MODULE V

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 1

 MATERIALS &
MANUFACTURING
PROCESS

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 2

 ENGINEERING
MATERIALS
• METALS & ALLOYS
• CERAMICS
• POLYMERS
• COMPOSITIES
• SEMI-CONDUCTORS
• BIOMATERIALS
• ADVANCED MATERIALS

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 3

 CAST IRON

CARBON STEEL
FERROUS
METALS
ALLOY STEEL

STAINLESS STEEL
METALS &
ALLOYS
ALUMINIUM, BRASS,
BRONZE, TIN, COPPER,
NON-FERROUS LEAD, MAGNESIUM,
METALS NICKEL, ZINC,
TITANIUM, CHROMIUM,
COBALT, TUNSTEN,
VANADIUM…etc

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 4

 1. METALS & ALLOYS
• Metals are extremely good conductors of electricity and
heat and are not transparent to visible light

• Two or more pure metals are melted together to form a new

metal of different properties called an alloy

• Steel is an alloy of iron, carbon and other alloying elements

• Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc

• Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 5

 A) FERROUS METALS

• Iron is the principal constituent

• Ferrous alloys contain significant amount of non-ferrous
metals

Steel- % of carbon content in iron is up to 2.14%

Cast Iron- % of carbon content in iron is above 2.14%
( brittle in nature)

Cast iron is used for

• Automobile motor casing, car parts-cylinder heads-gear
box cases, rail road, marine, bridges, lathe bed…etc

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 6

 Two kind of steel

a) Plain carbon steel- major alloying element is carbon

• Plain carbon steel is again divided into 3

• Mild steel- 0.15% to 0.25% carbon, used for gears, valves,
boiler plates…etc
• Medium carbon steel- 0.3% to 0.6% carbon content, used
in turbines, nut, bolt..etc
• High carbon steel- 0.65% to 1.5% carbon content, hard and
tough material, used in cutting tools, dies, drills…etc

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 7

b) Alloy steels- steel in which one or more elements other
than carbon have been added. Common elements added
are molybdenum, manganese, nickel, silicon, boron,
chromium and vanadium
Stainless steel: 11%chromium, high corrosion resistance,
used for making surgical instruments, ball bearing…etc

B) NON-FERROUS METALS
• Substances are composed of metals other than iron
• Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc
• Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin
• Used in medical, automobile, electrical, electronics,
construction, aerospace industries…etc

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 8

 APPLICATIONS
• Electrical wiring
• Structures: buildings, bridges, etc.
• Automobiles: body, chassis, springs, engine block, etc.
• Airplanes: engine components, fuselage, landing gear
assembly, etc.
• Trains: rails, engine components, body, wheels
• Machine tools: drill bits, hammers, screwdrivers, saw
blades, etc.
• Magnets
• Catalysts

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 9

 CEMENT CONCRETE

SILICON
MAGNESIA
NITRIDE

SILICON
CARBIDE
CERAMICS ALUMINA

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 10

 2. CERAMICS

• Non-metallic solids made of oxides, nitrides, borides and

carbides

• The wide range of materials that falls within this

classification includes ceramics that are composed of clay
minerals, cement, and glass. These materials are typically
insulative to the passage of electricity and heat, and are
more resistant to high temperatures and harsh
environments than metals and polymers.

• Ceramics are hard but very brittle

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 11

 APPLICATIONS
• Electrical insulators
• Abrasives
• Thermal insulation and coatings
• Windows, television screens, optical fibers (glass)
• Corrosion resistant applications
• Electrical devices: capacitors, transducers, etc.
• Highways and roads (concrete)
• Biocompatible coatings (fusion to bone)
• Self-lubricating bearings
• Magnetic materials (audio/video tapes, hard disks, etc.)
• Optical wave guides
• Night-vision
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 12
 POLYMERS

THERMOSETTING
THERMOPLASTIC ELASTOMERS
PLASTIC

ACRYLICS, PVC,
NATURAL RUBBER,
NYLON, EPOXIES, POLYESTER
NEOPRENE, SILICONE
POLYETHYLENE..ETC

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 13

 3. POLYMERS
• Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber
materials

• These materials typically have low densities and may be

extremely flexible

• Thermoplastic- soft at high temperatures and become

hard on cooling

• Thermosetting plastic- formed into shape under heat and

pressure which results in a permanently hard product

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 14

 APPLICATIONS
 Adhesives and glues
 Containers
 Moldable products (computer casings, telephone handsets,
disposable razors)
 Clothing and upholstery material (vinyls, polyesters, nylon)
 Water-resistant coatings (latex)
 Biodegradable products (corn-starch packing “peanuts”)
 Biomaterials (organic/inorganic interfaces)
 Liquid crystals
 Low-friction materials (Teflon)
 Synthetic oils and greases
 Gaskets and O-rings (rubber)
 Soaps and surfactants
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 15
COMPOSITIES
• CARBON-FIBRE REINFORCED POLYMERS
• FIBRE GLASS
• PLYWOODS
• CEMENTS
• CONCRETE
• WOOD
• GRANITE

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 16

 4. COMPOSITES
• A combination of two or more materials to achieve better
properties than that of the original materials

• A composite is designed to display a combination of

the best characteristics of each of the component
materials.

• Fiberglass is a familiar example, in which glass fibers

are embedded within a polymeric material.

• Fiberglass acquires strength from the glass and

flexibility from the polymer

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 17

 APPLICATIONS

• Sports equipment (golf club shafts, tennis rackets,

bicycle frames)

• Aerospace materials

• "Smart" materials (sensing and responding)

• Brake materials

• Space shuttle heat shields (interwoven ceramic fibers)

• Paints (ceramic particles in latex)

• Tank armor (ceramic particles in metal)

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 18

 GALLIUM
ARSENIDE
SILICON
BORON
CARBIDE

SILICON
SEMI- GERMANIUM
CONDUCTORS

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 19

 5. SEMI-CONDUCTORS

• Semiconductors have electrical properties that are

intermediate between the electrical conductors and
insulators.

• The electrical characteristics of these materials are extremely

sensitive to the presence of small concentrations of impurity
atoms

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 20

 APPLICATIONS

 Computer CPUs

 Electrical components (transistors, diodes, etc.)

 Solid-state lasers

 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)

 Flat panel displays

 Solar cells

 Radiation detectors

 Microelectromechanical devices (MEMS)

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 21
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 22
 6. BIO MATERIALS

• Biomaterials are employed in components implanted into

the human body for replacement of diseased or damaged
body parts.

• These materials must not produce toxic substances and

must be compatible with body tissues (i.e., must not cause
adverse biological reactions).

• All of the above materials—metals, ceramics, polymers,

composites, and semiconductors—may be used as
biomaterials

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 23

 APPLICATIONS

• Intraocular lens

• Vascular grafts

• Artificial hip joint

• Heart valves

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 24

ADVANCED MATERIALS
• NANO MATERIALS
• SMART MATERIALS

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 25

 7. ADVANCED MATERIALS

• Materials that are utilized in high-technology (or high-tech)

applications are sometimes termed advanced materials

• Examples include electronic equipment (VCRs, CD players,

etc.), computers, fiberoptic systems, spacecraft, aircraft, and
military rocketry

• Materials that are used for lasers, integrated circuits,

magnetic information storage, liquid crystal displays (LCDs),
fiber optics, and the thermal protection system for the Space
Shuttle Orbiter

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 26

a) Nano materials: molecules have dimensions in the range
of 1nm to 100nm.

b) Smart materials: materials are able to sense changes in

their environment and then respond to these changes

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 27

 Mechanical Chemical
properties properties

Thermal Physical
properties Properties of properties
engineering
materials

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 28

 1. Physical properties

It describes

 State of the material

 Colour
 Texture
 Density
 Melting point
 Boiling point

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 29

 2. Chemical properties

Measure of reactivity of a material in the presence of another

substance or environment

• Corrosion rate
• Oxidation rate

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 30

 3. Mechanical properties

 Tensile strength

 Compressive strength

 Shear strength

 Hardness: resistance to scratching

 Ductility

 Impact strength

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 31

 4. Thermal properties

• Thermal conductivity

• Specific heat

• Latent heat

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 32

 CASTING

• It is a manufacturing process in which molten metal is

poured in a mould or cavity and allowed to solidify

• Molten metal on solidification gets the shape of the mould

• Mould has the shape of the product to be made

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 33

 SAND
CASTING
CASTING PERMANENT
MOULD
PROCESS METAL CASTING
MOULD
HOT
CASTING
CHAMBER
DIE CASTING
COLD
CHAMBER

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 34

 SAND CASTING

• Molten metal: metal in the form of a liquid

• Mould: negative print of the product to be cast
(cavity whose geometry determines the shape of the cast
part), open and closed mould
• Moulding: process of making mould of desired shape using
sand, pattern and core

Mould consists of two halves

a) Cope: upper half of the mould
b) Drag: bottom half of the mould

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 35

Molten metal
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 36
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• Pouring basin: top of the mould for pouring the molten
metal at the required rate into the mould cavity

• Sprue: vertical passage made through the cope for

connecting pouring basin with the gate

• Runner: for connecting the sprue and gate

• Gates: passage for connecting the base of the runner with

the mould cavity

• Riser: passage made in the cope to permit molten metal to

rise up after filling the mould cavity

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ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 40
• Pattern: model or replica of the component to be made
by casting( mould forming tool)

Types of patterns are

• One piece pattern
• Split pattern
• Loose piece pattern
• Match plate pattern
• Cope and Drag pattern

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ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 42
 SPLIT PATTERN

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 43

LOOSE PIECE PATTERN

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 44

MATCH PLATE PATTERN

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 45

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• Core: solid mass prepared using dry sand, in order to
introduce into the mould cavity, to form a hole

• Core produces a hollow casting

Types of core
• Horizontal core
• Vertical core
• Hanging core

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 49

HORIZONTAL CORE

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 50

HORIZONTAL CORE

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 51

VERTICAL CORE

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 52

HANGING CORE

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 53

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 54
CHAPLETS
• It is used to support core

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 55

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 56
SAND CASTING TECHNIQUE
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ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 58
STEPS IN SAND CASTING

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 59

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 MOULDING SAND PROPERTIES

• FLOWABILITY: behave like a fluid, sand to get compacted to

uniform density

• GREEN STRENGTH: strength of the sand in moist condition

• DRY STRENGTH: strength of the sand in dry condition

• POROSITY/ PERMEABILITY: ability to allow the passage of

mould gases

• REFRACTORINESS: ability of the sand to withstand high

temperature
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 62
• ADHESIVENESS: ability of the sand to stick on to the mould
walls

• CHEMICAL STABILITY: resist chemical reaction

• COLLAPSIBILITY: ability of the sand to collapse after the

casting solidifies

• FINENESS: ability of the sand to produce smooth surfaced

castings

• COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION: less coefficient of expansion

• DURABILITY: ability of the sand to be used again and again

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 63

Advantages
• Production process is simple
• Cost of casting is low
• Sand can be reused

Disadvantages
• More chances of defects
• Does not impart good surface finish

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 64

 METAL MOULD CASTING

• Process in which molten metal is poured/forced into metal

mould cavities

• It requires less floor space

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 65

 1. Permanent Mould Casting

• The moulds(dies) are made in two halves, hinged together to

facilitate quick opening and closing and removal of casting
• Filling the mould is achieved due to gravity
• One half is movable called movable die
• Other half is stationary called stationary die
• Ejector pins are used for ejecting out the casting from the
die
• Clamps are used for clamping the two halves of the die
together

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 2. DIE CASTING

• Molten metal is forced into mould cavity under pressure

• Pressure is obtained by compressed air or hydraulically

Two types
a) Hot chamber process
b) Cold chamber process

• Ejector pins are used for ejecting out the casting from the
die
• Clamps are used for clamping the two halves of the die
together

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 71

 a. Hot Chamber Die Casting

• Plunger is activated by compressed air or by hydraulic

pressure
• Intake Port allows the molten metal to enter the cylinder
• Plunger moves downward, closes the intake port and
applies pressure on the molten metal
• Molten metal is forced into the die cavity
• After solidification, plunger moves upward, uncovers intake
port and hot molten metal enters the cylinder

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 b. Cold Chamber Die Casting

• Metal is melted separately and transferred to the cylinder

using a hand ladle

• Molten metal is forced into the die cavity by applying

pressure on the plunger

• After solidification, die is opened and the casting is ejected

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 CASTING DEFECTS

• Blowholes: holes below the surface of casting, not visible

from outside
• Inclusions: foreign material in the casting
• Swell: localized enlargement of the casting
• Scab: erosion or breaking down a portion of the mould
• Honey combing: small cavities present on the casting surface
• Misrun: molten metal fails to reach all the sections of the
mould
• Fin: thin projection of metal, which is not a part of the casting
• Shift: mismatching of casting sections

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ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 79
 shift

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 swell
scab
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 Honey combing

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 85

 Metal Forming By Deformation

• Process in which shape of the metals are changed to desire

shapes by subjecting them to stresses greater than yield
stress of the metal
• It is a deformation process

Types are
• Forging
• Rolling
• Extrusion

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 86

Metal Forming By
Deformation
• Rolling
• Forging
• Extrusion

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 87

 1. Rolling

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 88

• Process of plastically deforming metal by passing it
between rolls

• Cylindrical rolls are used to reduce the cross sectional

area of a bar or plate with a corresponding increase in the
length

• Process of rolling basically consists of passing metal

between two rolls rotating in opposite direction at the
same speed

Two types
• Hot rolling
• Cold rolling
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 1. Hot Rolling

Process in which metal is fed to the rolls after being heated

above the recrystallization temperature

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 2. Cold Rolling

In cold rolling, metal is fed to the rolls when it is below the

recrystallization temperature

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 Types of rolling mills

a) Two high mill

b) Three high mill

c) Four high mill

d) Cluster mill

e) Tandem mill

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 95

a. Two High Mill

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 96

• Two rolls
• Lower roll will be fixed
• Upper roll can be moved to adjust the space between the
rolls
• Both the rolls rotate at the same speed but in opposite
directions

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 97

b. Three High Mill

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ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 99
• Three rolls positioned one over another
• Upper and lower rolls rotate in the same direction
• Middle roll rotates in the opposite direction
• Middle roll is fixed
• Upper and lower rolls are moved to adjust the roll gap

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 100

c. Four High Mill

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 101

• Four rolls
• Two rolls are working rolls and the other two are back up
rolls
• Back up rolls preventing the deflection of the working rolls

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 102

d. Cluster Mill

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ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 104
• Used for rolling very thin sheet or foils
• It consists of a Pair of working rolls of very small diameter,
supported by a number of back up rolls on either side

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e. Tandem Mill

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ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 107
• Series of rolling mills are placed one after another

• Different reduction takes place at each stand, the strip

will be moving at different velocities

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 108

 2. FORGING

• Process of changing the shape of metals when it is in the

plastic state, by applying compressive force

• Hot forging – forging at high temperature

• Cold forging- forging at room temperature

• Forged product has better mechanical properties than a cast

one

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 109

Components produced by forging
• Nails
• Bolts
• Spanners
• Crane hooks
• Axles
• Crankshafts
• Connecting rods

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 110

 Dies used for forging

a) Open die forging

b) Closed / Impression die forging

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 111

 a) Open Die Forging

• Work piece is upset, compressed or forged between two

flat dies

• Used for simple shapes and low production volumes

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 b) Closed/Impression Die Forging

• Work piece takes the shape of the die cavity while being
forged between two shaped dies

• Used for forging complicated shapes

• Process is usually carried out at elevated temperatures

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 Types of Forging

A. Hand forging

B. Drop forging

C. Press forging

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 119

 A. HAND FORGING
• Traditional forging operation carried out by blacksmith in a
section of workshop called smithy

• Hand tools are used for forging(eg. Hammer, chisel…etc)

• Not suitable for mass production

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ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 121
 Hand forging operations

a) Upsetting
b) Drawing down(necking down)
c) Setting down
d) Bending
e) Welding
f) Cutting
g) Swaging
h) Drifting
i) Fullering
j) Edging

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 122

 a. Upsetting

• Process of increasing the cross sectional area of a bar at

any desired portion at the expense of length of the bar

• Portion to be upset is heated and then hammered axially

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 b. Drawing Down

Process of reducing the cross section of a bar by increasing

its length

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 c. Setting Down

Local thinning down operation using a set of hammer

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 d. Bending

Bars and rods are bent to form rings, hooks…etc

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 e. Welding

• Joining two metallic surfaces

• Surfaces to be joined are heated to a temperature of

about 1000⁰C

• Metal surfaces are joined by applying pressure at the

mating surfaces

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 f. Cutting

Process of removing pieces of metal from the work piece by

means of a chisel

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Hammer & chisel

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 g. Swaging

• Operation by which the required cross sectional shape is

obtained

• Two swage blocks, top swage and bottom swage are used
for swaging operation

• Work piece is held between the top and bottom swages

and is hammered

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 Swage block

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 h. Drifting

• Process of increasing the diameter of a punched hole

• Drift which has tapered end is made to pass through the

punched hole to produce a finished hole

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drift

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 i. Fullering

• Reduce the cross sectional area of a portion of a stock

• Metal flow outwards and away from the center of the

fullering tool

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 j. Edging

• Process of concentrating material using a concave

shaped open die

• Used to shape the ends of bars

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 B. DROP FORGING
• Force for shaping the component is applied in a series of
blow by using drop hammers

• Open die or closed dies are used for this purpose

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 C. PRESS FORGING
• Process is similar to drop forging but for the method of
application of force

• In this case the force is applied by a continuous squeezing

operation by means of a hydraulic press

• Mass production technique

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 3. EXTRUSION PROCESS
• Process of forcing a metal enclosed in a container to flow
through the opening of a die

• Metal is subjected to plastic deformation

• Metal undergoes reduction and elongation during extrusion

• Used for manufacture rods, tubes, circular, rectangular,

hexagonal and other shapes both in hollow and solid form

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 Types of Extrusion

a) Direct Extrusion
b) Indirect Extrusion
c) Cold Extrusion/ Impact Extrusion

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 a. Direct Extrusion

• Also called forward extrusion

• Flow of metal through the die is in the same direction as

the movement of ram

• Hot billet(work piece) is used

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 b. Indirect Extrusion

• Also called backward extrusion

• Flow of metal through the die is in the opposite direction as
the movement of ram
• Hot billet(work piece) is used
• Ram used is hollow
• Billet remains stationary while die is pushed into the billet by
the hollow ram
• Less force is required as compared to direct extrusion

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 165

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 166
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 167
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 168
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 169
 c. Cold/Impact Extrusion

• Carried out at higher velocity

• Unheated metal is placed in the die cavity

• Punch is forced into the die cavity causing the metal to flow
upwards through the gap between punch and die

• Tooth pastes tubes are made by this process

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 170

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 171
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 172
 SHEET METAL FORMING

Process in which force is applied to a piece of sheet metal to

modify its geometry rather than remove any metal

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 173

 Spinning
Roll Deep
Forming Drawing

Sheet Metal Stretch

Bending Forming Forming

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 174

 1. BENDING

Process in which a force is applied to a piece of sheet metal,

causing it to bend at an angle and form the desired shape

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 175

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 176
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 177
 2. ROLL FORMING

• Process in which sheet metal is progressively shaped

through a series of bending operations

• Sheet metal is fed through a series of roll stations

• Each station has a roller, positioned on both sides of the sheet

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 178

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 179
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 180
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 181
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 182
 3. SPINNING

• Process used to form cylindrical parts by rotating a piece of

sheet metal while forces are applied to one side

• A sheet metal disc is rotated at high speeds while rollers press

the sheet against a tool, called mandrel, to form the shape of
the desired part

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 183

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 184
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 185
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 186
 4. DEEP DRAWING

• Process in which sheet metal is stretched into the desired

part shape

• A tool pushes downward on the sheet metal, forcing it

into a die cavity in the shape of the desired part

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 187

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 188
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 189
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 190
 5. STRETCH FORMING

• Process in which a piece of sheet metal is stretched and

bent simultaneously over a die

• Stretch forming is performed on a stretch press, in which a

piece of sheet metal is securely gripped along its edges by
gripping jaws. The gripping jaws are each attached to a
carriage that is pulled by pneumatic or hydraulic force to
stretch the sheet. The tooling used in this process is a stretch
form block, called a form die, which is a solid contoured piece
against which the sheet metal will be pressed

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 191

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 192
 SHEET METAL CUTTING

• Sheet metal cutting is done using shearing

technique

• Shearing is a cutting operation used to remove a

blank of required dimensions from a large sheet

• Here the die is stationary and the punch that

shears off the metal of the sheet

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 193

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 194
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 195
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 196
Sheet Metal Cutting Operations

1. Blanking
2. Punching
3. Piercing
4. Notching
5. Nibbling

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 197

 1. BLANKING

• Operation of cutting a shape from a metal strip

• Piece detached from the strip is called blank, remaining

metal strip is called scrap

• Setup consists of a punch and a blanking die

• Clearance is provided on punch

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 198

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 199
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 200
 2. PUNCHING

• Process of producing a hole in a metal piece using a punch

and die

• Metal with hole is the required product and part removed

is the scrap(slug)

• Clearance is provided on die

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 201

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 202
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 203
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 204
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 205
 3. PIERCING

• Piercing is a process by which a hole is cut or torn in a metal

• The metal is pushed back to form a jagged flange on the

back side of the hole

• No metal removal will take place

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 206

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 207
4.

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 208

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 209
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 210
5.

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 211

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 212
 BRAZING

SOLDERING WELDING

METAL JOINING
PROCESS

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 213

 1. SOLDERING

• Method of joining two or more metal pieces by means of a

fusible alloy or metal called solder(filler alloy), applied in
molten state

• The melting temperature of filler metal is lower than 450°C

and also lower than the melting point of the components to
be joined

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 214

• No direct melting of the metals being joined

• During the process, the filler alloy(solder) flows between

the two closely adjacent surfaces of the work pieces by
capillary action

• Solder is melted by using a soldering iron, which is heated

by electrical resistance

• Soldering iron tips are made of copper core plated with

iron. The copper is used for heat transfer and the iron
plating is used for durability

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 215

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 216
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 217
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 218
 2. BRAZING

• Metal pieces are joined by heating the closely placed parts

and then filler alloy called spelter applied in the molten
state which upon solidification produces the desired joint

• Melting temperature of filler metal is more than 450°C but

lower than the melting temperature of the components to
be joined

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 219

• No direct melting of the metals being joined

• Brazing gives a much stronger joint compared to soldering

• During the process, the filler alloy(spelter) flows between

the two closely adjacent surfaces of the work pieces by
capillary action

• Torch brazing is the most versatile method

(Oxygen-Acetylene)

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 220

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 221
Brazing torch

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 222

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 223
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 224
 3. WELDING

• Process of joining similar or dissimilar metals by the

application of heat, with or without the application of
pressure and with or without the addition of filler material

Two types
• Plastic welding
• Fusion welding

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 225

• Plastic welding: metals to be joined are to be heated to the
plastic state and then forced together by external pressure
without the addition of filler material. Eg. forge welding,
resistance welding…etc

• Fusion welding: no pressure is involved but a very high

temperature is produced in or near the joint. The metal at
the joint is heated to the molten state and allowed to
solidify. A filler material may be used during the welding
process. Eg. Oxy-acetylene welding, carbon arc welding…etc

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 226

 Radiant Energy Solid State
Welding Welding

Thermo
Gas
Chemical
Welding
Welding

Arc Types of Resistance

Welding Welding Welding

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 227

 1. GAS WELDING

• Welding process that uses a fuel gas combined with oxygen

to produce a flame

• Fusion welding process

• It joins metals using the heat of combustion of oxygen/air

and fuel gas(acetylene, hydrogen, propane or butane)

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 228

 Air-Acetylene
Welding

Oxy-Acetylene Oxy-Hydrogen
Welding Welding

Gas
Welding

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 229

GAS WELDING- OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 230

• It joins the metals using the heat of combustion of oxygen
and fuel gas(acetylene)

• Acetylene gas is mixed with oxygen in correct proportions in

the welding torch and ignited, the flame resulting at the tip
of the torch is sufficiently hot(3200⁰C) to melt and join the
metal

• Volume of gas passing through the torch is controlled by two

control valves provided in the torch

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 231

• The gases are mixed in the mixer part of the torch, before
delivering to the torch tip

• Filler metals are additional metal added to the weld

• Flux is added to remove impurities and oxides(flux reacts

with oxides and a slag is formed) formed during welding
operation

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 232

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 233
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 234
 WELDING TORCH

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 235

OXY-ACETYLENE FLAME

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 236

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 237
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 238
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 239
 2. ARC WELDING

• Method of fusion welding in which the metals at the joint

is heated to molten state by an electric arc

• Arc column is generated between an anode(electrode) and

the cathode(metal to be joined)

• Temperature of the arc is about 6000⁰C to 7000⁰C

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 240

 ELECTRODES

• Non- consumable electrodes: carbon, graphite or

tungsten(they are not consumed during welding operation)

• Consumable electrodes: steel(consumed during welding

operation), electrode may be bare(uncoated) or flux coated

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 241

 Metal Arc
Welding
Flux Cored
Carbon Arc
Arc
Welding
Welding

Metal Inert
Electro Slag
Welding Arc Gas Arc
Welding

Welding
Shielded Tungsten
Metal Arc Inert Gas
Welding Welding

Submerged
Plasma Arc
Arc
Welding
Welding

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 242

ARC WELDING- SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 243

• The heat is generated by an electric arc between base
metal and a consumable electrode.

• In this process electrode movement is manually controlled

hence it is termed as manual metal arc welding

• In shielded metal arc welding, the protection to the weld

pool is provided by covering of a) slag formed over the
surface of weld pool/metal and b) inactive gases generated
through thermal decomposition of flux/coating materials on
the electrode

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 244

• This process can use both AC and DC. The constant current
DC power source is invariably used with all types of
electrode irrespective of base metal (ferrous and non-
ferrous)

• AC can be unsuitable for certain types of electrodes and base

materials

• SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING welding normally uses

constant current type of power source with welding current
50-600A and voltage 20-80V

• Welding current (A) is generally selected in range of 40-60

times of electrode diameter (mm)
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 245
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 246
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 247
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 248
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 249
 3. RESISTANCE WELDING

• Parts to be joined are heated to a plastic state over a limited

area by their resistance to flow of electric current(resistance
heating) and then by mechanically pressing together

• Pressure is applied continuously till the weld cools down

• It is generally used for joining thin plates and structures

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 250

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 251
 Projection
Welding
Seam Resistance
Welding Butt Welding

Resistance Flash Butt

Spot Welding
Welding Welding

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 252

RESISTANCE WELDING- SPOT WELDING

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 253

• Pieces are assembled and placed between electrodes and
pressure is applied

• When current passes, the pieces are heated at the contact

area, and due to the pressure, the contact spot gets welded

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 254

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 255
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 256
RESISTANCE WELDING- SEAM WELDING

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 257

• Similar to spot welding except that the electrodes are disc
shaped rollers

• Electrodes roll over the sheet and a continuous weld is

obtained

• Process is also called continuous spot weld process

• Timed pulses of current pass through the metal to form the

overlapping welds. Welding current is usually higher than the
conventional spot welding

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 258

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 259
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 260
RESISTANCE WELDING- PROJECTION WELDING

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 261

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 262
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 263
RESISTANCE WELDING- RESISTANCE(UPSET)BUTT
WELDING

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 264

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 265
• Heat obtained from the resistance to electric current through
the area of contact of two surfaces

• Pressure is applied before heating is started and is maintained

throughout the heating period

• Heavy current is passed from one metal piece to other. The

resistance to electric current flow heats the faces to fusion
temperature

• Both pressure and current are applied throughout the weld

cycle

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 266

• When the faces of the pieces become plastic, they are
pressed together more firmly, upsetting the metal piece to
form a dense joint

• Force is released as the welded joint has cooled to the desired

temperature

• Here one Clamp is stationary and other one is movable

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 267

RESISTANCE WELDING- FLASH BUTT WELDING

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 268

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 269
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 270
• Flash welding process was developed from resistance butt
welding process

• One clamp is movable and other one is stationary, clamps

hold the work pieces

• Movable work piece is moved closer to the fixed one until the
two come in light contact

• Welding current(high voltage) is turned ON, flashing between

the two faces are established

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 271

• Flashing produces higher temperature in the two faces until
they attain the welding temperature

• At this stage, the pressure of the moving clamp is increased to

forge the parts together and expel the molten metal

• Finally welding current is cut off and the work pieces are
unclamped

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 272

4. THERMO CHEMICAL WELDING PROCESS

It involves exothermic reactions

Two types: Thermit Welding and Atomic hydrogen welding

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 273

 THERMIT WELDING

• Fusion welding process in which the required heat is

obtained by an exothermal chemical reaction

• Mixture of powdered aluminium and iron oxide is placed

inside the crusible. This mixture is ignited. The resultant
products obtained are highly purified iron and aluminium
oxide slag, which floats on top of the crusible

• Bottom plug of the cruisible is removed and the molten iron is

made to flow into the mould

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 274

Chemical equation for exothermic reaction is given by

8Al + 3Fe3O4 = 9Fe + 4Al2O3 + heat

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 275

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 276
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 277
 POWDER METALLURGY

Powder metallurgy is the art and science of producing fine

metal powders and then making objects from individual,
mixed or alloyed metal powders

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 278

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 279
 Powder Metallurgy Process

1)Producing metal powders

Various methods for manufacturing powders are

a) Atomization
b) Reduction
c) Crushing
d) Milling
e) Shotting
f) Electrolysis

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 280

2)Mixing/Blending

3)Pressing/compacting
compacting processes are
a) Die pressing
b) Roll pressing
c) Extrusion

4) Pre-sintering
5) Sintering

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 281

6)Finishing and sizing the final product

• Sizing
• Coining
• Impregnation
• Infiltration
• Heat treating
• Machining

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 282

1)Producing metal powders: metals are transformed into
powder form using different methods. Widely used metal
powders are aluminium, chromium, copper, lead…etc

2)Mixing/Blending: homogeneous mixture of metal powders

or alloy powders is prepared
Blending : Mixing powder of the same chemical composition
but different sizes
Mixing : Combining powders of different chemistries

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 283

3)Pressing/compacting: Pressing the powders into desired part
shape as closely as possible to final dimensions. Powders are
compacted using high pressure(100MPa to 1000MPa)

4) Pre-sintering: Presintering is done before actual sintering

operation. Compact is heated for a short time at
a temperature below sintering temperature. Presintering
removes lubricants and binders added to powders during
blending operation. After pre-sintering, the part acquires
sufficient strength to be handled and machined without
difficulty

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 284

5) Sintering: Sintering is the heat treatment process, to bond
the metallic particles, thereby increasing strength and
hardness. Sintering consists of heating pressed metal
compacts in batch or continuous furnaces to a temperature
below the melting point of material. Most metals are
sintered at 70 % to 80 % of melting temperature

6)Finishing and sizing the final product: Used to improve the

quality of the final part

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 285

ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 286
ARUN JOSE TOM, MLMCE, BME 287