Multiple Choice Questions

1. Sahar attended a workshop on how crystals have healing power, can eliminate "blood sludge," and cure
mental illness. The workshop facilitator presented clinical observations of several patients to demonstrate the
effectiveness of crystals. What should Sahar keep in mind as she evaluates the information she learned in this
workshop?
A) In the absence of systematic research, clinical observations are not sufficient evidence for their effectiveness.
B) Clinical observations are a powerful source of evidence and demonstrate treatment effectiveness.
C) Patients' own reports that crystals cured their cancer or depression provide empirical evidence of their
effectiveness.
D) The workshop facilitator appears to be a credible source so his claims must be true.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-01
Topic: Why We Need Research Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.1a

Answer: A) In the absence of systematic research, clinical observations are not sufficient evidence for their effectiveness.

2. System 1 thinking is to __________, whereas System 2 thinking is to __________.

A) intuitive thinking; heuristic thinking
B) heuristic thinking; analytical thinking
C) analytical thinking; intuitive thinking
D) intuitive thinking; analytical thinking

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-02
Topic: How We Can Be Fooled—Two Modes of Thinking
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.1a

Answer: D) intuitive thinking; analytical thinking

3. First impressions and snap judgments are based on

A) analytical thinking.
B) intuitive thinking.
C) rational thinking.
D) effortful thinking.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-03
Topic: How We Can Be Fooled—Two Modes of Thinking
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.1a

Answer: B) intuitive thinking.

4. Nadia's psychology professor gave her class a data set and asked the class to compute the measures of
central tendency for the data. What mode of thinking is required to solve these problems?
A) Analytical thinking
B) Intuitive thinking
C) Inferential thinking
D) Automatic thinking

Difficulty: 2

1
QuestionID: 02-1-04
Topic: How We Can Be Fooled—Two Modes of Thinking
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.1a

Answer: A) Analytical thinking

5. Joe swerves his car to avoid hitting a pot hole. Randall tries to figure out how to apply a concept he learned in
class to real life. Based on the discussion of the modes of thinking in your text, Joe is relying on __________
thinking and Randall is relying on __________ thinking.
A) intuitive; heuristic.
B) descriptive; inferential.
C) intuitive; analytical.
D) analytical; automatic.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-05
Topic: How We Can Be Fooled—Two Modes of Thinking
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.1a

Answer: C) intuitive; analytical.

6. When psychologists use the term heuristic, they are referring to

A) biased information processing strategies.
B) mental techniques to improve memory recall.
C) mental techniques to increase deliberation in our decision making.
D) mental decision-making strategies.

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-06
Topic: How We Can Be Fooled—Two Modes of Thinking
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.1a

Answer: D) mental decision-making strategies.

7. When you are learning a complex new skill, like typing or driving a car, your thinking starts off as
____________ but eventually becomes ____________ as your actions become more practiced and automatic.
A) analytical; reflexive
B) analytical; intuitive
C) intuitive; rational
D) effortful; subconscious

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-07
Topic: How We Can Be Fooled—Two Modes of Thinking
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.1a

Answer: B) analytical; intuitive

8. Which of the following is associated with intuitive thinking?

A) the scientific method
B) the initial stages of learning a new skill
C) using heuristics

2
D) correlational research designs

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-08
Topic: How We Can Be Fooled—Two Modes of Thinking
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.1a

Answer: C) using heuristics

9. When a researcher tests his or her hypothesis, he or she is often hoping to gather information that supports a
particular theory. What allows a researcher to say that he or she has "proven" a theory?
A) A researcher is never truly able to say that he or she has "proven" a theory.
B) Anytime a hypothesis confirms one theory and simultaneously disconfirms at least one other theory, then a theory
has been "proven."
C) Anytime a hypothesis is confirmed, a theory is automatically "proven."
D) Anytime a hypothesis confirms one theory and simultaneously disconfirms all other known theories, then a theory
has been "proven."

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-09
Topic: The Scientific Method—Toolbox of Skills
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: A) A researcher is never truly able to say that he or she has "proven" a theory.

10. Using the scientific method helps us to safeguard against the dangers of relying on our
A) analytical thinking.
B) System 2 thinking.
C) intuitive thinking.
D) inferential thinking.

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-10
Topic: The Scientific Method—Toolbox of Skills
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: C) intuitive thinking.

11. Suppose you sit in a cafeteria and count the number of people who use each checkout line: one staffed by a
woman and one staffed by a man. This is an example of which research design?
A) Correlational design
B) Experimental design
C) Case study design
D) Naturalistic observation design

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-11
Topic: Naturalistic Observation—Studying Humans "In the Wild"
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: D) Naturalistic observation design

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12. A group of student researchers watch various buildings on their campus at different times of day to attempt
to determine when people will hold a door open for another person. These student researchers are most likely to
use which research method design when conducting their study?
A) Correlational design
B) Experimental design
C) Case study design
D) Naturalistic observation design

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-12
Topic: Naturalistic Observation—Studying Humans "In the Wild"
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: D) Naturalistic observation design

13. If you sat in a public place and assessed the relative attractiveness of the couples who walk by to see if their
attraction levels matched or differed, this would illustrate which research design?
A) Correlational design
B) Experimental design
C) Case study design
D) Naturalistic observation design

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-13
Topic: Naturalistic Observation—Studying Humans "In the Wild"
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: D) Naturalistic observation design

14. Shannon is studying the vocalizations made by a rare breed of squirrels. She sits in a hidden spot in the
forest and records the squirrels' sounds as well as what is going on at the time. What type of research method is
Shannon using?
A) Naturalistic observation
B) Case study
C) Correlation
D) Experiment

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-14
Topic: Naturalistic Observation—Studying Humans "In the Wild"
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: A) Naturalistic observation

15. The ability of researchers to draw cause-and-effect inferences from naturalistic observation studies is limited
because of
A) high external validity.
B) high internal validity.
C) low internal validity.
D) low external validity.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-15

4
Topic: Naturalistic Observation—Studying Humans "In the Wild"
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: C) low internal validity.

16. A researcher wishes to maximize the external validity of her research design. What research method should
you recommend to her?
A) Correlational design
B) Naturalistic observational design
C) Experimental design
D) Case study design

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-16
Topic: Naturalistic Observation—Studying Humans "In the Wild"
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: B) Naturalistic observational design

17. A researcher is interested in determining how frequently bullying behaviour occurs in real-life settings. Which
research design would be best?
A) experimental design.
B) case study design.
C) correlational design.
D) naturalistic observation design.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-17
Topic: Naturalistic Observation—Studying Humans "In the Wild"
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: naturalistic observation design.

18. In a recent study, researchers counted the number of cars and bicycles on several different streets downtown
in order to make recommendations about where to build more bike lanes. Which of the following is a weakness of
this research design?
A) low internal validity
B) low external validity
C) very expensive to implement
D) focus on the unusual rather than the normal

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-18
Topic: Naturalistic Observation—Studying Humans "In the Wild"
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: A) low internal validity

19. Naturalistic observation and case study methods are to __________ as correlational methods are to
__________.
A) description; prediction
B) cause-and-effect; internal validity

5
C) construct validity; random assignment
D) reliability; external validity

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-19
Topic: Naturalistic Observation—Studying Humans "In the Wild"
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: A) description; prediction

20. The extent to which we can generalize findings to real-world settings is called
A) face validity.
B) construct validity.
C) external validity.
D) internal validity.

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-20
Topic: Naturalistic Observation—Studying Humans "In the Wild"
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: C) external validity.

21. The extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences from a study is called
A) face validity
B) construct validity
C) external validity
D) internal validity

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-21
Topic: Naturalistic Observation—Studying Humans "In the Wild"
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: D) internal validity

22. Which research design is often used to provide existence proof that a given psychological phenomenon can
occur?
A) Correlational design
B) Experimental design
C) Case study design
D) Naturalistic observation design

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-22
Topic: Case Study Designs—Getting to Know You
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: C) Case study design

23. This research design examines one person or a small number of people in depth, often over an extended time
period.

6
A) Case study
B) Correlation
C) Experiment
D) Naturalistic observation

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-23
Topic: Case Study Designs—Getting to Know You
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: A) Case study

24. Case studies can be helpful in providing __________, or demonstrations that a given psychological
phenomenon can occur.
A) construct validity
B) internal validity
C) existence proofs
D) external validity

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-24
Topic: Case Study Designs—Getting to Know You
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: C) existence proofs

25. This research design involves deep and detailed information gathering from a single individual over a long
period of time.
A) Naturalistic observation design
B) Experimental design
C) Case study design
D) Correlational design

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-25
Topic: Case Study Designs—Getting to Know You
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: C) Case study design

26. Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget devised complex models of cognitive development in children based on
detailed records of interactions with his children. Which design best describes Piaget's research?
A) Naturalistic observation design
B) Experimental design
C) Case study design
D) Correlational design

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-26
Topic: Case Study Designs—Getting to Know You
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

7
Answer: C) Case study design

27. It can be difficult to test hypotheses about dissociative identity disorder, because it is an especially rare
disorder. Which research design would be most useful in these circumstances?
A) Naturalistic observation design
B) Experimental design
C) Case study design
D) Correlational design

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-27
Topic: Case Study Designs—Getting to Know You
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: C) Case study design

28. The study of rare or unusual phenomena is most easily done through the use of the __________ design.
A) case study
B) observational
C) experimental
D) correlational

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-28
Topic: Case Study Designs—Getting to Know You
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: A) case study

29. While valuable for studying rare phenomenon, case studies tend to be __________ in external validity and
__________ in internal validity.
A) low; high
B) high; low
C) low; low
D) high; high

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-29
Topic: Case Study Designs—Getting To Know You
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: C) low; low

30. Dr. Didus is studying a patient with a serious and unusual brain injury. Each time the patient is asked about
the injury he denies having any problems, even though the clinical tests demonstrate serious deficits. Based on
his case study, what can Dr. Didus conclude about this type of brain injury, in general?
A) Patients with this injury cannot cope with discussing uncomfortable experiences.
B) The denial is more of a personality trait than a consequence of the injury.
C) There is no relationship between the injury and the patient's statements.
D) No conclusions can be drawn about this brain injury without further systematic research on a wider range of cases.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-30

8
Topic: Case Study Designs—Getting To Know You
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: D) No conclusions can be drawn about this brain injury without further systematic research on a wider range of
cases.

31. If you wanted to use research evidence in order to generalize to a wider population, which research design
would be the worst choice?
A) experimental design
B) observational design
C) correlational design
D) case study design

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-31
Topic: Case Study Designs—Getting to Know You
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: D) case study design

32. We need to administer a public questionnaire about the upcoming election. We want this survey to be
unbiased, and make sure that everyone has an equal chance of being chosen to participate. Which of the
following should we use to meet these goals?
A) the survey method.
B) random selection.
C) a case study design.
D) the placebo effect.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-32
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys—Asking People about Themselves and Others
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: B) random selection.

33. Your text described two studies with very different results about women and their relationships. One study
targeted women who subscribe to specific magazines, and the other study included people from the general
population. Which of the following was a likely cause of the differences between the studies?
A) the use of covert versus participant observation
B) the method of sampling used in each study
C) demand characteristics
D) experimenter bias

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-33
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys—Asking People about Themselves and Others
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: B) the method of sampling used in each study

34. __________ ensures every person in a population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate.
A) Stratified sampling

9
B) Random selection
C) A double-blind procedure
D) Naturalistic observation

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-34
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys—Asking People about Themselves and Others
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: B) Random selection

35. Dr. Jonas is conducting a survey on high school study habits and advertises for participants through local
youth groups and libraries. He finds that most teenagers in his study have good study habits and use a series of
organizational methods to stay on track with school work. What is the main overarching difficulty with the
conclusions from his study?
A) There was no random selection, so the respondents may not represent the population.
B) Teenagers have a greater tendency to be untruthful on surveys relative to adults.
C) It was likely the teenagers were trying to make themselves appear better than they were.
D) There are no major flaws with this study.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-35
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys—Asking People about Themselves and Others
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: A) There was no random selection, so the respondents may not represent the population.

36. When conducting a survey, which of the following research techniques is most important for ensuring that
your sample is representative of the wider population?
A) random selection.
B) blinding procedures.
C) self-report measures.
D) random assignment.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-36
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys—Asking People about Themselves and Others
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: A) random selection.

37. Which of the following is correct in distinguishing between random selection and random assignment?
A) Both random selection and random assignment are used to obtain a random sample of participants that is drawn
from the larger population.
B) Random assignment is where every person in the population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate,
and random selection is where every person in the sample has an equal chance of being selected for the experimental or
control conditions.
C) Random selection concerns how we initially choose participants, whereas random assignment is how we assign
chosen participants into groups.
D) Random assignment concerns how we initially choose participants, whereas random selection is how we assign
chosen participants into groups.

Difficulty: 2

10
QuestionID: 02-1-37
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys—Asking People about Themselves and Others
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: C) Random selection concerns how we initially choose participants, whereas random assignment is how we
assign chosen participants into groups.

38. If you calculate the similarity in movie ratings between two people who watch the same movies, which of the
following are you checking?
A) generalizability.
B) objectivity.
C) validity.
D) reliability.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-38
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys—Asking People about Themselves and Others
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: D) reliability.

39. By taking a person's temperature several times, you gain confidence that the multiple measurements of
temperature are correct. Another term for "confidence" in this situation is
A) reliability.
B) validity.
C) objectivity.
D) subjectivity.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-39
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys—Asking People about Themselves and Others
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: A) reliability.

40. Dr. Peese is conducting research about content differences between truthful and false crime reports. She has
three research assistants who help her code each report using consistent procedures. In order to ensure that the
coding is consistent, Dr. Peese compares the scores from each of the coders to see how closely they are
correlated. In this example, Dr. Peese is assessing
A) test–retest reliability.
B) internal validity.
C) interrater reliability.
D) construct validity.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-40
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys—Asking People about Themselves and Others
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: C) interrater reliability.

41. According to your text, the polygraph test (also referred to as the 'lie detector') is criticized for its lack of

11
A) test–retest reliability.
B) interrater reliability
C) placebo effects.
D) validity.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-41
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys—Asking People about Themselves and Others
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: D) validity.

42. Dr. Riviera measures his students' knowledge about the topic of memory by giving them three different
quizzes, one per week. He is hoping to show that student scores are largely the same from week to week. He is
trying to establish the __________ of his quiz.
A) reliability
B) validity
C) objectivity
D) subjectivity

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-42
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys—Asking People about Themselves and Others
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: A) reliability

43. The most important characteristic for a psychological measure to have is

A) reliability.
B) objectivity.
C) readability.
D) validity.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-43
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys—Asking People about Themselves and Others
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: D) validity.

44. Which of the following methods is most likely to be affected if research participants are dishonest in their
responses?
A) behavioural measures.
B) self-report measures.
C) observational measures.
D) correlational measures.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-44
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys—Asking People about Themselves and Others
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

12
Answer: B) self-report measures.

45. The major advantage of self-report measures, like surveys, is that they
A) help establish causality.
B) are extremely reliable and valid.
C) are unaffected by the wording or phrasing of the questions.
D) are easy to administer.

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-45
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys—Asking People about Themselves and Others
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: D) are easy to administer.

46. Sandra has completed an online survey about recycling habits and minimized how often she throws empty
cans and bottles into the garbage. Her responses reflect what type of bias?
A) Malingering
B) Base rate fallacy
C) Hindsight bias
D) Response set

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-46
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys—Asking People about Themselves and Others
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: D) Response set

47. A __________ refers to a tendency to distort answers to self-report questionnaires, often in a socially
desirable direction.
A) placebo effect
B) halo effect
C) hindsight bias
D) response set

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-47
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys—Asking People about Themselves and Others
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: D) response set

48. Grace claims that she has been severely traumatized by a minor accident she witnessed while at work, and
she is suing her employers for financial compensation. Her employers think she is not as traumatized as she
claims and ask her to see a psychologist to assess her symptoms. On psychological testing, Grace is likely to
engage in __________.
A) socially desirable responding
B) the horns effect
C) the placebo effect
D) malingering

Difficulty: 2

13
QuestionID: 02-1-48
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys—Asking People about Themselves and Others
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: D) malingering

49. If someone lies on a survey in order to seem mentally disturbed or ill, then those lies are called
A) negative self-image.
B) malingering.
C) the horns effect.
D) blinding.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-49
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys—Asking People about Themselves and Others
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: B) malingering.

50. Researchers sometimes include survey questions that ask about implausible or nonexistent things, like
"Were you raised in Pago Pago?" or "Do your eyes twitch when you are near a radio?". Why do researchers do
this?
A) to identify response sets
B) to blind the procedures
C) to increase interrater reliability
D) to prevent the halo effect

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-50
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys—Asking People About Themselves and Others
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: A) to identify response sets

51. Which of the following people would be most likely to malinger?

A) someone who is suing after being injured
B) someone who is rating a favourite professor
C) someone who is embarrassed by the questions on a survey
D) someone who has strong political opinions

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-51
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys—Asking People about Themselves and Others
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: A) someone who is suing after being injured

52. Which of the following statements is an example of the horns effect?

A) Sandra gives Nicole a good performance evaluation at work because they are friends.
B) Jason believes that overweight people also are lazy, selfish, and unmotivated.
C) Cynthia rates herself very positively on a test assessing personality characteristics.
D) Wade exaggerates his "bad boy" image on a survey of life experiences.

14
Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-52
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys—Asking People about Themselves and Others
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: B) Jason believes that overweight people also are lazy, selfish, and unmotivated.

53. A group of students watch a videotape of two managers interacting with their subordinates at a customer
service desk in a department store. Students see one of the managers' act in a friendly and respectful manner
toward all of the employees. The other manager is less friendly but still respectful toward the employees. What
concept would explain the more positive ratings on other dimensions for the friendly manager as compared to
the less friendly manager?
A) The Rosenthal effect
B) The horns effect
C) The halo effect
D) The leniency effect

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-53
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys—Asking People about Themselves and Others
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: C) The halo effect

54. A new student, Carlina, has just switched to your university and joined your class partway through. She is
very attractive and seems very nice. When discussing with a friend whether to invite Carlina into your group for a
project, you state that she should be allowed because she is likely intelligent and productive, even though you
have no basis for knowing this is true. You have likely fallen victim to
A) the nocebo effect.
B) the horns effect.
C) the halo effect.
D) the placebo effect.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-54
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys—Asking People about Themselves and Others
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: C) the halo effect.

55. Which of the following examples is particularly vulnerable to both the halo and horns effects?
A) Answers to questions on a health-risk survey
B) Student responses on a career aptitude test
C) Psychological test scores in legal compensation cases
D) Students' evaluations of their professors

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-55
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys—Asking People about Themselves and Others
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

15
Answer: D) Students' evaluations of their professors

56. You do not like your new neighbour because he is messy and loud. You also think other negative things
about him, such as "he is probably sexist" and "he is such a narcissist," even though you don't have evidence of
those traits. This is an example of
A) negative impression management.
B) the horns effect.
C) a response set.
D) the halo effect.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-56
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys—Asking People about Themselves and Others
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: B) the horns effect.

57. A professor thinks that people who have higher grades also attend class more often. If the professor wished
to study this relationship, which research design would be used?
A) experimental design
B) naturalistic observation design
C) case study design
D) correlational design

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-57
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: D) correlational design

58. Sasha read about a study in the newspaper that reported a positive association between poverty and crime.
What type of research design is most likely to have been used in this study?
A) Naturalistic observation
B) Case study design
C) Correlational design
D) Experimental design

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-58
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: C) Correlational design

59. Crystal wants her boyfriend, James, to quit smoking, so she tells him about the positive relationship between
smoking and lung cancer. James responds by arguing that "my grandpa smoked two packs a day for his entire
life and never got cancer." Which of the following statements regarding correlations applies to this situation?
A) Correlations are not an accurate way of measuring relationships.
B) Anecdotes do not refute the existence of this correlation.
C) Experimental manipulation of smoking and lung cancer is the only way to determine if these two variables are
related.
D) Correlations are descriptions, not predictions.

16
Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-59
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: B) Anecdotes do not refute the existence of this correlation.

60. People who are depressed tend to report a lot of fatigue, and report spending less time in social situations.
Thus, depression is __________ correlated with fatigue and __________ correlated with spending a lot of time in
social situations.
A) negatively; positively
B) negatively; inversely
C) positively; negatively
D) positively; positively

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-60
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: C) positively; negatively

61. As the number of losses by the Edmonton Oilers hockey team increase, the number of fans decrease. This is
an example of a __________ correlation.
A) positive
B) negative
C) zero
D) causal

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-61
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: B) negative

62. Jaime knows that the correlation between alcohol abuse and liver damage is very strong but argues that this
relationship is unlikely to apply to him because both his grandparents and parents drank heavily throughout their
lives and never suffered from any liver problems. What is the main problem with Jaime's reasoning?
A) He is using anecdotes to refute correlational evidence.
B) He has not tested his ideas using a scientific method.
C) He is applying a socially-desirable bias.
D) He is vulnerable to the halo effect.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-62
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: A) He is using anecdotes to refute correlational evidence.

17
63. Which of the following correlations represents the weakest correlation between two variables?
A) Daily calcium intake and bone mass density, r = +.11
B) Number of cigarettes smoked per day and incidence of lung cancer, r = +.39
C) Degree of exposure to lead and IQ scores in children, r = –.12
D) Hours of exposure to media violence and aggressive behaviour, r = +.31

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-63
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: A) Daily calcium intake and bone mass density, r = +.11

64. Which of the following correlation coefficients is the strongest?

A) +.43
B) –.47
C) –.25
D) +.19

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-64
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: B) –.47

65. Which of the following correlation coefficients would allow you to make the strongest prediction?
A) +.51
B) –.67
C) –.46
D) +.09

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-65
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: B) –.67

66. Which of the following correlation coefficients represents the strongest positive relationship between two
variables?
A) –.64
B) –.32
C) +.46
D) +.27

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-66
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: C) +.46

18
67. A fictional study revealed that there is a negative correlation between exam grades and the average number
of glasses of beer (r = –.52), wine (r = –.63), coolers (r = –.46), or hard alcohol (r = –.59) consumed each night.
Which of these alcoholic beverages shows the strongest association with poor exam performance?
A) Coolers
B) Hard alcohol
C) Beer
D) Wine

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-67
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: D) Wine

68. Correlations allow researchers to make __________ about the world, whereas observational and case studies
allow us to __________ it.
A) causal inferences; predict
B) predictions; describe
C) descriptions; predict
D) causal inferences; describe

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-68
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: B) predictions; describe

69. You read a research study that claims to have found a correlation of r = –.43 between smoking and vegetable
consumption. This means that
A) the less people smoke, the fewer vegetables they eat.
B) the more people smoke, the fewer vegetables they eat.
C) the more people smoke, the more vegetables they eat.
D) smoking and vegetable consumption are unrelated.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-69
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: B) the more people smoke, the fewer vegetables they eat.

70. If there is no discernible relationship between scores on students' homework assignments and their exam
scores in an introductory biology class, then what type of correlation exists?
A) negative
B) positive
C) zero
D) inverse

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-70

19
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: C) zero

71. Suppose that researchers find no relationship between your likelihood of getting cancer and your home's
proximity to power lines. This would be an example of which type of correlation?
A) negative
B) positive
C) zero
D) inverse

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-71
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: C) zero

72. Researchers found no link between autism and immunizations. which type of correlation is this?
A) negative
B) positive
C) zero
D) inverse

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-72
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: C) zero

73. Most likely, shoe size is __________ associated or correlated with psychology exam scores.
A) negatively
B) positively
C) not at all
D) inversely

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-73
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: C) not at all

74. As the average daily temperature decreases, the number of persons who are observed wearing sweaters in
the workplace increases. This is an example of a __________ correlation.
A) positive
B) zero
C) negative
D) causal

20
Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-74
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: C) negative

75. A graph that can be used to represent the pattern of relationship between scores from two variables is called
a
A) frequency polygon.
B) histogram.
C) bar graph.
D) scatterplot.

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-75
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: D) scatterplot.

76. According to the text, many people believe without evidence that there are strong correlations between the
full moon and strange behaviour, such as violent crime, suicides, psychiatric admissions, and births. This is an
example of
A) a positive correlation.
B) a negative correlation.
C) a zero correlation.
D) an illusory correlation.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-76
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: D) an illusory correlation.

77. Superstitions are often based on

A) case studies.
B) nocebo effects.
C) illusory correlations.
D) experimental data.

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-77
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: C) illusory correlations.

78. Which of the following is strongly associated with illusory correlations?

A) representativeness heuristic.
B) response sets.

21
C) confirmation bias.
D) hindsight bias.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-78
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: C) confirmation bias.

79. There is an illusory correlation between joint pain and rainy weather. To establish this illusory correlation,
which of the following experiences do we notice most?
A) Instances where it is raining and there is joint pain
B) Instances where it is raining and there is no joint pain
C) Instances where it is not raining and there is joint pain
D) Instances where it is not raining and there is no joint pain

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-79
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: A) Instances where it is raining and there is joint pain

80. There is an illusory correlation between psychiatric hospital admissions and the full moon. To create this
illusory correlation, which of the following experiences do we notice most?
A) there is a full moon and there are no psychiatric admissions
B) there is no full moon and there are many psychiatric admissions
C) there is a full moon and there are many psychiatric admissions
D) there is no full moon and there are no psychiatric admissions

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-80
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: C) there is a full moon and there are many psychiatric admissions

81. Perceiving a correlation between two variables when none exists refers to
A) the correlation versus causation fallacy.
B) the confirmation bias.
C) the bidirectionality problem.
D) an illusory correlation.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-81
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: D) an illusory correlation.

82. Which of the following helps to reduce illusory correlations?

22
A) naturalistic observation methods
B) the nocebo effect
C) increasing interrater reliability
D) keeping track of nonevents

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-82
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: D) keeping track of nonevents

83. Correlational research designs are NOT appropriate as evidence of

A) causation.
B) prediction.
C) description.
D) association

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-83
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: A) causation.

84. A news article reports that researchers have documented a negative correlation between brain size and self-
esteem, which leads some readers to conclude that larger brains lead to lower self-esteem. The main problem
with this conclusion is that
A) the relationship between brain size and self-esteem may be due to a third variable.
B) causal inferences can only be made for really strong correlations.
C) this relationship is an illusory correlation.
D) the directionality of the relationship is actually in the opposite direction.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-84
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: A) the relationship between brain size and self-esteem may be due to a third variable.

85. What is the key difference between illusory correlations and the correlation versus causation fallacy?
A) The fallacy is still based on a real correlation, but illusory correlations are not.
B) The fallacy is a cognitive error, while illusory correlations are statistical errors.
C) Only illusory correlations can involve the confirmation bias.
D) Only the fallacy involves taking mental shortcuts.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-85
Topic: Correlation versus Causation—Jumping the Gun
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: A) The fallacy is still based on a real correlation, but illusory correlations are not.

23
86. A newspaper headline reads "New study from Important University demonstrates that sleep deprivation is
correlated with stress and anxiety. Get more sleep in order to reduce anxiety!" Which of the following errors does
this headline illustrate?
A) correlation versus causation fallacy
B) illusory correlations
C) confirmation bias
D) placebo effects

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-86
Topic: Correlation versus Causation—Jumping the Gun
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: A) correlation versus causation fallacy

87. In correlational designs, the differences among participants are __________, whereas in experimental
designs, the differences among participants are __________.
A) caused; predicted.
B) measured; created.
C) observed; described.
D) manipulated; recorded.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-87
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: B) measured; created.

88. In addition to random assignment, what other component is necessary for a study to be considered an
experiment?
A) The presence of dependent variables
B) Manipulation of an independent variable
C) Random selection of participants
D) Cause-and-effect relationships

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-88
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: B) Manipulation of an independent variable

89. The only research design that allows us to make cause-and-effect inferences is the __________ design.
A) naturalistic observation
B) case study
C) experimental
D) correlational

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-89
Topic: Experimental Designs

24
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: C) experimental

90. A key aspect of an experiment that is missing from other research designs is
A) description of the phenomenon of interest.
B) random assignment.
C) explanation of why a relationship exists.
D) prediction of the effects of differences in variable on another.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-90
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: B) random assignment.

91. A researcher wishes to test whether a new treatment is effective for patients with arachnophobia (fear of
spiders). The researcher chooses a group of patients who he thinks can handle the treatment and has another
group of patients as a control. He reports that, following exposure therapy, those in the experimental group
showed less fear of spiders than those in the control group. What is the hidden flaw with this study that limits its
claims?
A) The researcher has not controlled for the placebo effect.
B) There is no random assignment so it is not a true experiment.
C) The study has no dependent variable.
D) The independent variable was not manipulated.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-91
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: B) There is no random assignment so it is not a true experiment.

92. A researcher at a large company wants to see whether she can make the typical job more enjoyable. To
experimentally investigate this possibility, she randomly assigns workers to one of the following conditions:
doing the job as it has always been done, having a computer performance monitoring device installed, receiving
feedback about their performance on a weekly basis, or being given a say in how their workload is structured and
completed. Which of these conditions is an example of a control group?
A) Doing the job as it has always been done
B) Receiving feedback on a weekly basis
C) Having a computer performance monitoring device installed
D) Being given a say in how their workload is structured and completed

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-92
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: A) Doing the job as it has always been done

93. A professor wants to determine whether her students perform better on mid-term examinations if they write

25
their exam alone or in a group. To experimentally investigate this possibility, she randomly assigns half of her
students to write their mid-term in the regular class setting (as a group) and randomly assigns the other half of
her students to write their mid-term individually in private cubicles in the university's testing centre. Which of
these conditions is the experimental group?
A) The group of students writing in the classroom
B) The group of students writing individually in the testing centre
C) Both groups of students as they are a part of the professor's experiment
D) Neither of the groups of students as they did not consent to this study

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-93
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: B) The group of students writing individually in the testing centre

94. In a research study, the group that receives the manipulation is called the
A) experimental group.
B) dependent group.
C) independent group.
D) control group.

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-94
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: A) experimental group.

95. What type of research design involves one group of participants being assigned to the experimental condition
and another group of different participants assigned to the control condition?
A) Within-subject design
B) Correlational design
C) Between-subject design
D) Randomized design

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-95
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: C) Between-subject design

96. Dr. Black wants to study how caffeine consumption affects memory. He gives participants a memory test to
establish their baseline abilities and then has them drink several caffeinated beverages, followed by another
memory test. What type of research design is Dr. Black using?
A) Within-subject design
B) Correlational design
C) Between-subject design
D) Randomized design

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-96

26
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: A) Within-subject design

97. Dr. Trawma wants to study whether cognitive-behavioural therapy or systematic desensitization is better at
reducing his patients' anxiety. The dependent variable in this study is
A) cognitive-behavioural therapy.
B) the type of therapy.
C) the patients' levels of anxiety.
D) systematic desensitization.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-97
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: C) the patients' levels of anxiety.

98. The variable that an experimenter tracks or measures is called the

A) dependent variable.
B) independent variable.
C) confounding variable.
D) causal variable.

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-98
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: A) dependent variable.

99. The Dean believes that the placement of motivational posters on the walls in classrooms will lead to better
grades. To test his hypothesis, he randomly assigns certain classrooms to have the posters while others do not.
He then records average grades of classes held in classrooms with posters compared to grades of classes held
in other classrooms. He also documents other information, like class topics and class size. What is the
independent variable in this study?
A) Motivational posters
B) Class topic
C) The Dean
D) Grades

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-99
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: A) Motivational posters

100. Medical researchers want to determine if hypnosis is better at pain control than a sugar pill (placebo). The
researcher randomly assigns participants to the two groups and determines how long they can keep their hands
in a bowl of ice water. What is the independent variable?

27
A) Participants
B) Pain experienced
C) Duration of time in ice water
D) Pain control technique

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-100
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: D) Pain control technique

101. Suppose a researcher wants to determine if the size of the crowd affects how bystanders treat an accident
victim. The researcher randomly assigns participants to one of three groups: no other bystanders, one other
bystander, or four other bystanders. When an emergency is then staged, the researcher measures how long it
takes the participant to help the victim. In this study, what is the independent variable?
A) Number of bystanders
B) The group with no other bystanders
C) How long before the victim receives help
D) The staged emergency

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-101
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: A) Number of bystanders

102. Suppose a researcher wants to see if those students who highlight their textbook as they read will perform
better on the psychology mid-term compared to those students who do not highlight. What is the dependent
variable?
A) Psychology mid-term score
B) Highlighting of text
C) No highlighting of text
D) Grade-point average

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-102
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: A) Psychology mid-term score

103. A medical doctor believes that the presence of aromatherapy will reduce anxiety during childbirth and will
increase parents' reported satisfaction with their care at the hospital. She randomly assigns parents to birthing
rooms either with or without aromatherapy. What is the independent variable in this example?
A) Room environment
B) Parents
C) Anxiety level during labour
D) Satisfaction with hospital care

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-103

28
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: A) Room environment

104. In an experiment, children watched an adult display physical violence toward a clown doll in a room full of
other toys. In some cases the aggressive adult was scolded for the behaviour, and in other cases the aggressive
adult was praised. Each child is then left in the room of toys, and the researchers watch to see if the child copies
any of the aggressive behaviour. What is the independent variable?
A) The children
B) Aggressive behaviour
C) Whether the model was praised or punished
D) Time left among the toys

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-104
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: C) Whether the model was praised or punished

105. In an experiment, children watched an adult display physical violence toward a clown doll in a room full of
other toys. In some cases the aggressive adult was scolded for the behaviour, and in other cases the aggressive
adult was praised. Each child is then left in the room of toys, and the researchers watch to see if the child copies
any of the aggressive behaviour. What is the dependent variable?
A) The children
B) Aggressive behaviour
C) Whether the model was praised or punished
D) Time left among the toys.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-105
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: B) Aggressive behaviour

106. Any difference between experimental and control groups other than the independent variable is called a
__________ variable.
A) dependent
B) confounding
C) placebo
D) nocebo

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-106
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: B) confounding

107. In an experiment, a researcher wants to avoid the presence of

29
A) confounding variables.
B) dependent variables.
C) random assignment.
D) independent variables.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-107
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: A) confounding variables.

108. A professor wants to determine whether her students perform better on mid-term examinations if they write
their exam alone or in a group. To experimentally investigate this possibility, she randomly assigns half of her
students to write their mid-term in the regular class setting (as a group) and randomly assigns the other half of
her students to write their mid-term individually in private cubicles in the university's testing centre. All aspects
of the exam are the same, except for the location. Which of the following is a potential confound for this study?
A) The students assigned to the control or experimental groups
B) The mid-term exam scores
C) Memory cues linked to the regular classroom setting
D) The amount of time required to write the exam

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-108
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: C) Memory cues linked to the regular classroom setting

109. A trainer at the gym notices that his clients are more likely to work out regularly and not skip days at the
gym, compared to people who don't use a personal trainer. He has also noticed that people who have a trainer
are less likely to get injured. The trainer believes that he helps people to stay motivated and accountable, and
that's why they go to the gym more regularly. What is the confounding variable in this example?
A) injuries
B) the trainer
C) time at the gym
D) motivation

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-109
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: A) injuries

110. Two researchers are studying chronic worrying. One researcher measures worrying as the number of times
per day that clients report worrying. The other researcher measures worrying by asking clients how much
worrying interferes with daily life. In this example, what differs between the two researchers' ways of looking at
worrying?
A) the independent variable.
B) the experimenter expectancy bias.
C) the within-subject design.
D) the operational definition.

30
Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-110
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: D) the operational definition.

111. One researcher defines aggressive behaviour in kids as instances of punching and kicking or other physical
acts. Another researcher defines aggressive behaviour in kids as any instance of physical aggression and verbal
acts like name-calling or teasing. Both researchers conduct observational studies of kids on the playground at
recess. These two researchers may find different results in their studies because of
A) different experimental conditions.
B) use of different samples of participants.
C) differences in their operational definitions.
D) the experimenter expectancy bias.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-111
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: C) differences in their operational definitions.

112. The placebo and Rosenthal effects are examples of __________ in experimental research.
A) dependent variables
B) independent variables
C) false variables
D) confounding variables

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-112
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: D) confounding variables

113. Tanya is a therapist who sells subliminal message tapes to help people stop smoking. She designs a study
where one group gets a tape with subliminal messages, a second group gets a tape without subliminal
messages, and the third group gets nothing. She finds that both groups with tapes had about an equal success
rate in quitting smoking, compared to the group that got nothing. Which of the following explains her results?
A) Nocebo effect
B) Placebo effect
C) Confounding variables
D) Experimenter expectancy effect

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-113
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: B) Placebo effect

31
114. One difficulty in conducting medical research is that participants often assume that any treatment will be
effective in alleviating their symptoms. Therefore, a researcher has to design an experiment that measures the
influence of
A) the nocebo effect.
B) the file drawer problem.
C) the placebo effect.
D) medical confounds.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-114
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: C) the placebo effect.

115. What term is used to describe participants who don't know whether they are in an experimental group or a
placebo group?
A) objective
B) blind
C) subjective
D) unbiased

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-115
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: B) blind

116. Harm resulting from the mere expectation of harm refers to the
A) expectancy effect.
B) hindsight effect.
C) placebo effect.
D) nocebo effect.

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-116
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: D) nocebo effect.

117. The practice of voodoo capitalizes on which psychological effect?

A) Expectancy effect
B) Hindsight effect
C) Placebo effect
D) Nocebo effect

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-117
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual

32
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: D) Nocebo effect

118. In order to avoid the __________, experiments should be conducted in a double-blind fashion.
A) experimenter expectancy effect
B) hindsight effect
C) placebo effect
D) nocebo effect

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-118
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: A) experimenter expectancy effect

119. The __________ refers to the phenomenon in which researchers' hypotheses lead them to unintentionally
bias the outcome of a study.
A) nocebo effect
B) placebo effect
C) hindsight effect
D) experimenter expectancy effect

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-119
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: D) experimenter expectancy effect

120. How does conducting a double-blind study attempt to remedy the experimenter expectancy effect?
A) It reduces the influence confirmation bias.
B) It reduces the nocebo effect.
C) It maintains adherence to research ethics.
D) It prevents confounds.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-120
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: A) It reduces the influence confirmation bias.

121. Keeping both the participants and researchers unaware of the constituent groups (experimental or control)
utilizes what research technique?
A) Hindsight
B) Single-blind
C) Nocebo
D) Double-blind

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-121

33
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: D) Double-blind

122. The experimenter expectancy effect is related to __________, where researchers may find evidence to
support their hypotheses even when these hypotheses are wrong.
A) the confirmation bias
B) the placebo effect
C) the hindsight bias
D) illusory correlation

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-122
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: A) the confirmation bias

123. Which historical example was one of the first demonstrations of the experimenter expectancy effect?
A) Mesmer and his magnetized trees
B) The horse, Clever Hans, and his mathematical abilities
C) Prefrontal lobotomy cures for depression
D) Ancient African voodoo practices

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-123
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: B) The horse, Clever Hans, and his mathematical abilities

124. Samantha signs up for a psychology experiment and is told that the study involves people's study habits by
themselves or in groups. She is assigned to an individual study room and given a packet of materials to study.
She also notices that she can hear music through speakers in the room and wonders whether the experiment is
really about whether music distracts people while they are studying. She decides to try even harder to study the
material she was given and ignore the music. This example best demonstrates the concept of
A) the Rosenthal effect.
B) demand characteristics.
C) experimenter expectancy effects.
D) the placebo effect.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-124
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: B) demand characteristics.

125. Which of the following results from cues that participants pick up from the study that allow them to generate
guesses regarding the researcher's hypothesis?
A) Cueing effects

34
B) Participant observation
C) Unobtrusive observation
D) Demand characteristics

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-125
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: D) Demand characteristics

126. To avoid demand characteristics, researchers frequently use __________ to keep their participants unaware
of the purpose of the experiment.
A) random selection
B) independent variables
C) random assignment
D) deception

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-126
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: D) deception

127. A researcher who is interested in effects of light intensity on test performance tells participants that the
study is about memory duration. Different groups of participants have different levels of light in the room, but
that variable isn't mentioned to them. What is this researcher trying to avoid by using a 'cover story' for
participants?
A) demand characteristics.
B) experimenter expectancy effects.
C) internal validity.
D) test-retest reliability.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-127
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: A) demand characteristics.

128. Telling research participants what to expect in a study before they agree to participate is called
A) informed consent.
B) anonymity.
C) confidentiality.
D) ethics.

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-128
Topic: Ethical Guidelines for Human Research
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.3a

35
Answer: A) informed consent.

129. Which ethical requirement of research was not present in the Tuskegee experiment, described in your
textbook, where nearly 400 African-American men were exposed to syphilis and then not treated for its
symptoms?
A) Informed consent
B) Anonymity
C) Confidentiality
D) Mandatory medical treatment

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-129
Topic: Ethical Guidelines for Human Research
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.3a

Answer: A) Informed consent

130. Before Jessica completed an online questionnaire, she had to read information about what type of questions
to expect. Then she clicked on a button that said "I agree" before she could see the rest of the study. What
procedure does this represent?
A) The cover story of the experiment
B) Gaining informed consent
C) Debriefing of participants
D) Using the peer review process

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-130
Topic: Ethical Guidelines for Human Research
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.3a

Answer: B) Gaining informed consent

131. To be ethical, psychological researchers must often carefully weigh the potential scientific benefits of their
research against
A) insurance costs.
B) the potential danger to participants.
C) long-term goals of society.
D) short-term goals of society.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-131
Topic: Ethical Guidelines for Human Research
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.3a

Answer: B) the potential danger to participants.

132. The use of deception in psychological research can be justified when

A) the researchers could perform the study equally well without the deception.
B) the use of deception does not negatively affect the rights of the participant.
C) the research involves medical or therapeutic interventions.
D) participants would not agree to the study without deception.

Difficulty: 3

36
QuestionID: 02-1-132
Topic: Ethical Guidelines for Human Research
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.3a

Answer: B) the use of deception does not negatively affect the rights of the participant.

133. The use of deception may be justified by ethics review boards in all of the following circumstances EXCEPT
when
A) researchers could not have performed the study without deception.
B) the research does not involve a medical or therapeutic intervention.
C) participants might not agree to participate unless deception is used.
D) the use of deception does not negatively impact the rights of the participant.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-133
Topic: Ethical Guidelines for Human Research
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.3a

Answer: C) participants might not agree to participate unless deception is used.

134. Following the completion of a study, researchers use a process called __________ to inform their
participants what the study was about and explain the hypotheses in nontechnical language.
A) informed consent
B) debriefing
C) experimenter expectancy
D) ethical review

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-134
Topic: Ethical Guidelines for Human Research
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.3a

Answer: B) debriefing

135. Which of the following is an ethical concern for human research but NOT for animal research?
A) The benefit of the study compared to the potential harm caused.
B) That the statistical methods used are appropriate for the research design.
C) Ensuring that informed consent and full debriefing occurs.
D) That the methods are experimental rather than correlational.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-135
Topic: Ethical Issues in Animal Research
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.3b

Answer: C) Ensuring that informed consent and full debriefing occurs.

136. Which of the following differs between ethical research with humans and ethical research with animals?
A) Boards or panels for review of ethical procedures.
B) National-level guidelines about ethics.
C) The need to balance the costs and benefits of the research.
D) The importance of debriefing procedures.

37
Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-136
Topic: Ethical Issues in Animal Research
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.3b

Answer: D) The importance of debriefing procedures.

137. The application of mathematics to describing and analyzing data is called

A) statistics.
B) significance.
C) central tendency.
D) dispersion.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-137
Topic: Statistics—The Language of Psychological Research
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.4a

Answer: A) statistics.

138. A visitor asks if the university has more male or more female undergraduate psychology majors. What
measure of central tendency is she asking about?
A) Range
B) Mode
C) Median
D) Mean

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-138
Topic: Descriptive Statistics—What's What?
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.4a

Answer: B) Mode

139. A professor examines the number of classes his students have missed and has the following data: 0, 0, 0, 0,
1, 1, 2, 4, 5, 17. What is the median for this data set?
A) 0
B) 1
C) 2
D) 3

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-139
Topic: Descriptive Statistics—What's What?
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.4a

Answer: B) 1

140. A professor examines the number of classes his students have missed and has the following data: 0, 0, 0, 0,
1, 1, 2, 4, 5, 17. What is the mode for this data set?
A) 0

38
B) 1
C) 2
D) 3

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-140
Topic: Descriptive Statistics—What's What?
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.4a

Answer: A) 0

141. A professor examines the number of classes his students have missed and has the following data: 0, 0, 0, 0,
1, 1, 2, 4, 5, 17. What is the mean for this data set?
A) 0
B) 1
C) 2
D) 3

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-141
Topic: Descriptive Statistics—What's What?
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.4a

Answer: D) 3

142. Statistics Canada recently released a statement that 50% of Canadian households earn less than $70 366 per
year, and 50% of households earn more. Which measure of central tendency is used in this example?
A) Range
B) Mean
C) Mode
D) Median

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-142
Topic: Descriptive Statistics—What's What?
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.4a

Answer: D) Median

143. At the end of term, a professor notes that most students in his class earned a grade of B. Which measure of
central tendency is used in this example?
A) Range
B) Mean
C) Mode
D) Median

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-143
Topic: Descriptive Statistics—What's What?
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.4a

Answer: C) Mode

39
144. The __________ reflects the middle score in a data set, whereas the __________ reflects the most frequent
score.
A) mean; mode
B) mode; median
C) mean; median
D) median; mode

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-144
Topic: Descriptive Statistics—What's What?
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.4a

Answer: D) median; mode

145. Which measure of central tendency is also known as the average?

A) Mean
B) Median
C) Mode
D) Standard deviation

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-145
Topic: Descriptive Statistics—What's What?
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.4a

Answer: A) Mean

146. Measures of __________ reflect how loosely or tightly bunched scores are in a distribution, whereas
measures of __________ reflect where the group of scores tends to cluster.
A) mode; mean
B) central tendency; median
C) variability; central tendency
D) central tendency; mean

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-146
Topic: Descriptive Statistics—What's What?
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.4a

Answer: C) variability; central tendency

147. When a distribution is skewed, which of the following descriptive statistics would offer the best measure of
central tendency?
A) Mean
B) Median
C) Standard deviation
D) Range

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-147
Topic: Descriptive Statistics—What's What?
Skill: Applied/Conceptual

40
Objective: 2.4a

Answer: B) Median

148. If you look at the heights of a classroom full of 6-year-olds, you will see that there are a few that are quite
short, a few that are quite tall, but most of the kids are somewhere in the middle for height. If you were to graph
the distribution with height increasing from left to right, which of the following best describes the distribution of
heights in this group?
A) The distribution is normally distributed.
B) The distribution is positively skewed.
C) The distribution is negatively skewed.
D) The distribution is inversely skewed.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-148
Topic: Descriptive Statistics—What's What?
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.4a

Answer: A) The distribution is normally distributed.

149. Imagine that you're watching popcorn pop. A few kernels pop early, a few kernels pop late, but most pop in
between. If you were to graph the distribution with time increasing from left to right, what could you say about
the distribution of kernel popping?
A) The distribution is normally distributed.
B) The distribution is positively skewed.
C) The distribution is negatively skewed.
D) The distribution is inversely skewed.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-149
Topic: Descriptive Statistics—What's What?
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.4a

Answer: A) The distribution is normally distributed.

150. Suppose in a classroom of students some arrive early to class, but most students arrive just moments
before class begins, and no one comes in after class has started. If you were to graph the distribution with time
increasing from left to right, what could you say about the distribution of student arrival to class?
A) The distribution is normally distributed.
B) The distribution is positively skewed.
C) The distribution is negatively skewed.
D) The distribution is inversely skewed.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-150
Topic: Descriptive Statistics—What's What?
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.4a

Answer: C) The distribution is negatively skewed.

151. Suppose at the movie theatre you observe that a few patrons arrive early, but most arrive just moments
before the movie begins, and no one arrives late. If you were to graph the distribution with time increasing from
left to right, what could you say about the distribution of patron arrivals at the theatre?

41
A) The distribution is normally distributed.
B) The distribution is positively skewed.
C) The distribution is negatively skewed.
D) The distribution is inversely skewed.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-151
Topic: Descriptive Statistics—What's What?
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.4a

Answer: C) The distribution is negatively skewed.

152. Most people are generally contented or happy, but there are some instances of mild depression, fewer cases
of moderate depression, and even fewer cases of severe depression. If you were to graph the distribution with
contentment on the left and depression to the right, what could you say about the distribution of depression in
the general population?
A) The distribution is normally distributed.
B) The distribution is positively skewed.
C) The distribution is negatively skewed.
D) The distribution is inversely skewed.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-152
Topic: Descriptive Statistics—What's What?
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.4a

Answer: B) The distribution is positively skewed.

153. If I wanted to determine, on average, how far apart any one score is from another, I should use a measure of
A) central tendency.
B) correlation.
C) statistical significance.
D) variability.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-153
Topic: Descriptive Statistics—What's What?
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.4a

Answer: D) variability.

154. Which measure of variability uses all the available data?

A) Mean
B) Median
C) Range
D) Standard deviation

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-154
Topic: Descriptive Statistics—What's What?
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.4a

42
Answer: D) Standard deviation

155. Two groups of children have the same average height, but in one group they are all roughly the same size
and in the other group there are some very tall and very short children. What differs between these two groups?
A) Variability
B) Central tendency
C) Median
D) Skewness

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-155
Topic: Descriptive Statistics—What's What?
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.4a

Answer: A) Variability

156. This simplest measure of variability is the

A) standard deviation.
B) range.
C) mode.
D) mean.

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-156
Topic: Descriptive Statistics—What's What?
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.4a

Answer: B) range.

157. Which of the following descriptive statistics uses only two data points, no matter the size of the data set?
A) Standard deviation
B) Range
C) Variance
D) Median

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-157
Topic: Descriptive Statistics—What's What?
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.4a

Answer: B) Range

158. This mathematical method allows researchers to determine whether they can generalize findings from a
sample to the full population.
A) Standard deviation
B) Descriptive statistics
C) Inferential statistics
D) Central tendency

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-158
Topic: Inferential Statistics—Testing Hypothesis
Skill: Factual

43
Objective: 2.4b

Answer: C) Inferential statistics

159. A researcher wishes to generalize his findings beyond the people at the organization he is studying in
Alberta. He wants to attempt to show that the findings apply to people who work in similar organizations
throughout Canada. He should use __________ to analyze his data.
A) inferential statistics
B) correlational statistics
C) logical statistics
D) descriptive statistics

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-159
Topic: Inferential Statistics—Testing Hypotheses
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.4b

Answer: A) inferential statistics

160. The term statistical significance implies that the results are
A) not likely due to chance.
B) valid.
C) extremely meaningful.
D) important.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-160
Topic: Inferential Statistics—Testing Hypotheses
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.4b

Answer: A) not likely due to chance.

161. Increasing the sample size in a research study increases the chance of finding results that are __________
significant but not necessarily __________ significant.
A) practically; statistically
B) statistically; practically
C) descriptively; inferentially
D) inferentially; descriptively

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-161
Topic: Inferential Statistics—Testing Hypotheses
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.4a

Answer: B) statistically; practically

162. Dr. Loggins conducts a study examining the relationship between shoe size and scores on a math aptitude
test in a sample of 15,000 young adults. He finds a significant negative correlation (r = –.06) between these two
variables. What should he conclude from his data?
A) The smaller a person's feet, the better their math scores.
B) He found a statistically significant result that he can generalize to the population.
C) There is no real practical significance to this result.
D) His results will allow him to reliably predict math scores from foot size.

44
Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-162
Topic: Inferential Statistics—Testing Hypotheses
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.4b

Answer: C) There is no real practical significance to this result.

163. In sciences and social sciences, another term for real-world importance is
A) practical significance.
B) statistical significance.
C) inferential significance.
D) descriptive significance.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-163
Topic: Inferential Statistics—Testing Hypotheses
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.4b

Answer: A) practical significance.

164. A therapist wishes to show that his new therapy is a marked improvement over the current best available
therapy. To do so, he examines the number of participants who improved with each. A total of 100 participants
received his treatment (and 50 of them improved). A total of 80 participants received the alternative treatment
(and 40 of them improved). What should the therapist conclude?
A) His treatment is superior because it included 100 people as opposed to 80.
B) His treatment is superior to the alternative because 50 is greater than 40.
C) His treatment is no better than the alternative because the percentages are the same.
D) His treatment is inferior because the percentages are the same.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-164
Topic: How People Lie with Statistics
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.4c

Answer: C) His treatment is no better than the alternative because the percentages are the same.

165. If you read that the average cost of a home in Fancy City costs $3 000 000, you might think that you could
never afford to buy a house there. If you knew that most houses cost less than $200 000, but a few houses were
multimillion-dollar mansions, you would have a different impression. What leads to these different impressions of
the same data?
A) Different measures of central tendency.
B) Different measures of variability.
C) Biases on the part of real estate agents.
D) Biases in recording of actual house sales.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-165
Topic: How People Lie with Statistics
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.4c

Answer: A) Different measures of central tendency.

45
166. A salesperson has had a slow week, and has only made 20 sales. Most sales were for small amounts, but
one sale was very large. If the salesperson wanted to use statistics to mislead someone about selling more than
was actually sold, which of the following techniques would be most effective?
A) Only report measures of variability.
B) Only report measures of central tendency.
C) Report the median and the standard deviation.
D) Report the mean and the range.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-166
Topic: How People Lie with Statistics
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.4c

Answer: D) Report the mean and the range.

167. The peer review process is designed to

A) make researchers feel bad when their article is not published.
B) identify flaws in a research study's methods, findings, and conclusions.
C) block alternative therapies from being made available to the general public.
D) place obstacles in front of people whose theories differ from mainstream science.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-167
Topic: Becoming a Peer Reviewer
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.5a

Answer: B) identify flaws in a research study's methods, findings, and conclusions.

168. The purpose of a peer reviewer is to act as

A) critical thinker.
B) scientific gatekeeper.
C) a supervisor.
D) a teacher.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-168
Topic: Becoming a Peer Reviewer
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.5b

Answer: A) critical thinker.

169. Imagine that you are a peer reviewer for the following study: Researchers tested a new headache drug. They
provided the new drug treatment to one group of participants with headaches, and a control group received no
treatment for their headaches. Nearly 70% of people in the drug treatment group reported feeling better within 1
hour of getting a headache, whereas only 30% of people in the control group felt better within 1 hour of getting a
headache. What is the major flaw in this study?
A) The study would not pass ethics review.
B) There are no descriptive statistics used.
C) There is no placebo-control group.
D) The control group appears to have had some other treatment.

Difficulty: 3

46
QuestionID: 02-1-169
Topic: Becoming a Peer Reviewer
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.5a

Answer: C) There is no placebo-control group.

170. Imagine that you are a peer reviewer for the following study: Researchers are evaluating a new teaching
technique, to determine whether it increases student engagement and interest. In one class, scheduled at 11am,
they used the new technique. In a second class, scheduled at 7am, they used regular lecture techniques. The
researchers found more student engagement and interest in the class with the new technique, so they concluded
that it was effective. What major flaw is present in this study?
A) There is no control group.
B) The treatment is confounded with time of day.
C) The regular lecture techniques are more engaging than the new technique.
D) The study is not a true experiment so it cannot generalize.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-1-170
Topic: Becoming a Peer Reviewer
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.5a

Answer: B) The treatment is confounded with time of day.

171. When evaluating new information, we should rely more heavily on __________ sources like journal articles
rather than popular media.
A) primary
B) ethical
C) statistically significant
D) skewed

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-171
Topic: Most Reporters Aren't Scientists—Evaluating Psychology in the Media
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.5b

Answer: A) primary

172. Which of the following is an example of a 'primary source' of scientific information?

A) Newspaper reports
B) Corporate websites
C) Reputable television science programs
D) Journal articles

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-172
Topic: Most Reporters Aren't Scientists—Evaluating Psychology in the Media
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.5b

Answer: D) Journal articles

173. Imagine you are doing a project for class on evaluating the effectiveness of different treatments for anxiety
disorders. You begin your project by searching for resources on the Internet. Which of the following sources

47
should NOT be considered a source of credible information?
A) Canadian Psychological Association website
B) Link to a meta-analysis on anxiety treatments
C) Madame Chloe's ICureScaredPeople.com
D) An article in Scientific American magazine

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-173
Topic: Most Reporters Aren't Scientists—Evaluating Psychology in the Media
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.5b

Answer: C) Madame Chloe's ICureScaredPeople.com

174. A major limitation in reading about the results of psychological research in the newspaper is that
A) reporters provide detailed information about the research study that the general public cannot comprehend.
B) reporters create controversy where none exists by treating scientific evidence and dissenter's biased opinions as
equally compelling.
C) research reporters tend to be scientists who cannot easily communicate with the average layperson.
D) reporters do not know how to identify experts to interview for many of their stories and end up unintentionally
misleading the public.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-174
Topic: Most Reporters Aren't Scientists—Evaluating Psychology in the Media
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.5b

Answer: B) reporters create controversy where none exists by treating scientific evidence and dissenter's biased opinions
as equally compelling.

175. The appearance of scientific controversy where none exists, resulting from "balanced coverage" of a topic,
is referred to as
A) an illusory correlation.
B) pseudosymmetry.
C) the nocebo effect.
D) a demand characteristics.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-175
Topic: Most Reporters Aren't Scientists—Evaluating Psychology in the Media
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.5b

Answer: B) pseudosymmetry.

176. A key factor to consider when reading about the results of a study on the Internet, in a newspaper, or in a
news magazine is to
A) determine how well it fits with what others have told you in the past.
B) rely on your common sense or "gut" intuition.
C) consider the source of the information.
D) ensure that you understand the statistics

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-176
Topic: Most Reporters Aren't Scientists—Evaluating Psychology in the Media

48
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.5b

Answer: C) consider the source of the information.

177. The media tries to balance its coverage of controversial topics to create __________, or the appearance of a
scientific controversy where none exists.
A) media bullying
B) canalization
C) pseudoscience
D) pseudosymmetry

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-177
Topic: Most Reporters Aren't Scientists—Evaluating Psychology in the Media
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.5b

Answer: D) pseudosymmetry

178. A TV news program interviewed an expert about volcanos, and the expert presented information from a wide
range of well-supported scientific studies that all suggested that a local volcano is inactive and safe for tourists
to visit. The program also interviewed someone who lived near the volcano, who didn't know any of the scientific
research but said that he 'just knew' that the volcano was going to erupt soon. Which of the following terms
describes this approach used by the news program?
A) Pseudoscience
B) Pseudosymmetry
C) Sharpening
D) Levelling

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-178
Topic: Most Reporters Aren't Scientists—Evaluating Psychology in the Media
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.5b

Answer: B) Pseudosymmetry

179. Which of the following terms is used when a report about a scientific discovery minimizes the less important
details of the study?
A) Sharpening
B) Source discrediting
C) Leveling
D) Balancing

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-179
Topic: Most Reporters Aren't Scientists—Evaluating Psychology in the Media
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.5b

Answer: C) Leveling

180. __________ occurs when you read about a psychological study in the newspaper and notice that the central
message or conclusion of a study seems to be exaggerated.
A) Sharpening

49
B) Pseudosymmetry
C) Leveling
D) Balancing

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-180
Topic: Most Reporters Aren't Scientists—Evaluating Psychology in the Media
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.5b

Answer: A) Sharpening

181. If you were a science writer for a magazine, and you were writing an article about treatments for depression,
which of the following should you AVOID in your article?
A) references to journal articles
B) interviews with multiple experts
C) statistical details about base rates and various treatment options
D) opinions about diagnosis from laypeople

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-181
Topic: Most Reporters Aren't Scientists—Evaluating Psychology in the Media
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.5b

Answer: D) opinions about diagnosis from laypeople

182. Perceptions of events outside the known channels of sensation are referred to as
A) revelations.
B) intuitions.
C) extrasensory perceptions.
D) transverse readings.

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-182
Topic: Applying the Experimental Method—Extrasensory Perception and Psychic Abilities
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.5c

Answer: C) extrasensory perceptions.

183. The belief that one can detect the presence of objects or people that are hidden from view is referred to as
A) a revelation.
B) telepathy.
C) precognition.
D) clairvoyance.

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-183
Topic: Applying the Experimental Method—Extrasensory Perception and Psychic Abilities
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.5c

Answer: D) clairvoyance.

184. The belief that one has the ability to read other people's minds is referred to as

50
A) a revelation.
B) telepathy.
C) precognition.
D) clairvoyance.

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-184
Topic: Applying the Experimental Method—Extrasensory Perception and Psychic Abilities
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.5c

Answer: B) telepathy.

185. In the 1930s, J.B. Rhine at Duke University used a set of Zener cards, which consisted of five unique
symbols (wavy lines, a star, a circle, a plus, and a square) in order to study which phenomenon?
A) Ganzfeld perception
B) pseudosymmetry
C) falsifiability
D) extrasensory perception

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-185
Topic: Applying the Experimental Method—Extrasensory Perception and Psychic Abilities
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.5c

Answer: D) extrasensory perception

186. Although J.B. Rhine's Zener card studies produced interesting findings, the main problem with his ESP
research involved
A) no prior hypothesis.
B) a lack of peer review.
C) falsifiability.
D) replication.

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-1-186
Topic: Applying the Experimental Method—Extrasensory Perception and Psychic Abilities
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.5c

Answer: D) replication.

187. The results from J.B. Rhine's studies using Zener cards at Duke University in the 1930s were challenged
because
A) subjects were not randomly assigned to conditions.
B) Ganzfeld effects disproved the Zener card effects.
C) Rhine admitted to experimenter expectancy effects.
D) other researchers could not replicate the results.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-187
Topic: Applying the Experimental Method—Extrasensory Perception and Psychic Abilities
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.5c

51
Answer: D) other researchers could not replicate the results.

188. I was thinking about my grandmother, and then she called me on the phone. Which of the following is likely
to make me believe that my thoughts are the result of ESP?
A) multiple end points
B) sharpening and leveling
C) hindsight bias
D) illusory correlation

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-188
Topic: Applying the Experimental Method—Extrasensory Perception and Psychic Abilities
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.5c

Answer: D) illusory correlation

189. What core aspect of the scientific method was used to discount Bem's (2011) claims that he had found
scientific proof of precognition?
A) The results were not replicable.
B) There were experimenter effects.
C) Participants picked up on demand characteristics.
D) Ad hoc hypotheses and non-falsifiable claims

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-189
Topic: Applying the Experimental Method—Extrasensory Perception and Psychic Abilities
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.5c

Answer: A) The results were not replicable.

190. Mentalists who specialize in psychological magic may offer clients a __________, which refers to the art of
persuading someone you've just met that you know all about them.
A) karmic reading
B) cosmic forecast
C) spiritual prediction
D) cold reading

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-190
Topic: Applying the Experimental Method—Extrasensory Perception and Psychic Abilities
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.5c

Answer: D) cold reading

191. I predict that in the upcoming year, a politician will be re-elected even though he was part of a scandal.
Which of the following terms applies to this type of prediction?
A) Ignoring base rates
B) Cold reading
C) Illusory correlation
D) Multiple end points

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-191

52
Topic: Applying the Experimental Method—Extrasensory Perception and Psychic Abilities
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.5c

Answer: D) Multiple end points

192. Which of the following is an example of the 'sleight of tongue' technique used in cold readings?
A) "You've recently been struggling with some tough decisions in life."
B) "I'm sensing that someone has been important in your life lately."
C) "Has your father been ill? What about your mother? Hmm I sense that someone in your family is ill or concerned
about getting ill."
D) "I believe you have a piece of clothing, like an old dress or blouse, that you haven't worn in years but have kept for
sentimental value."

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-192
Topic: Applying the Experimental Method—Extrasensory Perception and Psychic Abilities
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.5c

Answer: C) "Has your father been ill? What about your mother? Hmm I sense that someone in your family is ill or
concerned about getting ill."

193. At a carnival, you chat with a 'psychic' who seems to know a lot about you. First she told you that she knew
you were struggling with some tough decisions, and she also seemed to know that you have some very
traditional values as well as some modern ones. After a few failed attempts, she accurately identified your Dad's
name and that he was very important to you. What technique was the 'psychic' using?
A) clairvoyance
B) cold reading
C) Ganzfeld technique
D) extraordinary claims

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-193
Topic: Applying the Experimental Method—Extrasensory Perception and Psychic Abilities
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.5c

Answer: B) cold reading

194. Which of the following is an example of the multiple end points technique associated with 'psychic
forecasting'?
A) "You've recently been struggling with some tough decisions in life."
B) "There will be a major weather event that ruins a lot of lives."
C) "Has your father been ill? What about your mother? Hmm I sense that someone in your family is ill or concerned
about getting ill."
D) "Think of a number between 1 and 50."

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-1-194
Topic: Applying the Experimental Method—Extrasensory Perception and Psychic Abilities
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.5c

Answer: B) "There will be a major weather event that ruins a lot of lives."

53
Fill-in-the-blank

1. A researcher investigated the topic of aggression by simply recording instances of aggression on a school
playground using the research design of __________ .

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-2-01
Page-Reference:
Topic: Naturalistic Observation—Studying Humans "In the Wild"
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: a. naturalistic observation

2. Random __________ is the most important part of ensuring the generalizability of one's results to the general
population.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-2-02
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys—Asking People about Themselves and Others
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: a. selection

3. If there is consistency or stability between your score on an eye exam today and the same exam next week,
you would be able to say that __________ exists for that exam.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-2-03
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys—Asking People about Themselves and Others
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: a. reliability

4. If someone is __________ , it means that they would lie on a questionnaire or test in order to make is seem like
they are disturbed or ill.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-2-04
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys—Asking People about Themselves and Others
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: a. malingering

5. In a __________ design, the researchers are interested in measuring variables in order to see if they are
associated with each other.

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-2-05
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2b

54
Answer: a. correlational

6. A correlation of +1.0 or -1.0 is considered a __________ correlation.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-2-06
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: a. perfect

7. According to the authors, many examples of superstitious behaviour are the result of __________ correlation.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-2-07
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: a. illusory

8. Causal inferences are only possible with __________ designs.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-2-08
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: a. experimental

9. It becomes difficult to conclude that differences in the conditions of the independent variable led to the
observed differences in the dependent variable when a __________ variable is present in one' s research design.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-2-09
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: a. confounding

10. Sometimes a __________ effect occurs, when expectancy about the independent variable leads to
improvement in symptoms.

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-2-10
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: a. placebo

11. When neither the experimenter nor the participant have any knowledge of the experimental condition to which

55
the participant has been assigned, we say that this is a __________ study.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-2-11
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: a. double-blind

12. In most experimental and correlational studies, the researcher is required to obtain the participant's
__________ consent to ensure that the participant understands any risks.

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-2-12
Topic: Ethical Guidelines for Human Research
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.3a

Answer: a. informed

13. The measure of central tendency that indicates the midpoint of a set of scores is known as the __________ .

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-2-13
Topic: Descriptive Statistics—What's What?
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.4a

Answer: a. median

14. Another word for the __________ of a set of data is the average.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-2-14
Page-Reference:
Topic: Descriptive Statistics—What's What?
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective:

Answer: a. mean

15. If you count the frequency of each score in a data set, then you can identify the __________ or most common
score.

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-2-15
Topic: Descriptive Statistics—What's What?
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.4a

Answer: a. mode

16. While the standard deviation uses all of the data in order to estimate variability, the __________ uses only the
top and bottom scores.

56
Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-2-16
Topic: Descriptive Statistics—What's What?
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.4a

Answer: a. range

17. The goal of inferential statistics is to __________ our results to other similar samples.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-2-17
Topic: Inferential Statistics—Testing Hypotheses
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.4b

Answer: a. generalize

18. Before one's research is published in a scientific journal, it must go through the process of __________
review, to be evaluated in terms of its accuracy and contribution to the field.

Difficulty: 1
QuestionID: 02-2-18
Topic: Becoming a Peer Reviewer
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.5a

Answer: a. peer

19. Journalists engage in __________ when they present 'both sides' of a scientific topic, but only one side has
evidence to support it.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-2-19
Topic: Most Reporters Aren't Scientists—Evaluating Psychology in the Media
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.5b

Answer: a. pseudosymmetry

Critical Thinking

1. Why do you think we need good research designs in order to be good scientists? In your answer, please
include the type of thinking that leads humans to be fooled by biases, and the type of thinking that helps us
prevent those biases.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-3-01
Topic: How We Can Be Fooled—Two Modes of Thinking and Pitfalls in Experimental Design
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.1a and 2.2c

Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit.

- Without research designs, even intelligent and well-trained people can be fooled. Our naïve realism makes us think that

57
we see the world as it really is, and that is often an error.
- Intuitive thinking (System 1 thinking) takes major shortcuts, and doesn't require much mental effort. This leads us to
confirmation bias, illusory correlations, and other biases that cause us to reach conclusions that are not necessarily
accurate (although this type of thinking is really important for lots of everyday reactions and decisions)
- Analytical thinking (System 2 thinking) is more effortful, slower, and more reflective. It can override our intuitive thinking
and help us to make more accurate decisions or change our initial impressions.
- Researchers need to use research design to get data that is not contaminated by biases (like experimenter bias,
demand characteristics, etc.)

2. Case studies and naturalistic observation are often described as 'weaker' methods than experimental methods.
Argue for the importance of case studies and naturalistic observation by describing the methods, describing the
types of topics that require those methods, and where experimental methods would be useless.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-3-02
Topic: Naturalistic Observation—Studying Humans "In the Wild" and Case Study Designs—Getting to Know You
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: Answers will vary but should contain most of the following for full credit.
- Both are examples of descriptive research designs (identifying and organizing information about general patterns of
behaviours) rather than examples of either predictive (i.e., correlational) or causal (i.e., experimental) designs.
- They are existence proofs for psychological phenomena. Case studies (and naturalistic observations) provide a valuable
opportunity to study rare or unusual phenomena that are difficult or impossible to re-create in the laboratory. Case studies
and naturalistic observations can offer useful insights that researchers can follow up on and test in systematic
investigations. In this respect, they can be enormously helpful for generating hypotheses.
- Although these methods tend to have poor internal validity (can't make causal statements), and case studies have poor
external validity (can't generalize), they still serve important purposes.
- Naturalistic observation has great external validity
- Having both descriptive and predictive/causal studies is ideal, because multiple methods allow for more detailed
understanding of a topic
- Experimental methods can be artificial, and some things can't be recreated in the lab (e.g., interactions with nature,
family dynamics). Also, some topics can't be ethically studied using experimental methods (e.g., trauma and abuse,
parenting). Some topics are too rare to study with experiments because there aren't enough people (e.g., rare diseases,
unusual social situations)

3. Discuss why researchers need to be familiar with both descriptive and inferential statistics.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-3-03
Topic: Descriptive Statistics—What's What? and Inferential Statistics—Testing Hypotheses
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.4a and 2.4b

Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following ideas for full credit.
- Student needs to mention that each gives a different kind of information because each has differing goals (organization
and summarization for descriptive and generalization for inferential).
- Techniques in each can be misused in different ways to make effects appear that really are not accurate or appropriate.
- Often both are used in conjunction by the researcher rather than being two types that are chosen between (e.g., using
the means of the groups to help see the statistically significant group differences).

4. Design an experiment about the effects of subliminal self-help tapes on self-esteem. In your answer, be sure to
describe 1) your hypothesis, 2) your independent and dependent variables, 3) how your participants will be
assigned to groups, 4) what type or types of control groups you will use, and 5) whether you will use blind or
double-blind procedures, and why.

58
Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-3-04
Page-Reference:
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: The answer should provide the following information:

Hypothesis: Must be a specific prediction, like subliminal self-help tapes increase self-esteem, or subliminal self-help
tapes have only an effect equal to a placebo effect.
IV: Must be something that is manipulated by the researcher, like the presence or absence of self-help tapes
DV: Must be something that is measured, and should vary in response to changes in the IV, like self esteem
Assignments: Random assignment in order to qualify as an experiment
Control groups: Should have at least a placebo control group but may also have an absolute control group where no tapes
are used
Blinding: Should indicate the use of double blind, neither experimenter nor participants will know the setting in order to
minimize placebo effects on participants and expectancy effects on experimenters.

5. Read the following report of a recent scientific discovery and describe the three main problems associated
with this journalistic account.

Headline in Local Newspaper: Scientists discover that being a millionaire is all in your genes!
Recent evidence from a lab at Illusory University suggests that people really are born rich. Using high-tech
genetic analysis, they discovered that genes associated with aggression and certain aspects of personality are
more common among millionaires than in the general population. Researchers emphasized that there are a lot of
commonalities across the population, too. These exciting differences may suggest that people are destined to be
either rich or poor, based on inherited biology. We asked people on the street what they thought about these
results, and we found that most people reject these findings. "That's just stupid" said Jim Median, "If you work
hard enough, anyone can be a millionaire. I know a guy who was born really poor but made a million dollars
before he turned 30. What do scientists say about that?"

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-3-05
Topic: Most Reporters Aren't Scientists—Evaluating Psychology in the Media
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.5b

Answer: Answers should include the following points for full marks:
1. Consider the source. This is from a local newspaper where the journalist is probably not trained in science methods.
2. Sharpening and leveling. The main finding is exaggerated, and the less central details are minimized ('born rich', many
commonalities across the population)
3. Pseudosymmetry. View of scientists is distorted, and layperson opinion is provided as 'balance'

Essay

1. Why is it necessary for psychologists to have so many different research designs to study human behaviour?
Use examples of different designs to support your answer.

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-4-01
Topic: The Scientific Method—Toolbox of Skills
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a, 2.2b, 2.2c

Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following points for full credit.

59
- Each research design has its own important limitations. Student should identify at least two examples from two different
designs to earn full credit. E.g., experiments can be artificial, and naturalistic observation has poor internal validity
- The goals of research differ (some focus on description, others on predictions, and others on establishing causation).
- Different topics have different constraints (time, money, ethics, rarity) that may be best studied by different methods
(e.g., case studies for rare events, correlational studies for things that can't be ethically manipulated)
- If different methods produce similar results, this increases our confidence in our understanding of a particular
phenomenon (idea of convergence).

2. Describe and distinguish between the different types of reliability and validity.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-4-02
Topic: Self-Report Measures and Surveys—Asking People about Themselves and Others
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following points for full credit.
- Reliability: consistency of measurement (subtypes test–retest reliability: scores over a period of time; interrater:
scores/coding done by raters on the same data)
- Validity: measuring what you are claiming to measure (related to internal and external validity)

3. Compare and contrast the differences between a correlational and experimental design.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-4-03
Topic: Correlational Designs and Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2b and 2.2c

Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following points for full credit.
- Correlation: measures two variables that often can't be manipulated; examines relationships (positive or negative)
between variables and the strength of those associations; cannot make causal conclusions but can test preliminary ideas
- Experiment: uses dependent (measured) and independent (manipulated) variables; examines cause-and-effect
relationships; permits causal conclusions; requires random assignment and manipulation of IV

4. Describe a simple experiment that includes 1) an independent variable, 2) a dependent variable, and 3) a
confounding variable. Make sure to clearly identify which variable is which.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-4-04
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: Answers will vary but must include the following for full marks:

1. The independent variable is something manipulated by the experimenter e.g., the presence or absence of a drug.
2. The dependent variable is something measured, and should be able to change in response to the IV (e.g., symptoms of
disease, happiness, body weight)
3. The confounding variable should also vary with the independent variable, making it difficult to determine the cause of
the variance in the dependent variable (e.g., time of day, experimenter cues, stressful administration of IV)
4. The experiment must be an experiment, and not some other type of design

5. Discuss how the concept of the illusory correlation would explain a friend's complaint that his favourite
hockey team is always being displayed in a negative light by the campus newspaper while other teams are not
treated the same. Be sure to indicate which types of information we attend to most, and which types of

60
information we tend to ignore.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-4-05
Topic: Correlational Designs
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2b

Answer: Answers will vary but should include the following to earn full credit.
- Student should define or describe what the illusory correlation is in his or her answer (either directly or demonstrate an
understanding indirectly) such that two things appear to go together but in reality are not systematically connected.
- Student should discuss the general ideas associated with the Great Fourfold Table of Life from page 54. More
specifically, answers should focus on the fact that the student—in the question—is focusing on instances where negative
portrayals of the team are occurring but is neglecting stories about the team that are positive or have no evaluative
component. Likewise, the student—in the question—is also ignoring when other teams are discussed negatively or other
negative stories that are irrelevant to friend's team are published.

6. Identify and describe two pitfalls in experimental design, what the implications are for interpreting the results
of a study with these pitfalls, and how these pitfalls can be avoided.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-4-06
Topic: Experimental Designs
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.2c

Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the any of the two following points for full credit.
- Placebo effect: improvement resulting from expectations, implications are that improvements may not be stemming from
the "treatment" per se, can overcome this by using single-blind procedures
- Nocebo effect: harm resulting from the mere expectation of harm, people can subjectively experience pain if they believe
they may be hurt, can overcome using single-blind procedures
- Experimenter expectancy effect: researcher's predictions unintentionally bias the outcome of a study, implications are
that the experimenter can sometimes give away cues without knowing it that influence the participants' behaviours, can
overcome by double-blind procedures
- Demand characteristics: cues that participants pick up from an experiment that allow them to guess what the hypothesis
of a study does, implications are that the participants can alter their behaviour based on their knowledge of the study, can
overcome by double-blind procedures

7. Describe the roles of research ethics boards (REBs) and statements of informed consent within the human
research process.

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-4-07
Topic: Ethical Guidelines for Human Research
Skill: Factual
Objective: 2.3a

Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following for full credit.
- Research ethics boards (REBs) review all research carefully with an eye toward protecting participants against abuses.
REBs consist of faculty members with expertise in research and ethics, as well as community members who are not
involved in research or with the institution, performing and reviewing the research.
- The informed consent ensures that participants understand what is being asked of them and what will be involved in
their experience. Participants must be given enough information to make a decision to voluntarily participate in the
research. If they are misled during the research, the missing information must be explained during a debriefing.

8. There are multiple measures of central tendency and variability. Why do researchers use multiple methods

61
rather than just agreeing on which methods are the correct ones?

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-4-08
Topic: Descriptive Statistics—What's What?
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.4a

Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit.
- Sometimes one measure is more appropriate than another. For example, the mean is distorted by the presence of
outliers in a skewed distribution, so a researcher would be advised to report the median instead.
- It depends what information a researcher wants to highlight. For example, if a researcher wants to identify what was the
most frequently endorsed option for a question, he or she would choose the mode. If he or she wants to report about how
the scores were represented over all the possible answers, he or she would report the mean.
- Some people may wish to know the typical difference between scores and thus choose standard deviation while others
would look at the amount of difference from the most extreme scores and choose the range.
- A researcher cannot just report central tendency or just dispersion because it tells only part of the whole, either where
scores are located (central tendency) or how much difference between scores is present (dispersion).

9. Your friend has approached you because she just read an article in the Paranormal Enquirer magazine that
shows introverts are more likely to have extrasensory perception (ESP). What tips for evaluating media claims
would you recommend to your friend?

Difficulty: 3
QuestionID: 02-4-09
Topic: Most Reporters Aren't Scientists—Evaluating Psychology in the Media
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.5b

Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following points for full credit.
- Consider the source of the claim (and explain).
- Be aware of excessive sharpening (exaggeration of gist/central message) or leveling (minimize less-central details of a
study).
- Don't be misled by seemingly balanced coverage of a story. Watch for pseudosymmetry.

10. Define internal and external validity. Which research method is high in internal validity and which method is
high in external validity?

Difficulty: 2
QuestionID: 02-4-10
Topic: Naturalistic Observation—Studying Humans "In the Wild"
Skill: Applied/Conceptual
Objective: 2.2a

Answer: The answer should provide the following information:

1. Internal validity: the extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences. Typically, experiments have high internal
validity: if an independent variable is manipulated, participants are randomly assigned to the control and experimental
groups and a valid dependent variable is measured reliably, then usually the experiment has high internal validity.
Although it doesn't mean that experiments lack external validity (meaningful and valid operational definitions of variable
provide this), typically naturalistic observations have high external validity.
2. External validity: The major advantage of naturalistic designs is that they're often high in external validity, or the extent
to which we can generalize our findings to real-world settings. On the flip side, internal validity is low in naturalistic
observations and cause and effect relationships are sometimes hard to draw.

62