Module-I

Wind Generator Topologies:

Wind power statistics of India and world
The power of the wind has been utilised for at least 3000 years. The first wind turbines for
electricity generation had already been developed at the beginning of the twentieth century.
The technology was improved step by step from the early 1970s.

At the end of 1989 a 300kW wind turbine with a 30-meter rotor diameter was state of the art.
Only 10years later, 2000kW turbines with a rotor diameter of around 80 meters were
available
from many manufacturers. The first demonstration projects using 3MW wind turbines with a
rotor diameter of 90 meter were installed before the turn of the century.

The earliest windmills were vertical axis mills which are simple drag devices. The first
horizontal axis windmill appeared in England around 1150, in France in 1180, in Flanders in
1190, in Germany in 1222 and in Denmark in 1259.

Status of Wind Turbine Technology

Wind energy conversion systems can be divided into those that depend on
 aerodynamic drag
 aerodynamic lift.
Drag devises, however, have a very low power coefficient, with a maximum of around 0.16.

Modern wind turbines are based predominately on aerodynamic lift.

 Use airfoils (blades) that interact with the incoming wind. The force resulting from
the airfoil body intercepting the airflow consists not only of a drag force component in
the direction of the flow but also of a force component that is perpendicular to the
drag: the lift forces.
The lift force is a multiple of the drag force and therefore the relevant driving power of the
rotor.
 By definition, it is perpendicular to the direction of the air flow that is intercepted by
the rotor blade and, via the leverage of the rotor, it causes the necessary driving torque

Wind turbines using aerodynamic lift can be further divided according to the orientation of
the spin axis into horizontal axis and vertical axis turbines.
 Vertical axis turbines, also known as Darrieus turbines, use vertical, often slightly
curved, symmetrical airfoils.
 Darrieus turbines have the advantage that they operate independently of the wind
direction and that the gearbox and generating machinery can be placed at ground
level.
 High torque fluctuations with each revolution, no self-starting capability as well as
limited options forspeed regulation in high winds are, however, major disadvantages.
The horizontal axis, or propeller-type, approach currently dominates wind turbine
applications.
  A horizontal axis wind turbine consists of a tower and a nacelle that is mounted on the
top of the tower.
 The nacelle contains the generator, gearbox and the rotor. Different mechanisms exist
to point the nacelle towards the wind direction or to move the nacelle out of the wind
in the case of high wind speeds.
 On small turbines, the rotor and the nacelle are oriented into the wind with a tail vane.
On large turbines, the nacelle with the rotor is electrically yawed into or out of the
wind, in response to a signal from a wind vane.

Horizontal axis wind turbines typically use a different number of blades, depending on the
purpose of the wind turbine. Two-bladed or three-bladed turbines are usually used for
electricity power generation. Turbines with 20 or more blades are used for mechanical water
pumping. The number of rotor blades is indirectly linked to the tip speed ratio, λ, which is the
ratio of the blade tip speed and the wind speed:

where ω is the frequency of rotation, R is the radius of the aerodynamic rotor and V is the
wind speed.
 Wind turbines with a high number of blades have a low tip speed ratio but a high
starting torque.
 Wind turbines with only two or three blades have a high tip speed ratio but only a low
starting torque. These turbines might need to be started if the wind speed reaches the
operation range.
 A high tip speed ratio, however, allows the use of a smaller and therefore lighter
gearbox to achieve the required high speed at the driving shaft of the power generator.

Three-bladed wind turbines have the advantage that the rotor moment of inertia is easier to
understand and therefore often better to handle than the rotor moment of inertia of a two-
bladed turbine

Two-bladed wind turbines have the advantage that the tower top weight is lighter and
therefore the whole supporting structure can be built lighter, and the related costs are very
likely to be lower

Design approaches
Horizontal axis wind turbines can be designed in different ways.
 withstanding high wind loads and is optimised for reliability and operates with a
rather low tip speed ratio
 goal to be compliant and shed loads and is aimed at optimised performance.
 managing loads mechanically and/or electrically. This approach uses a lower tip speed
ratio than the second design philosophy.
Current Status of Wind Power in Power Systems
Last Updated July 10th, 2020
With global capacity reaching over 600GW in 2018. The construction of new wind power
varies year to year and by region; Europe, for example, saw a 32% reduction in wind capacity
in 2018 compared with 2017.

China – installed capacity 221GW

China is the world leader in wind energy, with over a third of the world’s capacity.

It boasts the world’s largest onshore windfarm in Gansu Province, which currently has a
capacity of 7,965MW, five times larger than its nearest rival.

The farm is currently only operating at 40% of its capacity, with a further 13,000MW to be
installed leading to a grand total of 20,000MW (20GW) in 2020. This expansion is expected
to cost $17.5bn.

US – installed capacity 96.4GW

The US is in second place with 96.4GW of installed capacity and is particularly strong in
onshore wind power.

Six of the largest 10 onshore windfarms are based in the US. These include the Alta Wind
Energy Centre in California, the world’s second largest onshore wind farm with a capacity of
1,548MW, Shepherd’s Flat Wind Farm in Oregon (845MW) and Roscoe Wind Farm in
Texas (781.5MW).

The state of Texas alone produces a quarter of the US’s wind power with 24.9GW, providing
more wind power than 25 other US states combined.
Germany – installed capacity 59.3GW
Germany has the highest installed wind capacity in Europe with 59.3GW.

Its largest offshore windfarms are the Gode Windfarms (phase 1 & 2), which have a
combined capacity of 582MW. Germany is also home to the Nordsee One Offshore Wind
farm, which has a capacity of 382MW and provides energy for 400,000 homes.

According to Wind Europe, Europe installed 11.7GW of wind energy in 2018. Of this,
Germany led the way with 29% of this capacity at a total of just under 3.4GW, with 2.4GW
of this onshore and just under 1GW offshore.

India – installed capacity 37.5GW

The country currently ranks fourth in the world in wind power, with 37.5 gigawatt (GW) of
capacity installed

In 2015, India announced an ambitious goal of installing 175 GW of renewable energy (RE)
by December 2022. However, it accorded a somewhat modest target of 60 GW to wind as the
focus shifted to solar power. At that point, the domestic wind industry had already matured,
with an installed capacity of 25 GW.   The country has the third and fourth largest onshore
wind farms in the world, the Muppandal windfarm in Tamil Nadu, Southern India
(1,500MW) and the Jaisalmer Wind Park in Rajasthan, Northern India (1,064MW).

The Indian government has set a target of installing 60GW of wind energy by 2022, with
25GW to be installed in the next three years.

S. No. State Wind Potential (MW)

1 Gujarat 84431.33
2 Rajasthan 18770.49
3 Maharashtra 45394.34
4 Tamil Nadu 33799.65
5 Madhya Pradesh 10483.88
6 Karnataka 55857.36
7 Andhra Pradesh 44228.60
8 Kerala 1699.56
9 Telangana 4244.29
10 Odisha 3093.47
11 Chhattisgarh 76.59
12 West Bengal 2.08
13 Puducherry 152.83
14 Lakshadweep 7.67
15 Goa 0.84
16 Andaman & 8.43
Nicobar
Total in MW 302251.49
Total in GW 302

Spain – installed capacity 23GW

Spain is a strong performer in wind energy, with a capacity of 23GW covering 18% of
Spain’s electricity supply. The country is fifth in the world despite none of its onshore or
offshore wind farms being in the top 20 largest by capacity.

The Spanish wind industry has actually been in a steep decline over the past few years. Just
104MW was added to its energy mix in 2016-2017 after nothing was added in 2015.

United Kingdom – installed capacity 20.7GW

The UK is the third European country on the list, with a total capacity of just over 20.7GW.

The UK is particularly noteworthy in offshore wind, with six of the 10 highest-capacity

offshore wind projects in the world.

One of these is the Walney project off the coast of Cumbria, North West England. This is the
largest offshore wind project in the world with Walney 1 & 2 (367MW) and Walney
Extension (659MW) forming a grand total of 1,026MW.

The Walney installation is set to be overtaken by the 1,218MW Hornsea One project in the

North Sea when it is fully completed in 2020.

France – installed capacity 15.3GW

France is seventh on the list of top 10 wind energy countries by capacity.  It is currently
moving away from nuclear power, which previously delivered 75% of the country’s energy
needs, and will fill the gap by increasing its renewable budget to €71bn for the period 2019-
2028. This will allow it to triple its onshore wind capacity by 2030.

Brazil – installed capacity 14.5GW

Brazil has the largest wind capacity in South America with 14.5GW and is expanding its
capacity significantly. The most recent figures show that wind power had increased by 8.9%
year-on-year in February 2019.

Wind power is fourth place in Brazil’s total energy mix, forming about 8% of Brazil’s total
energy capacity of 162.5GW.

Canada – installed capacity 12.8GW

Canada’s renewable energy capacity stands at 12.8GW, with 566MW of new installed
capacity added in 2018. This energy is generated by a total of 299 wind farms with 6,596
turbines.

Ontario has the largest amount of wind energy, with just over 5GW installed. These include
the 230MW Niagara Region Windfarm and the 199.5MW Amaranth Windfarm, north of
Toronto.

The largest wind farm in Canada is the Rivière-du-Moulin project in Quebec, which has a
total capacity of 300MW.

Wind accounts for about 5% of Canada’s renewable energy supply, with hydroelectric way
ahead at 67.5%

Italy – installed capacity 10.1GW

In tenth place is Italy, which reached just over 10GW in wind energy capacity in 2018.

Until recently, Italy’s wind power was entirely generated with onshore wind, but this month
German wind turbine manufacturer Senvion signed a deal with Renexia to build the first
offshore farm off the coast of Puglia, Southern Italy.

Italy’s wind industry is heavily concentrated in the south and on its islands. All of Italian
energy company ERG’s onshore wind capacity is based south of Rome for example, with
Puglia (248.5MW) and Campania (246.9MW) being its strongest markets.

Roll, Yaw and Pitch

The yaw system of wind turbines is the component responsible for the orientation of
the wind turbine rotor towards the wind.
The pitch control monitors and adjusts the angle of the wind turbine's rotor blades, which
can measure up to 65 meters long, and thus controls the rotational speed of the turbine.
 Rotation around the front-to-back axis is called roll.
 Rotation around the side-to-side axis is called pitch.
 Rotation around the vertical axis is called yaw.
Wind physics
Air masses move because of the different thermal conditions of these masses.
The power of an air mass that flows at speed V through an area A can be calculated as
follows:

where
ρ=air density (kgm-3);
V =wind speed (m s-1).
The air density is a function of air pressure and air temperature, which both are functions of
the height above sea level:

The power in the wind is the total available energy per unit of time. The power in the wind is
converted into the mechanical–rotational energy of the wind turbine rotor, which results in a
reduced speed in the air mass.
The power in the wind cannot be extracted completely by a wind turbine, as the air mass
would be stopped completely in the intercepting rotor area. This would cause a ‘congestion’
of the cross-sectional area for the following air masses.
The theoretical optimum for utilising the power in the wind by reducing its velocity was first
discovered by Betz, in 1926. According to Betz, the theoretical maximum power that can be
extracted from the wind is

Hence, even if power extraction without any losses were possible, only 59% of the wind
power could be utilised by a wind turbine

Power curve
The available energy in the wind varies with the cube of the wind speed. Hence a 10%
increase in wind speed will result in a 30% increase in available energy.
The power curve of a wind turbine follows this relationship between cut-in wind speed (the
speed at which the wind turbine starts to operate) and the rated capacity, approximately
(Figure: 1). The wind turbine usually reaches rated capacity at a wind speed of between 12-
16ms-1, depending on the design of the individual wind turbine.

Figure1: Typical power curve of a 1500kW pitch regulated wind turbine with a cut-out speed
of 25 ms-1
At wind speeds higher than the rated wind speed, the maximum power production will be
limited, or, in other words, some parts of the available energy in the wind will be ‘spilled’.
The power output regulation can be achieved with pitch-control (i.e. by feathering the
blades in order to control the power) or with stall control (i.e. the aerodynamic design of
the rotor blade will regulate the power of the wind turbine). Hence, a wind turbine
produces maximum power within a certain wind interval that has its upper limit at the cut-out
wind speed. The cut-out wind speed is the wind speed where the wind turbine stops
production and turns out of the main wind direction. Typically, the cut-out wind speed is in
the range of 20 to 25 ms-1.
Hysteresis and cut-out effect
If the wind speed exceeds the cut-out wind speed (i.e. 25 ms-1 for the wind turbine in
Figure:1) the turbine shuts down and stops producing energy. This may happen during a
storm, for instance.
When the wind drops below cut-out wind speed, the turbines will not immediately start
operating again. In fact, there may be a substantial delay, depending on the individual wind
turbine technology (pitch, stall and variable speed) and the wind regime in which the turbine
operates. The restart of a wind turbine, also referred to as the hysteresis loop (the broken
line in Figure:1), usually requires a drop in wind speed of 3 to 4 ms-1.
To reduce the impact of a sudden shutdown of a large amount of wind power and to solve the
issues related to the hysteresis effect, some wind turbine manufacturers offer wind turbines
with power curves that, instead of a sudden cut out, reduce power production step by step
with increasing wind speeds. This certainly reduces the possible negative impacts that very
high wind speeds can have on power system operation.
Probability density function
The power production of a wind power plant is related to the wind speed. Since wind speed
varies, power production varies, too. There are two exceptions,
 If the wind speed is below the cut-in wind speed or
 is higher than the cut-out wind speed then power production will be zero.
Figure2: Probability density function for the available power production from several wind
power units

The total installed capacity (IC) is assumed to be CIC. There is one discrete probability of zero
production, p0, when the wind speed is below the cut-in wind speed for all wind turbines or
when the wind turbines are shut down because of too high winds.
There is also one discrete probability of installed capacity, p IC, when the wind speed at all
pitch controlled units lies between the rated wind speed and cut-out wind speed, and when for
all stall-controlled turbines the wind speed lies in the interval that corresponds to installed
capacity.
Between these two levels there is a continuous curve where for each possible production level
there is a probability.
The values of p0 and pIC decrease with an increasing total amount of wind power. This is
owing to the fact that if there is a larger amount of wind power, the turbines have to be spread
out over a wider area. This implies that the probability of zero wind speed at all sites at the
same time decreases. The probability of high (but not too high) wind speeds at all sites at the
same time will also decrease.
The mean power production of all units can be calculated as

Capacity factor
The ratio Pm/CIC is called the capacity factor (CF) and can be calculated for individual units
or for the total production of several units.
The capacity factor depends on the wind resources at the location and the type of wind
turbine, but lies often in the range of about 0.25 (low wind speed locations) to 0.4 (high wind
speed locations).
The utilisation time in hours per year is defined as 8760 Pm/C IC. This value lies, then, in the
range of 2200–3500 hours per year. In general, if the utilisation time is high, the unit is most
likely to be operating at rated capacity comparatively often.
The yearly energy production, W, can be calculated as