipment will give the
correct indications when used with stations of either type. In the
DVOR the reference signal is 30 Hz a.m. while the variable
signal is 30 Hz f.m. on a 9960 Hz sub-carrier. Since the roles of
the a.m. and f.m. are reversed with respect to CVOR the
variable phase is arranged to lead the reference phase by X0
for an aircraft at X0 magnetic bearing from the station (cf.
CVOR).

Figure 6 DOPPLER VOR FREQUENCIES

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SIMPLIFIED BLOCK DIAGRAM OPERATION

Received signals are selected, amplified and detected by a To' or 'from' information is derived by comparing the variable phase
conventional single or double superhet receiver. The detected with the reference phase shifted by the OBS setting plus 180°
output is a composite signal, which must be separated into its
component parts by means of appropriate filtering circuits. For automatic VOR operation the reference channel is phase-shifted
and compared with the variable phase. If the two inputs are in phase
The audio signal, 1020 Hz identification, is routed via an quadrature there is no drive to the motor, otherwise the motor will turn,
amplifier and possibly a volume control on the VHF nav. changing the amount by which the reference phase is shifted until
phase quadrature is achieved

The reference phase channel (CVOR) consists of a 9960 Hz

filter, a discriminator to detect the 30 Hz f.m. and, not shown,
amplifier circuits. Limiting of the signal takes place before the
discriminator to remove unwanted amplitude variations. The 30
Hz reference signal (R) then undergoes various phase shifts

For manual VOR operation, as previously mentioned, we need

to shift R by the selected course. This is achieved by the phase-
shift resolver, the rotor of which is coupled to the course or OBS
knob. A digital readout of the selected course is provided. The
phase-shifted R is now compared with the variable phase
signal. If they are in phase or 180° out of phase there is no
lateral movement of the deviation bar.

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Figure 7
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FREQUENCY SELECTION

160 channels, 50 kHz spacing, range 108-117.95 MHz

Standard 2/5 selection system. Channeling time less than
60ms.

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BASIC PRINCIPLES
13.4.4.3 AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER SYSTEM
THE LOOP ANTENNA
INTRODUCTION
The first requirement of any ADF is a directional antenna. Early loop
Most readers will have come across the principle on which ADF antennas could be rotated first by hand and subsequently by motor,
is based when listening to a transistor radio. As the radio is automatically. The obvious advantage of having no moving parts in the
rotated the signal becomes weaker or stronger, depending on aircraft skin-mounted antenna has led to the universal use of a fixed
its orientation with respect to the distant transmitter. of course it loop and goniometer in modern equipments, although some older
is the antenna, which is directional, and this fact has been types are still in service.
known since the early days of radio.
The loop antenna consists of an orthogonal pair of coils wound on a
The system has been much developed since those early days single flat ferrite core, which concentrates the magnetic (H) field
and in particular its operation has been simplified. Within the component of the e.m. wave radiated from a distant station. The plane
band 100-2000 kHz (l.f./m.f.) there are many broadcast stations of one coil is aligned with the aircraft longitudinal axis while the other is
and non-directional beacons (NDB). An aircraft today would aligned with the lateral axis.
have twin receivers which, when tuned to two distinct stations or
beacons, would automatically drive two pointers on an The current induced in each coil will depend on the direction of the
instrument called a radio magnetic indicator (RMI) so that each magnetic field. When the plane of the loop is perpendicular to the
pointer gave the bearing of the corresponding station. The direction of propagation, no voltage is induced in the loop since the
aircraft position is where the two directions intersect. lines of flux do not link with it. It can be seen that if one loop does not
link with the magnetic field the other will have maximum linkage.
Since such a system requires the minimum of pilot involvement Figure 1 shows that the loop currents flow through the stator winding
the name radio compass has come to be replaced by automatic of a goniometer (resolver) where, providing the characteristics of each
direction finder (ADF). circuit are identical, the magnetic field detected by the loop will be
recreated in so far as direction is concerned.

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We
now effectively have a rotating loop antenna in the form of the A vertically polarized signal traveling over non-homogeneous earth
goniometer rotor or search coil. As the rotor turns through 360° and striking reflecting objects, including the ionosphere, can arrive at
there will be two peaks and two nulls of the voltage induced in it. the loop with an appreciable horizontally polarized component. The
The output of the rotor is the input to the ADF receiver, which current in the loop will then be due to two sources, the vertical and
thus sees the rotor as the antenna. Such an arrangement is horizontal components, which will in general give a non-zero resultant
known as a Bellini-Tosi system. null, not necessarily in the direction of the plane of the antenna. This
polarization error dictates that ADF should only be used with ground
wave signals, which in the l.f./m.f. bands are useful for several
hundred miles.

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THE SENSE ANTENNA

The polar diagram of the loop (Fig. 2) snows that the bearing of
the NDB will be given as one of two figures, 1800 apart, since
there are two nulls. In order to determine the correct bearing
further information is needed and this is provided by an Omni-
directional sense antenna. In a vertically polarized field an
antenna, which is Omni-directional in the horizontal plane
should be of a type, which is excited by the electric (E) field of
the t.e.m. wave i.e. a capacitance antenna. The output of such
an antenna will vary with the instantaneous field strength while
the output of a loop antenna varies as the instantaneous rate of
change of field strength (Faraday's Law of induced e.m.f.). As a
consequence, regardless of the direction of the t.e.m. wave, the
sense antenna r.f. output will be in phase quadrature with
respect to the search coil r.f. output. In order to sense the
direction of the NDB the two antenna outputs must be combined
in such a way as either to cancel or reinforce, and so either the
sense or the loop signal must be phase shifted by 90°.

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Now the figure-of-eight polar diagram for the loop can be

thought of as being generated as we consider the output of a
fixed search coil for various NDB bearings or the output of a
rotating search coil for a fixed NDB bearing, either way the
separate halves of the figure-of-eight will be 180° out of phase.
As a consequence, the sense antenna polar diagram will add to
the loop polar diagram for some bearings and subtract for Figure 4 COMPOSITE POLAR DIAGRAM
others. The resultant diagram is a cardiod with only one null,
although not as clearly defined as the nulls for the figure-of-
eight (Fig. 4).

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SIMPLIFIED BLOCK DIAGRAM OPERATION The amplitude modulation is detected in the last stage of a superhet
receiver. The detected output will be either in phase, or in anti-phase,
Automatic direction finding (ADF) is achieved by means of a with the switching oscillator output and so a further 90° phase-shift is
servo loop. The search coil is driven to a stable null position, a required in order to provide a suitable control phase for the
second null being unstable, The search coil output, after servomotor. The motor will drive either clockwise or anticlockwise
amplification, is phase-shifted by 90° so as to be either in phase towards the stable null. When the null is reached there will be no
or out of phase with the sense antenna output, depending on search coil output hence no amplitude modulation of the composite
the direction of the NDB. Prior to adding to the sense signal the signal so the reference phase drive will be zero and the motor will
phase-shifted loop signal is switched in phase in a balanced stop.
modulator at a rate determined by a switching oscillator, usually
somewhere between a 50 Hz and 250 Hz rate. When the Should the servomotor be in such a position that the search coil is at
composite signal is formed in a summing amplifier it will be the unstable null the slightest disturbance will cause the motor to drive
amplitude-modulated at the switching frequency since for one away from this position towards the stable null. The sense of the
half period the two input signals will be in phase while for the connections throughout the system must be correct for the stable null
next half period they will be in anti-phase (see Figure 2). to give the bearing.

A synchro torque transmitter (STTx), mounted on the search coil shaft,

transmits the bearing to a remote indicator.

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FIGURE 5. FIGURE 6.

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INDICATORS:

FIGURE 7 RMI AND RBI FIGURE 8 RMI

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QUADRANTAL ERROR (QE)

QUADRANTAL ERROR RESULTANT D.A.

AREA MOST
Uncorrected, this is the greatest cause of error when a loop is AFFECTED BY
used on a metal skinned aircraft. SIGNAL
D.A. 0450 (R)

Not only does the selected NDB's signal induce voltages into DIRECTION OF RE-
the ADF aerial, it will also excite the airframe, if made of metal, RADIATED FIELD
causing circulating currents to flow in the skin. These currents
produce their own fields and some energy is re-radiated from
the skin in all directions.

This re-radiated energy is contained in what is known as the

'Fuselage Augmented Field', (F.A.F.), and part of it will be
picked up by the loop aerial. Unfortunately, its direction of arrival
is not likely to coincide with the OA of the main transmission.
This means that the loop aerial will see a direction of arrival
LOOP AERIAL
which is the resultant of these two.

Considering the two signals vectorially, Fig. 1 shows a likely

relationship for an NOB at about 045o(R).

FIGURE 9 QE

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Now, let's look at this relationship again, but this time for an
NDB at, say, l35o. See Fig.9A. If we applied the principle used in Figs. 9, and 9A , to situations
involving all relative bearing angles, we would find that the pointer
would show no error at 000o (R), 090o(R), 180o (R), and 270o (R), and
maximum error near the centers of the four quadrants.

For this reason, the error caused by the Fuselage Augmented Field is
called 'Quadrantal Error', or Q.E.

The quadrantal error associated with a conventionally shaped aircraft

is shown in Fig. 9B. Such a pattern of errors requires what is termed
positive correction.

FIGURE 9A FIGURE 9B

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QUADRANTAL ERROR CORRECTION

Q.E. Correction for Fixed Loops

Fixed loop Q.E. correction is achieved by electrical means since

the effect of the fuselage augmented field on a fixed loop is to
make the fore and aft coil appear to be over sensitive, and
reduction of this sensitivity is achieved by electrical means. Fig.
6 shows how, on a conventional aircraft, the fore and aft coil
appears more sensitive.

APPARENT D.A.
TO F.A.F
(a) (b)
0
D.A. 045 (R) D.A. 0450 (R)

H-FIELD
HI-FIELD
TRANSVERSE
COIL
TRANSVERSE
COIL

FORCE AND AFT COIL FORCE AND AFT COIL

FIGURE 9C

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From Fig. 6(b) we can see that the effect of the fuselage LOOP ALIGNMENT ERROR
augmented field is to increase the component of the H-field
which is affecting the fore and aft loop. But for a signal from If the longitudinal loop plane is not parallel to the aircraft longitudinal
04So(R) we would expect each coil to be affected equally by it. axis then a constant loop alignment error will exist.
Clearly then, the effect of F.A.F. has been to make the fore and
aft coil appear to be too sensitive, so that more voltage will be
induced into it than into the transverse coil.

We have only looked at its effect in the first quadrant, but a LOOP ALIGNMENT ERROR
similar examination of the other three will show that in each
case the fore and aft coil appears more sensitive.

Correction for Q.E. will, as I have already indicated, be

electrically achieved. All that is necessary is to reduce the
sensitivity of the fore and aft coil.

FIGURE 10 LOOP ALIGNMENT ERROR

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FIELD ALIGNMENT ERROR

If the loop antenna is offset from the aircraft center line, the
maxima of the Quadrantal error will be shifted, as will the zeros.
Consequently, the situation where the NDB is at a relative
bearing of 0,90, 180 or 270° will not give zero error.

FIGURE 11 LOOP ALIGNMENT ERROR

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FIGURE 11

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CONTROLS AND OPERATION Frequency Select Knobs

Three knobs are used; one is mounted co-axially with the function
switch, to select frequency in 0.5, 10 and 100 kHz increments. Digital
type frequency display segments indicate the selected frequency. The
information is passed to the receiver as parallel b.c.d.

Beat Frequency Oscillator Switch

Selects the BFO for use when the NDB selected is identified by on-off
keying of the carrier.

A number of other switches may be found on various controllers, as

briefly described in opposite column.

FIGURE 12 Function Switch: OFF-ANT-ADF-LOOP

Function Switch. OFF-ANT-ADF An extra position of the function switch may be provided to operate the
receiver from the loop aerial only. This position, LOOP, would be used
In the antenna position (ANT) the receiver operates from the in conjunction with a loop control.
sense antenna only, the bearing pointer being parked at 90°
relative bearing. This position may be used for tuning and
NDB/station identification. In the ADF position signals from both
loop and sense antenna provides normal ADF operation, the
RMI indicating the bearing of the station.

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Loop Control: Spring loaded to off

When operated clockwise or anticlockwise the search coil

rotates in the selected direction. This control can be used for
manual direction finding, the search coil being rotated until an
audio null is achieved or, if provided, a visual tuning indicator
indicates a null. Although not used in most modern equipments
this does have the advantage over ADF that the nulls are
sharper; ADF operation would have to be used to sense the
correct null.

Gain Control

An audio gain control is usually provided and may be annotated

volume. On at least one system the gain of the R.F. amps is
manually adjustable when ANT or LOOP is selected, whereas
audio gain is controlled on ADF.

Frequency Selection

Range: 190.1750 kHz; spacing: 0.5 kHz; channeling time less

than 4 s; parallel b.c.d. frequency selection with provision for
serial b.c.d.

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13.4.4.4 GLOBAL POSITIONG SYSTEM (GPS)

PRINCIPLE

The global positioning system (GPS) is a radio aid to worldwide

navigation, which uses signals broadcast by satellites.

The architecture of the system is composed of 3 segments.

INERTIAL SEGMENT

Is composed of a constellation of 24 satellites (21 always

available)

Operation frequency: 1515.4 MHz

The satellites are dispatched on 6 circular orbits of 4 satellites

each

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FIGURE 1 GPS SPACE SEGMENT

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CONTROL SEGMENT USER SEGMENT

The control segment is composed of 4 monitor stations and 1 The principle of GPS position computation is based on the
measurement of transmission time of the GPS signals broadcast by 4
master control station which pursue the satellites, compute the satellites.
ephemerides and clock corrections, and transmit at regular
intervals an information message for the GPS users. For a boat, only 3 satellites would be enough to obtain its position,
while for a user on the move, a fourth satellite is necessary to
synchronize the aircraft and satellite clocks.
The 4 monitor stations are located at:

 KWAJALEIN The user equipment is generally defined by 3 principle functions,

which are:
 HAWAII
 UHF reception: antennae, amplification and filtering
 ASCENCION ISLAND
 Signal processing: pseudo distance obtaining.
 DIEGO GARCIA
 Navigation computation: constellation choice, propagation
The master control station is located at:
corrections, positioning and navigation data computation.

 COLORADO SPRINGS.

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PRIMARY MEANS OF NAVIGATION RAIM (Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring):

As long as the GPS is considered to be the primary means of The purpose of the RAIM function is to provide an instantaneous
navigation, the GPS/FMS position can be used as the position integrity estimation of the computed GPIRS I GPS position. For that
reference without navigation accuracy check. purpose, the GPSSU uses all satellites that are tracked except those
currently declared as failed.

For that purpose the GPS PRIMARY shall meet certain

requirements:

 Navigation accuracy:

 Provided data integrity;

 System availability;

 Service continuity;

 Display and annunciation capability

(Status, navigation accuracy and warning).

To match these requirements, solutions have been developed: FIGURE 2 RECIEVER AUTONOUS INTEGRITY
MONITORING

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PRAIM (predictive Autonomous Integrity Monitoring):

The PRAIM is used to predict the GPS constellation integrity, at

a certain time and position, requested by the user through the
PREDICTIVE GPS page on the control and display unit. The
GPS almanac database is used to predict which satellites will
be visible at the requested time and position. It is possible to
manually deselect up to 4 satellites through the PREDICTIVE
GPS page of the control and display unit.

AIME (autonomous Integrity Monitoring Extrapolation)

The AIME function uses the history of GPS measurements over

the last 30 minutes to ensure GPIRS integrity (it estimates
satellite errors that occurred during the last 30 min). AIME
updates GPIRS position every 2.5 min when the integrity is
verified.

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SUPPLEMENTAL MEANS OF NAVIGATION

The GPS position shall be used in conjunction with the IRS

position. The current navigation modes in priority for a modern
aircraft such as the A 330, manufactured by AIRBUS
INDUSTRIE would be as follows:

IRS /GPS (GPIRS)

IRS / DME / DME

IRS / VOR / DME

IRS only

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INDICATIONS
GPS APP green message.
There are two categories of GPS information:
This message is displayed when a GPS approach is selected in the
 Those permanently needed and flight plan.

 Those occasionally used.

PERMANENTLY NEEDED GPS INFORMATION: This message is displayed when a GPS approach is selected in the
flight plan.
This information is only displayed if the GPS is fitted with
primary means of navigation capability.

GPS PRIMARY- white message.

This message is displayed when the GPS becomes primary.

This message can be cleared from the control and display unit.

GPS PRIMARY LOST- amber message.

This message is displayed when the GPS primary availability is

lost. However, in function of the required accuracy and integrity
required for the intended operation, the GPS can be used as an
alternate navigation means.

An aural alert is generated in case of a non-precision approach.

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FIGURE 3

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OCCASIONALY NEEDED GPS INFORMATION:

PREDICTIVE RAIM (Optional)

Enables prediction of the RAIM computation

availability at destination, from - 15 to +15 min
around the pilot modifiable ETA (Estimated Time
of Arrival) and location.

GPS MONITOR PAGE on the control and display unit

The displayed data are:

 GPS position (lat/long)

 True Track
 Figure of merit (meter)
 Ground Speed
 Mode.

IRS/GPIRS MONITORING

Provides the raw data of the selected IRS, the hybrid GPIRS
position and estimated accuracy.

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GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM The pilot defines the route from the origin to the destination by data
entry into the Multifunction Control Display Unit (MCDU)
Using information provided by a constellation of 24 satellites
(the HT 1000 is able to track up to 12 satellites at a time),
GNSS is an automatic tri dimensional (lat, long, altitude)
location and navigation means.

FIGURE 4

GPS can give three-dimensional position measurements

accurate to within 50 ft (15m).

The HT1000 GNSS provides full flight navigation system that

performs navigation and route planning.
FIGURE 5 MCDU
It reduces the workload in route planning, navigation, aircraft
guidance and monitoring of flight progress.

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GPS Antenna

The Omni directional GPS antenna is installed on the top of the aircraft
fuselage. It receives, amplifies and conditions signal from all GPS
satellites in view. The antenna transmits these signals to the GPS
receiver in the NPU.

Navigation Processor Unit

The NPU is the processing unit of GNSS. It contain the GPS receiver,
computers, navigation data base and the required external system
interface.
FIGURE 6. Flight plan
Multifunction Control Display Unit

The HT1000 GNSS system provides automated en route and The MCDU is the interface between the pilot and GNSS. It is used to
terminal area guidance along defined procedures including enter, monitor and revise routes, to display information, and to select
Standard Instrument Departures (SID), Standard Terminal operational modes.
Arrival Routes (STAR) approaches, and holding patterns.
Data Loader (Optional)
It can fly lateral offsets to the defined path.
Data loader is used to update the GNSS system software and data
During Flight, the guidance function compares the aircraft actual files.
position with the desired flight path and generates steering
commands to the autopilot.

Direct guidance is also provided from the aircraft present

position to any flight waypoint.

In addition, the HT1000 computes predicted arrival times at Additional Display

waypoint along the route and to the flight’s destination.
EFIS, EHSI in map mode can display multiple waypoint from GNSS.
GNSS COMPONENTS NAV source annunciator identifies the source. This information is in
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FIGURE 7

blue when only one crew member uses GNSS. It becomes

amber when both Capt and F/O use GNSS as navigation
source.
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13.4.4.5 INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM BASIC PRINCIPLES

INTRODUCTION TO ILS: Directional radio beams, modulated so as to enable airborne

equipment to identify the beam centers, define the correct approach
path to a particular runway. In addition, vertical directional beams
In order to be able to land the aircraft safely under visual flight provide spot checks of distance to go on the approach. The total
rules (VFR), i.e. without any indication from instruments as to system comprises three parts, each with a transmitter on the ground
the aircraft's position relative to the desired approach path, the and receiver and signal processor in the aircraft. Lateral steering is
pilot must have at least 3 miles horizontal visibility with a ceiling provided by the localizer for both front-course and back-course
not less than 1000 ft. approaches; the glide slope provides vertical steering for the front
course only while marker beacons give the distance checks.
One method of aiding the pilot in the approach to an airport is to
use a precision approach radar (PAR) system whereby the air
traffic controller, having the aircraft 'on radar', can give guidance
over the v.h.f.-r.t

The basic system has remained unchanged ever since but

increased accuracy and reliability have resulted in landing-
minimum visibility conditions being reduced.

The ICAO has defined three categories of visibility, the third of

Which is subdivided. All categories are defined in terms of
runway visual range (RVR) and, except Category lll, decision
height (DH), below which the pilot must have visual contact
with the runway or abort the landing

The ILS equipment is categorized using the same Roman

numerals and letters according to its operational capabilities.

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LOCALIZER:

The beacon is situated such that the above criterion is met and
Forty channels are allocated at 50 kHz spacing in the band the course sector is less than 6°. Outside the course sector the
108.10.111.95 MHz using only those frequencies where the d.d.m. is not less than 0.155.
tenths of a megacycle count is odd; so, for example 108.10 and
108.15 MHz are localizer channels while 108.20 and 108.25
MHz are not. Those channels in the band not used for localizer The airborne equipment detects the 90 and 150 Hz tones and
are allocated to VOR. The coverage of the beacon will normally hence causes a deviation indicator to show a fly-left or fly-right
be as shown by the hatched parts of Fig. 1, but topographical command. Full-scale deflection is achieved when the d.d.m. is
features may dictate a restricted coverage whereby the ± 10° 0.155, i.e. the aircraft is 2-3° off course.
sector may be reduced to 18 nautical miles range. .
Provided the pilot flies to keep the command bar at zero, or the
The horizontally polarized radiated carrier is modulated by tones autopilot flies to keep the d.d.m. zero, the aircraft will approach
of 90 and 150 Hz such that an aircraft to the left of the extended the runway threshold along the course line.
centerline will be in a region where the 90 Hz modulation
predominates. Along the center line an airborne localizer In addition to the 90 and 150 Hz tones the localizer carrier is
receiver will receive the carrier modulated to a depth of 20 modulated with an identification tone of 1020 Hz and possibly
percent by both 90 and 150 Hz tones. Deviation from the (exceptionally category 111) voice modulation for ground-to-air
centerline is given in d.d.m. (Difference in depth of modulation), communication. The identification of a beacon consists of two or three
i.e. the percentage modulation of the larger signal minus the letters transmitted by keying the 1020 Hz tone so as to give a Morse
percentage modulation of the smaller signal divided by 100. The code representation. The identification is transmitted not less than six
localizer course sector is defined as that sector in the horizontal times per minute when the localizer is operational.
plane containing the course line (extended center line) and
limited by the lines on which there is a d.d.m. of 0.155. change
in d.d.m. is linear for ± 105 m along the line perpendicular to the
course line and passing through the ILS datum point on the
runway threshold; these points 105 m from the course line lie on
the
0.155 d.d.m. lines, as shown in Fig.2.

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GLIDESLOPE confusion the glideslope beam should be 'captured' from below.

Glideslope channels are in the u.h.f. band, specifically 328.6 - Once in the correct beam fly-up and fly-down signals are
335.4 MHz at 150 kHz spacing. Each of the forty frequencies indicated to the pilot in much the same way as with the localizer.
allocated to the glideslope system is paired with a localizer Figure 1 illustrates a fly-up command of just over half-scale
frequency, the arrangement being that localizer and glideslope deflection. The glideslope output is more sensitive than localizer
beacons serving the same runway will have frequencies taken in that typically a 1/2° off the glide path will give full-scale
from the table. Pilot selection of the required localizer frequency deflection (about 0.175 d.d.m.) compared with about 2 1/2 off the
on the controller will cause both localizer and glideslope course line for full-scale deflection.
receivers to tune to the appropriate paired frequencies.

The principle of glideslope operation is similar to that of localizer

in that the carrier is modulated with 90 and 150 Hz tones. Above
the correct glidepath the 90 Hz modulation predominates while
on the correct glidepath the d.d.m. is zero, both tones giving a
40 percent depth of modulation. The coverage and beam
characteristics shown in Figs 2 and 3 are given in terms of the
glidepath angle, typically 2 1 – 3°.

Category I facilities may have asymmetrical upper and lower

sectors, the figure of 0.0875 d.d.m. corresponding to an angular
displacement of between 0.070 and 0.140 θ. By contrast a
category III facility is as shown in Fig. 2 with a tolerance of ±
0.02 θ on the 0.12 θ lines.

Although d.d.m. = 0 lines occur at 2 θ, 3 θ and 4 θ, they are not

stable in the sense that if the pilot obeys the steering
commands he will not maintain the corresponding angles of
descent. The first stable null occurs at 5 θ which for a glide path
of 3° is at 15°. This is sufficiently different from the desired
descent angle to create few problems; however, to avoid

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MARKER BEACONS

A marker beacon radiates directly upwards using a carrier

frequency of 75 MHz The modulating signal depends on the
function of the marker. An airways, fan or 'Z' marker is a position
aid for en-route navigation located on airways or at holding
points. As such it is not part of ILS. The carrier is modulated
with a 3000 Hz signal which causes a white lamp to flash in the
aircraft while station identification in Morse code is fed to the
AIS.

The outer marker is normally located 4 1/2 miles from the

runway threshold. The carrier is amplitude-modulated by 400 Hz
keyed to give two dashes per second which can be heard via
the AIS and causes a blue (or purple) lamp to flash.

The middle marker is located 3500 ft from the runway threshold.

The carrier is amplitude-modulated by 1300 Hz keyed to give a
dot-dash pair 95 times per minute, which can be heard via the
AIS and causes an amber lamp to flash.

The ILS marker beam widths are sufficiently wide in the plane
perpendicular to the course line to cover the course sector.

PIC ADD

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SIMPLIFIED BLOCK DIAGRAM OPERATION

Since the localizer and VOR frequencies occupy the same band
it is normal to have a v.h.f. navigation receiver which selects,
amplifies and detects signals from either aid, depending on the
frequency selected.

Figure 1 illustrates the basic block diagram of a localizer

receiver. A conventional single or double superhet is employed.
A.g.c. is important since an increase in the 90 and 150 Hz
output signals by the same factor would increase the magnitude
of the difference, so giving more deflection of the deviation
indicator for the same d.d.m. Signal separation is achieved by
three filters: audio, 90 and 150 Hz. The audio signal,
identification and possibly voice, is passed via audio amplifiers
(incorporating a noise limiter) to the AIS. The 90 and 150 Hz
signals are full wave rectified; the difference between the
rectifier outputs driving the deviation indication while the sum
drives the flag out of view.

The 90 and 150 Hz filters, together with the rectifiers and any
associated circuitry, are often part of the so-called VOR/LOC
converter, which may be within the v.h.f. navigation receiver or
a separate unit. A combined converter will usually employ active
filters which serve as either 30 Hz bandpass filters for VOR
operation or 90/150 Hz band pass filters for localizer operation.

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The glide path receiver converter block diagram is similar to that

of the localizer except that the audio channel is not required. A
separate receiver may be used or all navigation circuitry may be
within the same unit. In any event" separate antennas are used
for localizer and glidepath.

The marker is fixed tuned to 75 MHz and may employ a t.r.f.

(tuned radio frequency) or superhet receiver. The detected
audio is fed to three filters for tone separation and also amplified
and fed to the AIS. The filter which gives in output causes the
appropriate lamp-switching circuit to give an interrupted d.c.
output to drive the associated lamp.

When switched to Hi the sensitivity of the receiver is such that it

responds to airways marker beacons even though the aircraft is
at a relatively high altitude. With high sensitivity there is a
danger that when at lower altitudes, for example when flying
over the outer and middle markers on approach, the lamps may
be lit for longer than the maximum of 10 s. It is even possible for
the outer and middle marker lamps to be lit simultaneously. To
avoid this, low sensitivity is selected, whereby an attenuator (10
dB) is placed in line with the receiver input. Switching may take
place at 10,000 ft.

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ILS ANTENNAS

Antenna arrangements vary between different types of aircraft.

Mention of combined VOR/ Localizer antennas has been made
in Chapters but the glideslope and marker antennas will always
be separate. As an example of a large passenger aircraft,
consider the Boeing 747. Three VOR/ILS receivers are installed
fed by one V-type VOR antenna at the top of the vertical
stabilizer, two dual localizer antennas in the nose and a total of
six glideslope antennas in the nose-wheel doors. One marker
beacon receiver is installed, fed by a flush-mounted antenna on
the bottom centerline of the aircraft.

The localizer antennas are mounted above and below the FIGURE 3
weather radar scanner. The lower antenna feeds receivers 2
and I while receiver 3 is fed from the upper antenna. Antenna
switching between VOR and localizer aerials is achieved by
either solid state or electromechanical switches mounted behind
the VOR/ILS receivers.

The six glideslope antennas are split into two groups of three,
one group in each nose-wheel door. A non-tunable slot (track
antenna) dual unit is installed in each door leading edge while
two tunable arrays (capture antennas) are mounted on the sides FIGURE 4
of each door. A total of four hybrid antenna couplers combine
the r .f .outputs of the glideslope antennas providing suitable
impedance matching.

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CONTROLS AND OPERATION

Normally a combined VOR/ILS/DME controller is employed (Fig.

3). Such a controller was briefly described earlier. The marker
receiver switching is likely to be remote from the combined
controller and its action has been described above.

In use the glide path should be captured from below,

approaching from a direction determined by the approach
procedures for the particular airfield. The marker sensitivity
should be on low for the approach. The appropriate selection
should be made on the audio control panel.

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Sensitivity is such that the flag should clear with a 5 µV 'hard' input
SUMMARY signal ('hard' µV: the output of a signal generator calibrated in terms of
CHARACTERISTICS open circuit load).
The receiver should be protected against undesired localizer signals,
The basis for the following is ARINC Characteristic 578- VOR signals and v.h.f. comm. signals. The a.g.c. should be such that
3although much of the detail has been omitted and not all the receiver output should not vary by more than 3db with an input
sections covered. signal level range of 15-100 m V.

Units Glide slope Receiver

The receiver should contain all the electronic circuitry necessary Forty channels at 150 kHz spacing, 328.6 – 335.4 MHz
to provide deviation and flag signals for both localizer and Channels to be paired with localizer channels for frequency
glideslope. The control unit should provide for frequency selection purposes. The selectivity is specified in a similar way
selection of ILS, VOR and DME using 2/5 coding. to localizer but the 60 db points are at ± 80 kHz while the 6 db
points are at ± 21 kHz. The flag should clear with a 20 µV 'hard'
Antennas signal. Protection against unwanted glide slope signals must be
guaranteed. The a.g.c. should be such that the input signal level
Separate localizer and glideslope antennas should be provided to the tone filters should not vary by more than + 1/2 to - 2 db for an
covering the appropriate frequency bands (108.00-112.00 MHz increase in input from 200 to 20,000 µV and should not vary by more
and 328.6-335.4 MHz respectively) and both having than + 3, -2 db thereafter up to an input of 100,000µV.
characteristic impedances of 50 Ω with a VSWR of less than 5:
1. Deviation Outputs

Power Supply : 115 V, 400 Hz, single phase. Localizer: high-Level 2 V for 0.155 d.d.m., low-Level 150 mV for 0.155
d.d.m. Dual outputs in parallel for AFCS. Output characteristics should
Localizer Receiver not vary for loads between 200 Ω and no
load. When 90 Hz predominates the 'hot' side of all deviation
Forty channels at 50 kHz spacing 108.00 - 111.95 MHz outputs should be positive with respect to the 'common' side; in
Maximum channel time 60 ms. Selectivity is such that a carrier this case 'fly-left' is given.
modulated 30 per cent at 1000 Hz should provide an output at
least 60 db down when separated from tuned frequency by ± Glide slope: similar to localizer but high-Level and low-Level
31.5 kHz; response should be within 6 db when carrier within ± outputs are 2 V and 150 mV respectively for 0.175 d.d.m.
12 kHz of tuned frequency.

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Flag Outputs

Two high-Level warning signals (super flag) and one low-level

warning signal should be provided by both localizer and glide
path receivers. The high-level flag characteristic is 28 V d.c. for
valid status with current capabilities; 25 mA for AFCS warning;
250 mA for instrument warnings. The low-level flag should
provide a voltage of between 300 and 900 mV into up to five
parallel 1000 Ω loads.

Monitoring

Warning signals when: no r.f., either 90 or 150 Hz missing, total

depth of modulation of composite 90/150 Hz signal is less than
28 per cent, etc.

modulation of composite 90/150 Hz signal is less than 28 per

cent, etc.

en: no r.f., either 90 or 150 Hz missing, total depth of

modulation of composite 90/150 Hz signal is less than 28 per
cent,etc.

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13.4.4.5(A) MLS SYSTEM DESCRIPTION ILS LIMITATIONS

The time-referenced scanning beam Microwave Landing The Instrument Landing System (ILS) has served as the
System (MLS) has been adopted by ICAO as the standard standard precision approach and landing aid for the last 40 years.
precision approach system to replace ILS. MLS provides During this time it has served well and has undergone a number of
precision navigation guidance for alignment and descent of improvements to increase its performance and reliability. However, in
aircraft on approach to a landing by providing azimuth, elevation relation to future
and distance. The system may be divided into five functions:

1) Approach azimuth; aviation requirements,

2) Back azimuth; the ILS has a number of basic limitations
3) Approach elevation;
4) Range; and 1) Site sensitivity and high installation costs;
5) Data communications 2) Single approach path;
3) Multi path interference; and
4) Channel limitations - 40 channels only
With the exception of DME, all MLS signals are transmitted on a
single frequency through time sharing. Two hundred channels
are available between 5031 and 5090.6 Megahertz (MHz). By
transmitting a narrow beam which sweeps across the coverage
area at a fixed scan rate, both azimuth and elevation may be
calculated by an airborne receiver which measures the time
interval between sweeps. For the pilot, the MLS presentation
will be similar to ILS with the use of a standard CDI or multi-
function display,

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10) Elimination of service interruptions caused by snow
MLS ADVANTAGES accumulation; and

As previously mentioned, ILS has limitations which prohibit or 11) Lower site preparation, repair, and maintenance costs
restrict its use in many circumstances. MLS not only eliminates
these problems; but also offers many advantages over ILS APPROACH AZIMUTH GUIDANCE
including
The approach azimuth antenna normally provides a lateral
1) Elimination of ILS/FM broadcast interference problems; coverage of 40º either side of the center of scan (see MLS Azimuth
and Elevation Coverage figure). Coverage is reliable to a minimum of
2) Provision of all-weather coverage up to ±60 degrees 20 NM from the runway threshold and to a height of 20,000 feet (ft).
from runway centerline, from 0.9 degree to 15 degrees The antenna is normally located about 1000 feet beyond the end of
in elevation, and out of 20 nautical miles (NM); the runway.

3) Capability to provide precision guidance to small landing BACK AZIMUTH GUIDANCE

areas such as roof-top heliports;
The back azimuth antenna provides lateral guidance for missed
4) Continuous availability of a wide range of glide paths to approach and departure navigation. The back azimuth
accommodate STOL and VTOL aircraft and helicopters; transmitter is essentially the same as the approach azimuth
transmitter.
5) Accommodation of both segments and curved
approaches;

6) Availability of 200 channels - five times more than ILS;

7) Potential reduction of Category I (CAT l) minimums;

8) Improved guidance quality with fewer flight path

corrections required;

9) Provision of back-azimuth for missed approaches and

departure guidance;

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On runways that have MLS approaches on both ends, the ELEVATION GUIDANCE
Azimuth equipment can be switched in their operation from the
approach azimuth to the back azimuth and vice versa. The MLS The elevation station transmits signals on the same frequency as the
Azimuth and Elevation Coverage figure, shows MLS azimuth azimuth station. The elevation transmitter is normally located about
coverage volumes. 400 ft from the side of the runway between the threshold and the
touchdown zone.

RANGE GUIDANCE

Range guidance, consistent with the accuracy provided by the azimuth

and elevation stations, is provided by the MLS precision DME
(DME/P). DME/P has an accuracy of +100 ft as compared, with +
1200 ft accuracy of the standard DME system. In the future it may be
necessary to deploy DME/P with modes which could be incompatible
with standard airborne DME receivers.

DATA COMMUNICATIONS

The azimuth ground station includes data transmission in its signal

format which includes both basic and auxiliary data. Basic data may
include approach azimuth track and minimum glide path angle.
Auxiliary data may include additional approach information such as
runway condition, wind-shear or weather.

FIGURE 1 MLS ELEVATIONS

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reflected alternately by the Earth and the ionosphere, in TM
13.4.4.6 VLF AND HYPERBOLIC NAVIGATION (transverse magnetic) mode.
VLF waves have very low path attenuation, 2-3 dB per 1000 km, with
VERY LOW FREQUENCY (VLF) little of the "fading" experienced at higher frequencies, This is because
INTRODUCTION: Very low frequency or VLF is for radio VLF waves are reflected from the bottom of the ionosphere, while
frequencies (RF) in the range of 3 to 30 kilohertz (kHz), higher frequency shortwave signals are returned to Earth from higher
corresponding to wavelengths from 100 to 10 kilometers, layers in the ionosphere, the F1 and F2 layers, by a refraction process,
respectively. The band has the wavelengths range from one to and spend most of their journey in the ionosphere, so they are much
ten kilometers. Due to its limited bandwidth, audio (voice) more affected by ionization gradients and turbulence. Therefore, VLF
transmission is highly impractical in this band, and therefore transmissions are very stable and reliable, and are used for long
only low data rate coded signals are used. The VLF band is distance communication. Propagation distances of 5000 to 20000 km
used for a few radio navigation services, government time radio have been realized. However, atmospheric noise is high in the
stations (broadcasting time signals to set radio clocks) and for band, including such phenomena as "whistlers", caused by lightning.
secure military communication. Since VLF waves can penetrate VLF waves can penetrate seawater to a depth of at least 10 to 40
at least 40 meters (120 ft) into saltwater, they are used meters (30 to 130 feet), depending on the frequency employed and the
for military communication with submarines. salinity of the water, so they are used to communicate with
submarines.
VLF waves at certain frequencies have been found to cause electron
PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS:
precipitation. VLF waves used to communicate with submarines have
created an artificial bubble around the Earth that can protect it
Because of their large wavelengths, VLF radio waves
from solar flares and coronal mass ejections; this occurred through
can diffract around large obstacles and so are not blocked by
interaction with high-energy radiation particles.
mountain ranges or the horizon and can propagate as ground
waves following the curvature of the Earth. The main mode of
long distance propagation is an Earth-ionosphere
waveguide mechanism. The Earth is surrounded by a
conductive layer of electrons and ions in the upper atmosphere
at the bottom of the ionosphere called the D layer at 60 to
90 km (37 to 56 miles) altitude, which reflects VLF radio waves.
The conductive ionosphere and the conductive Earth form a
horizontal "duct" a few VLF wavelengths high, which acts as
a waveguide confining the waves so they don't escape into
space. The waves travel in a zigzag path around the Earth,

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HYPERBOLIC NAVIGATION

INTRODUCTION

Navigation achieved through measuring the phase of CW

signals received from -two or more ground transmitting stations,
when the frequency of the signals is such that all points where HYPERBO
the signals are in phase in space may be plotted on suitable
charts. By measuring the phase difference of these signals
a
when received by the aircraft, the navigator is able to determine
his location on a line of position (lop), between two in-phase
position lines.

These position lines may be intersecting circles or hyperbolic b

a - b = a -b a
lines, giving rise to CW rho-rho or rho-rho-rho navigation, and
hyperbolic navigation methods.

HYPERBOLIC NAVIGATION Fig. 1 PLOTTING A HYPERBOLIC POSITION LINE

If two points on the earth's surface have a sequence of The locus of a point which moves such that the difference in distance
concentric circles drawn around them, each circle representing from two fixed points is a constant will describe a hyperbola.
a particular distance from the fixed centre, then where the
circles intersect each other such that the difference between the By plotting the lines for several different constants we will obtain a
distances from each transmitter to points of intersection is family of hyperbolic lines as in Fig. 2 on the next page.
constant, we can plot a family of hyperbolic curves. Fig. 1
illustrates how a hyperbolic line of position may be drawn.

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Difference in range rather than absolute range, so that a By using two transmitters at the same frequency and synchronized, a
suitable airborne receiver will need to be able to measure the measurement of the difference in phase of the two received signals
difference in phase of signals received from two ground station. will show in-phase situations every half wavelength along a line joining
the transmitters, this is called the base line.
The problem with phase measuring systems is that range can
only be determined if the whole number of cycles of e.m CONTINUOUS WAVE RHO-RHO AND RHO-RHO-RHO
radiation between the aircraft and the transmitting station is
known. This is because To measure the phase of a received signal, a suitable reference
the phase repeats itself every cycle and the receiver will need to frequency must be generated for comparison purposes, within the
know in which cycle it is actually measuring the phase. receiver.

Consider the diagram in Fig. 6 on the next page. Let the phase of the
reference frequency generated by the aircraft's receiver be ør, the
phase of the received signal when the aircraft is at point A be øa, and
the measured difference in these phases be øm. Then for an aircraft at
point A, øm = øa - ør. Similarly, when the aircraft is at point B, we have
øm = øb - ør. The change in phase which takes place as the aircraft
flies from point A to point B will provide a measure of the change in
range, such that:-
1 CYCLE
Øm= (øa- ør) – (øb – ør)
 øm= øa - øb
Fig. 2 RECEIVED SIGNAL PHASE MEASUREMENTS

The aircraft illustrated in Fig. 2 measures the phase of the

received signal from the station at A, transmitting at say, 10
KHz. The wavelength  of the signal is given by C/F where e is
the speed of light and f is the frequency of the signal. Thus  is
approximately 16 nautical miles. If the phase of the signal
measured by the aircraft is 270.

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Errors caused by changes in phase offset can be minimized in three

ways, which are:-

 By using the difference in synchronized in phase between

signals from transmitters, in which case any change in
STATION B A reference phase cancels out. This is the hyperbolic approach.

AT A  Using a precision reference oscillator of atomic clock standard

AT B on the aircraft, thus reducing drift to negligible proportions
during flight. This is the rho-rho approach.
ør
ør  Estimating the phase offset throughout the flight by utilizing
signals from two or more transmitters. This is the rho-rho-rho
approach.

øa
øb

BETWEEN A AND B øm=øa – øb

Fig. 3 CHANGES IN MEASURED PRASE WITH AIRCRAFT

MOVEMENT

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13.4.4.7 DOPPLER NAVIGATION DOPPLER DISTANCES

INTRODUCTION The main displayed quantities in a Doppler navigation system are:-

 Distance to go - or just 'along distance'.

HEADING  Distance off track - or just 'across distance'.

GROUND
DOPPLER
DOPPLER SET
RADER
DOPPLER
NAVIGATION DISTANCE
RADER DRIFT
COMPUTER
SET
ANGLE TRACK DISTANCE DESIRED
OFF TRACK TRACK
DESTINATION
A B
DISTANC DISTANCE
E OFF TRACK DISTANCE TO GO
Fig:1
Fig:2
A Doppler navigation system can be thought of as two separate
sub-systems, a Doppler radar and a Doppler navigation
computer (and display). This is A Doppler navigation system
can be thought of as two separate sub-systems, a Doppler
radar and a Doppler navigation computer (and display). This is
illustrated in Fig. 1

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An aircraft is required to fly from A to B. The desired track is the NAVIGATION VARIABLES :
direction of the destination, B, with respect to the departure
point, A, measured as an angle clockwise from magnetic North,
as Let the across distance be X and the along distance be Y. N (M)
100 nm
Y
B Y

750
X

DESIRED TRACK
A
X
By Pythagoras' Theorem the distance from the aircraft to the
destination is:- 900

The square root of (x2 + y2) HEADING

350
C

ACTUAL TRACK

.
Fig. 3 shows a particular situation diagram which assigns values to the
navigational variable involved in the calculation.

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In Fig. 3 we have:- COMPUTATION OF DISTANCES

Track error angle = actual track - desired track

= 125 - 75 Now as we have seen, the distances of interest are along and across
the desired track. This means if we could measure the actual distance
= 50 degrees. flown, then we could resolve this about the track error angle to give:-

There is obviously a side wind blowing the aircraft off its  Across distance = distance flown x cos (track error)
heading so as to make the actual track different from the
 Along distance = total distance to fly – distance flown x sin
heading, giving:-
(track error).
Drift angle = actual track - heading
Distance flown = speed x time.
= 125 - 90

=35 degrees to starboard

That this is so can be seen by considering the units of speed which, in
aircraft navigation, are knots or nautical miles per hour. If we multiply
by the time in hours, then the units of time 'cancel' and we are left with
nautical miles, the unit of distance.

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 S1xt1+ S2 x t2 + S3 x t3 nm.
Now an aircraft does not fly at a constant speed in a constant
direction, so to apply the above idea of multiplying speed by If we imagine the time intervals shrinking to virtually nothing so that the
time to get distance we must split up the path of the aircraft into flight path is made up of much very small straight line, constant speed
small straight-line parts, over each of which the speed is parts, then to add the products of S1 x t1 up we must turn to the
constant. An example is shown in Fig. 4 below, where three process of integration. Symbolically the total distance flown in T hours
such straight line paths are shown. The desired track is from A is:-
to B, the actual route of the aircraft is ACDB, flying:-
T
 Distance = ∫ s dt nm
 A to C at a speed of s1 knots for t1 hours at a track error O
angle of δ1 degrees. The symbol ∫ means integrate and, as we've seen, this involves, in this
case, adding up lots of speed/time products, S1 x t1.
 C to D at a speed of S2 knots for t2 hours at a track error
angle of δ2 degrees. The symbol dot stands for a very short period of time, so we are
adding up lots of S1 x dots. There is no need for you to be able to carry
out the mathematical operation of integration, but you should
recognize the symbol and have an idea of what it means, since
integration is a Common form of signal processing in many
equipments, not just Doppler.
 D to B at a speed of S3 knots for t3 hours at a track error
angle of δ3 degrees.

C
S1. t1

A B

S2. t2 S3. t3

D
Fig. 4 AN AIRCRAFT FLIGHTPATH EXAMPLE

The total distance flown is:-

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DOPPLER RADAR

The outputs of the Doppler radar part of the system are the There is a disadvantage in this approach, in that errors in the
ground speed and the drift angle. It follows that the function of computation cannot be eliminated by the system. If, for example, the
this part of the equipment is to measure these quantities. It does Doppler radar gives a speed output which is less than it should be,
this by applying the principles of the Doppler effect in a primary then the distance flown calculations will be in error. As the flight
radar system. progresses and the low speed measurement persists, so the distance
error becomes worse, since computation is continuously

In the next booklet we will discuss the Doppler effect, which is a

little involved and would put up your study time for this session taking place. There is no chance of correcting the error since the dead
by too much if I included it here. reckoning system cannot measure the aircraft position directly.

There is a variation in some Doppler systems, in that the aircraft The great advantage of Doppler (and inertial navigation, INS) is that
heading is fed to the Doppler radar in which the drift angle is the system is self-contained on the aircraft. No beacon is needed
measured and the actual track derived. In such a case, the feed anywhere on the ground. This means that Doppler is a 'go-anywhere'
from the navigation system.

Doppler radar to the Doppler navigation computer is ground A Doppler system is also capable of great accuracy, usually limited by
speed and actual track. However, the details of what has to be the accuracy of the heading information from the compass. In survey
computed overall remain the same. aircraft which work in remote parts of the world where there are no
beacons, Doppler systems coupled to special compass systems are
DEAD RECKONING often used, usually directly controlling the camera equipment.

The process of computation described in which the position of

the aircraft is computed from measured quantities is known as The use of Doppler on transoceanic flights has been largely
dead reckoning. Note the position is not measured directly as it superseded by INS and Omega.
is effectively in VOR/DME or any of the hyperbolic systems
(Decca, Omega or LORAN). The latest Doppler, for example the Marconi AD 660.

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13.4.4.8 AREA NAVIGATION; RNAV SYSTEM

Area navigation is not new although the acronym RNAV is

relatively recent. Had the Decca navigator been chosen as the
international standard system, RNAV could have been
implemented in the 1950s. Other equipment providing
navigation facilities over a wide area and not tied to fixed points
are Loran and Omega of the ground-based systems, and
Doppler and inertial navigation systems of the self-contained
types. However, all of these systems are more expensive than
VOR/DME which is in widespread use.

The advent of airborne computers has now made possible

sophisticated navigation systems including an RNAV system
based on VOR/DME. This system allows the pilot to 'shift' the
position of the co-located VOR/DME beacons to another
position of his choice creating a phantom beacon or waypoint.
The pilot continues to use the standard VOR/DME
instrumentation with the steering commands now related to the
phantom beacon.

The use of a computer allows much more than the generation of

steering commands to phantom beacons, several navigation
sensor and air data outputs may be mixed to provide a means
of lateral and vertical navigation and a display of data which can
take many forms. A general all purpose system is illustrated in
Fig. I.

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CONTROL AND
FLIGHT DATA DISPLAR UNIT CONVENTIONAL
STORAGE UNIT INSTRUMENTATION

NAVIGATION
AUTOMATIC ELECTRONIC
CONPUTER MOVING OR
DATA ENTRY
UNIT PROJECTED MAP
DISPALY

OMEGA, LORAN, VOR, DME, DOPPLER, INTERTIAL

POSSIBLE SENSOR INPUTS

TRUE AIRSPEED, ALTITUDE, MAGNETIC HEADING

AIR DATA INPUTS

Fig. 1 GENERAL AREA NAVIGATION SYSTEM

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The computer stores data and receives inputs from a variety of

The data required for the computer to perform its function may be
sensors, permitting the calculation of aircraft position in terms of
input to the system in several ways. For regularly flown routes 'hard'
latitude and longitude and the deviation from a desired flight
data such as location, elevation and frequency of VORTAC (co-
path. A variety of display formats may be used, such as the
located VOR and TACAN) beacons and airports, standard departure
following:-
and arrival routes (SlDs and STARs), etc., will be stored in a flight data
storage unit (FOSU), usually on magnetic tape. Waypoint position,
 Digital readout on display and control unit giving present
'soft' data, may be entered or amended in flight by means of a
position, latitude/longitude or heading and drift angle, or
keyboard and 'scratchpad' display on the control and display unit
track angle and ground speed, or wind direction and
(COU). Real-time data from navigation and air data sensors is
speed, or cross-track distance and track error, etc.
continuously available for input from a variety of sources.
 Analogue presentation on HSI giving heading and track,
Data relating to waypoints is 'soft' in that it can be amended, but it may
course display and setting, desired track and lateral
be stored as 'hard' data on a magnetic tape or punched card and input
steering command.
via an automatic data entry unit (ADEU). This allows the waypoint data
for regularly flown routes to be recorded on cards and chosen for a
 Analogue presentations on attitude director giving pitch
particular flight.
and roll steering commands.

 Analogue map presentation giving route, beacon and

waypoint data.

 Since sensor information is in analogue form, analogue

to digital conversion is necessary before the computer
can process it. These analogues to digital converter
circuits may be in the computer unit or in the systems
which feed it.

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13.4.4.9 FLIGHT DIRECTOR SYSTEMS

A flight director system (FDS) is one in which the display of

pitch and roll attitudes and heading of an aircraft are integrated
with such radio navigation systems as automatic direction
finding (ADF), very high-frequency omnidirectional range
(VOR), and instrument landing system (ILS) so as to perform a
total directive command function. It also provides for the
transmission of attitude and navigational data to the automatic
flight control system (AFCS) so that together they can operate
as an effective flight guidance system.
The components comprising a typical FDS, their connections
and signal interfacing with the systems providing essential
navigational data are shown below

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FIGURE 1 FLIGHT DIRECTOR COMPONENTS

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HORIZONTAL situation indication (HSI)

This indicator presents a pictorial plan view of an aircraft’s

situation in the horizontal plane in the form of its heading,
VOR/LOC deviation, and data relating to flight to and from a
VOR station. In addition, it displays deviations from the GS
beam and distance from a distance measuring equipment
(DME) station.
The aircraft symbol is fixed at the centre of the display and
indicates the position and heading in relation to the compass
card and the VOR/LOC deviation bar. This bar is also
sometimes called a lateral deviation bar. Selector knobs at the
bottom corners of the indicator permit the setting of a desired
magnetic heading and a VOR/LOC course.

FIGURE 2 HSI

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VERTICAL GYROSCOPE UNIT (VGU) INSTRUMENT AMPLIFIER

This unit performs the same function as a gyro horizon in that it The primary function of this unit is to convert the attitude reference and
establishes a stabilized reference about the pitch and roll axes command signals to it by the computer into servo-actuating power
of an aircraft. Instead, however, of providing attitude displays by signals for driving the display elements of the FDS indicators. Like the
direct means, it is often designed to operate a synchro system computer, all circuits are of the solid-state type contained on plug-in
which produces, and transmits, attitude-related signals to a type module boards or cards.
computer (sometimes referred to as a ‘steering’ computer) and
to an amplifier unit. After processing and amplification, the
signals are then transmitted to servo-operated indicating
elements within a separate attitude director indicator (ADI). The
synchro system also supplies attitude-related signals to the
appropriate control channels of an AFCS. The gyroscope and
its levelling switch and torque motor system is basically the
same as that adopted in electrically-operated gyro horizons.

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ATTITUDE DIRECTOR INDICATOR (ADI)

The indicator like the gyro horizon provides information on an

aircraft’s pitch and roll attitude. In addition, however, it provides
attitude commands and information related to an aircraft’s
position with respect to the glide slope (GS) and localizer (LOC)
beams transmitted by an ILS. A series of warning flags are also
provided and a ball -in-tube indicator provides indication of slip
during turns

The symbol representing the aircraft is fixed and is referenced

against a moving ‘sky ground’ background tape with a horizon
line and markings spaced at a specified number of degrees to
indicate pitch-up and pitch-down attitudes. The tape is
positioned around two rollers which, on being driven by a
servomotor and gear train, move the tape up or down as
appropriate to the pitch attitude change. The servomotor is
activated by amplified signals from a CT connected to the pitch
CX of the VGU, and its direction of rotation is determined by the
phase relationship between the CX error signal voltages and the
servomotor excitation voltage.

FIGURE 3 ADI

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HEADING DISPLAY

The primary display element of the indicator is that related to an

aircraft’s magnetic heading, and so it is integrated with a
magnetic heading reference system (MHRS). In aircraft
equipped with an inertial navigation system (INS) the indicator is
also integrated with the computer system so that it can be
selected to display either true or magnetic heading.

FIGURE 4

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The arrangement of the heading display section is shown in As the aircraft turns, a heading change signal is produced by the
simplified form. It consists of an azimuth or compass card which MHRS to rotate the RMI compass card. The signal is also supplied to
is mounted on a ring gear driven through a gear train by a the azimuth CT synchro in the HSI, but as the rotor of this synchro will,
servomotor. Headings are indicated by the position of the card at that moment, be de synchronized in relation to the MHRS synchro,
with respect to a fixed lubber line. The servomotor also drives a it produces an error signal. This signal is then amplified and supplied
tacho generator to provide rate feedback signals for motor to the servomotor coupled through a gear train to the compass card.
speed control. In order to select a magnetic heading, a heading The card and the heading marker are rotated in the appropriate
marker is provided, and can be positioned relative to the direction. The motor drives the azimuth CT synchro rotor to reduce the
compass card by rotating the heading selector knob. The error signal progressively as the aircraft runs onto the selected
differential gear shown is to permit relative movement between heading. In other words, the motor brings the synchro into
the marker and card, and also to allow the marker to rotate with synchronism with the MHRS so that the HSI compass card ‘repeats’
the card when a change in heading takes place. the heading indication of the RMI. When the aircraft has leveled off on
the new heading, synchronism is attained and the heading is indicated
Heading signals are supplied from the MHRS via its RMI (or by alignment of the heading marker with the lubber line.
compass coupler units in the case of integration with an INS)
and are fed to a CT azimuth synchro in the HSI. On a constant
heading, the synchro is at ‘null’ with that of the MHRS, and so
the compass cards of both the RMI and HSI indicate the same
heading.

When it is required to change an aircraft’s heading, the FDS is

operated in the heading (HDG) mode to provide roll commands.
To select a heading change the heading select knob is rotated
to position the heading marker against the corresponding
graduation mark on the compass card. At the same time, the
rotor of a heading error CT synchro is rotated to produce an
error signal in its rotor. This signal is supplied to the roll channel
of the FDS computer and then to the ADI as a roll command.
The command bars are therefore deflected to indicate the
direction in which the aircraft is to be turned onto the new
heading.

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AIRCRAFT POSITION WITH RESPECT TO VOR/LOC

BEAMS

The secondary section of an HSI display relates to an aircraft’s

lateral position with respect to a VOR station and to the localizer
beam of an ILS. The basic arrangement of this section is
shown. It consists of a deviation bar deflected left or right over a
scale plate, and in relation to a course pointer or marker. The
deflections perform a directive command function, i.e. a
deflection to the left is a ‘fly left’ command to capture a beam,
and a deflection to the right is a ‘fly right’ command.

FIGURE 5

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Each dot shown on the scale corresponds to a deflection, In the case of selecting a course to fly onto a desired VOR radial,
dependent on distance from ground transmitter. The bar is changing the position of the course RS synchro rotor causes it to shift
deflected by a dc meter movement supplied with signals from the phase of the low-frequency (30 Hz) reference modulating signal
the radio navigation receiver. When there are no deviation received from the station by the aircraft’s radio navigation receiver.
signals present, the bar is aligned with the course marker as The signal is then compared with the station’s variable modulating
shown. In addition to deflection, the bar, its scale and course signal (also 30 Hz) in a phase comparator circuit, the output of which
marker can be rotated: is supplied to the meter movement to deflect the deviation bar left or
right as appropriate.
 Relative to the compass card whenever the course to a The course datum CX performs the same function as that of the
VOR station or ILS localizer is selected heading error synchro, i.e. it produces a roll command signal which is
supplied to the ADI command bars to deflect them in the direction in
 Rotated with the compass card when the aircraft turns which the aircraft is to be turned to intercept the VOR beam radial. As
onto the selected course. the aircraft turns in response to the roll command, the compass card
Selection of the desired VOR radial or localizer course is carried rotates in response to the signals sensed by the MHRS, and through
out by rotating the course selector knob until the course marker the differential gearing the card also rotates the deviation scale, the
coincides with the desired value on the compass card. The bar and the course marker. When the beam is being approached, the
deviation bar, its meter movement and scale also rotate with the signals from the RS, and the phase comparator, to the deviation bar
marker. At the same time, the control knob drives a digital meter movement are being reduced and so the bar deflection is
counter to the corresponding course indication. The gear train towards the fixed aircraft symbol. The output from the course datum
comprising the drive from the selector knob is coupled to the CT also changes to deflect the ADI command bars in the opposite
rotor of a course resolver (RS) synchro associated with the direction, thereby commanding that the aircraft be rolled out to a
VOR/LOC navigation receiver, and to the rotor of a course wings-level attitude and on course to the VOR station.
datum CX. Both rotors are, therefore, set to some angular Flight along the beam is indicated by alignment of the deviation bar
position with respect to their stators when the course selector with the course arrow. The effects of any cross-winds during the flight
knob is rotated. along the beam are automatically corrected by a compensating ‘wash-
out’ circuit in the FDS computer, to establish the ‘crab angle’
necessary for the aircraft to stay on course. This angle is also
indicated on the HSI by the position of the deviation bar relative to the
fixed lubber line.

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TO-FROM INDICATORS
DME INDICATOR
Indication of whether an aircraft is flying to or from a station is
provided by an arrow shaped marker positioned by a dc meter This indicator receives signals from the interrogator of the distance
movement. The meter is supplied with signals from a phase measuring equipment (DME) carried in an aircraft and displays the
comparator circuit when the VOR station frequency is tuned in. distance in nautical miles to be flown to a selected DME ground
The marker is positioned in the direction of the course marker, station. If the system is not valid the indicator display is obscured by
indicating that the selected course is to the station selected. an electrically-operated shutter.
When an aircraft flies from the station, the meter movement
deflects the arrow through 180. In some types of FDS, the HSI RADIO ALTITUDE
has two separate meter movements and arrow-shaped markers.
In some HSIs an indicator light is provided and is connected to a radio
LOC MODE altimeter system such that it illuminates when an aircraft reaches a
specified minimum altitude, referred to as a ‘decision height’, during
When the FDS is operating the LOC mode, the HSI functions in the final stages of an automatically-controlled approach.
the same manner as the VOR mode, but with two exceptions.
Firstly, the output to the meter movement controlling the
deviation bar results from amplitude comparison of signals
either side of localizer beam centre, and secondly, the to-from
arrow remains out of view since no to-from signals are
transmitted in the LOC mode.

WARNING FLAGS

As in the case of the ADI, warning flags are provided in an HSI

to indicate GS, LOC and VOR signals are unreliable or have
completely failed. In addition a flag is provided to give similar
indications in the case of the MHRS.

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13.4.5 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM (INS)

INTRODUCTION

The modern inertial navigation system is the only self-

contained
single source for all navigation data. After being supplied
with initial position information, it is capable of continuously
updating extremely accurate displays of the aircraft’s:

- Position.
- Ground Speed.
- Attitude.
- Heading.

It can also provide guidance and steering information for

the auto pilot and flight instruments. Figure shows a
representation of Inertial Navigation principal.

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INS OPERATION

The basic measuring instrument of the inertial navigation The velocity signal is then fed through another integrator, which
system is the accelerometer. Two accelerometers are again is a time multiplier, which gives a result in distance in feet.
mounted in the system. One will measure the aircraft’s So, from an accelerometer we can derive:
accelerations in the north-south direction and the other will
measure the aircraft’s accelerations in the east-west - Ground Speed.
direction. When the aircraft accelerates, the - Distance Flown.
accelerometer detects the motion and a signal is produced
proportional to the amount of acceleration. if the computer associated with the INS knows the latitude and
longitude of the starting point and calculates the aircraft has
This signal is amplified, current from the amplifier is sent travelled a certain distance north/south and east/west, it can
back to the accelerometer to a torque motor and this calculate the aircraft’s present position.
restores the accelerometer to its null position.

The acceleration signal from the amplifier is also sent to

an
integrator, which is a time multiplication device. It starts
with
acceleration, which is in feet per second squared (feet
per sec per sec) and ends up after multiplication by time
with velocity (feet per second).

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FIGURE 1 INS Operation

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FIG. 2 Navigation Triangle FIG. 3 Acceleration, Velocity and Distance

Graphs

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To accurately compute the aircraft’s present position,

the accelerometers must be maintained about their
sensing axes. To maintain the correct axes, the
accelerometers are mounted on a gimbals assembly,
commonly referred to as the platform. The platform is
nothing more than a mechanical device, which allows the
aircraft to go through any attitude change, at the same
time maintaining the accelerometers level. The inner
element of the platform contains the accelerometers as
well as gyroscopes to stabilize the platform. The gyros
provide signals to motors, which in turn control the gimbals
of the platform. Figure shows an Inertial Platform (IP).

We can also measure the angular distance between the

aircraft and the platform in the three axes, giving us the
aircraft’s pitch, roll and heading angles. These can be
used in the navigation computations and also give
heading and attitude information to the relative systems.

The gyro and accelerometer are mounted on a common

gimbal.
When this gimbals tips off the level position, the spin axis
of the gyro remains fixed. The case of the gyro moves with
the gimbals, and the movement is detected by a signal pick-
off within the gyro. This signal is amplified and sent to the
gimbals motor, which restores the gimbals back to the level
position. Next Figure shows the operation of gyro
stabilization.

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FIG. 5 Gyro Stabilization

FIG. 4 Inertial Platform

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ALIGNMENT
THE NAVIGATION MODE
The accuracy of an INS is dependent on the precise
alignment of the inertial platform to a known reference In the navigation mode the pitch, roll attitude and the magnetic
(True North), with respect to the latitude and longitude of heading information is updated mainly with the attitude changes
the ground starting position at the time of “Starting sensed by gyros. Because the IRS is aligned to true north a
Up” the system. The inertial system computer carries out a variation angle is used to calculate the direction to magnetic
self-alignment calibration procedure over a given period of north. Each location on earth has its own variation angle. All
time before the system is ready to navigate the aircraft. variation angles between the 73 North and 60 South latitude are
stored in the IRS.
The computer requires the following information prior to
alignment so that it can calculate the position of “True The present position is updated mainly with accelerations sensed
North”: by the accelerometers. The accelerations are corrected for the
pitch and roll attitude and calculated with respect to the true
- Aircraft’s Latitude Position. north direction.
- Aircraft’s Longitude Position.
- Aircraft’s Magnetic Heading (from Magnetic
Heading System).

The alignment procedure can only be carried out on the

ground, during which the aircraft must not be moved. Once
started the alignment procedure is automatic

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MODE SELECT UNIT (MSU) OFF-TO-NAV - The IRU enters the power-on/built-in test
equipment (BITE) sub mode. When BITE is complete after
The mode select unit controls the mode of operation of the approximately 13 seconds, the IRU enters the alignment mode.
IRS. There are two types in common use: Upon completion of the alignment mode the system enters the
navigation mode.
- Six Annunciator MSU.
- Triple-Channel MSU.

The six-annunciator MSU provides mode selection, status ALIGN-TO-NAV - The IRU enters navigate mode from alignment
indication and test initiation for one Inertial Reference Unit mode upon completion of alignment.
(IRU).
NAV-TO-ALIGN - The IRU enters the align down mode from the
MODE SELECT UNIT MODES navigate mode.

IRS Modes are set by setting the MSU mode select switch NAV-TO-ALIGN-TO-NAV - The IRU enters the align down mode
as follows: and after 30 seconds, automatically re-enters the navigate mode.

OFF-TO-ALIGN - The IRU enters the power-on/built-in test

equipment (BITE) sub mode. When BITE is complete after ALIGN-TO-ATT or NAV-TO-ATT - The IRU enters the erect
approximately 13 seconds, the IRU enters the alignment attitude sub mode for 20 seconds, during which the MSU ALIGN
mode. The IRU remains in the alignment mode until the annunciator illuminates. The IRU then enters the attitude mode.
mode select switch is set to OFF, NAV or ATT. The NAV
RDY annunciator illuminates upon completion of the
alignment. MSU Annunciator ALIGN - Indicates that the IRU is in the
alignment mode. A flashing ALIGN annunciator indicates
incorrect LAT/LONG entry, excessive aircraft movement during
align.

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LIGHTS

NAV RDY - Indicates that the alignment is complete.

FAULT - Indicates an IRS fault.

ON BATT - Indicates that the back-up battery power is

being used.

BATT FAIL - Indicates that the back-up battery power is

inadequate to sustain IRS operation during back-up battery
operation (less than 21 volts).

NO AIR - Indicates that cooling airflow is inadequate to cool

the IRU.

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FIGURE 7 MSU
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INERTIAL SYSTEM DISPLAY UNIT (ISDU)

The ISDU selects data from any one of three IRUs for PPOS - Selects the aircraft’s present position as latitude on the
display and provides initial position or heading data to the left display and longitude on the right. Both latitude and
IRUs. longitude are displayed in degrees, minutes, and tenths of a
minute.
SYSTEM DISPLAY SWITCH (SYS DSPL)
WIND - Selects wind direction in degrees on the left display
The SYS DSPL switch is used to select the IRU (position and wind speed in knots on the right display.
1,2 or 3) from which the displayed data originates. If the
switch is set to OFF, the ISDU cannot send or receive data HDG/STS - Selects heading or alignment status for display,
from any of the 3 IRUs. depending upon the current IRU mode. Heading is displayed in
degrees and tenths of degrees and time-to-alignment completion
DISPLAY SELECTOR SWITCH (DSPL SEL) is displayed in minutes and tenths of minutes.

The DSPL SEL switch has five positions to select data In the alignment mode, the ISDU displays alignment status (time
displayed on the ISDU. to NAV ready) in the right display. In the NAV mode, the ISDU
displays true heading in the left display. In the attitude mode, the
TEST - Selects a display test that illuminates all display ISDU displays magnetic heading in the left display and ATT in the
elements and keyboard cue lights to allow inspection for right display.
possible malfunctions. The DSPL SEL switch is spring
loaded and must be held in this position.

TK/GS - Selects track angle in degrees on the left display

and ground speed in knots on the right.

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FIG. 8 Inertial System Display Unit (ISDU)

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DIMMER KNOB

The dimmer knob is mounted on but operates independently of,

the DSPL SEL switch. As the dimmer knob is rotated
clockwise, the display brightens.

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