Intro to Population Geography

Tuesday, September 22, 2020 8:30 AM

15/9/2020
An Introduction to Population Geography:

Population geography:
Demography is the study of human population. It examines birth and death rates, population policies and the impact of migration. It involves looking at where
people live and why they live in certain locations. In addition, it raises issues of economic growth and standards of living.

When studying human population/ geography, one must remember that the situation is dynamic and not static. Population numbers, distributions, structures and
movement constantly change in time in space and at different levels.
The world’s population is growing rapidly. On the 31st of October, 2011, the United Nations welcomed its 7 billion inhabitants into the world. Today the world’s
population stands at 7.8 billion as of September 2020. Current forecast suggests that the world’s population will continue to increase by 78 million people each year
(the equivalent of 3 babies being born every second) until it reaches around 9 billion in 2050. After that, experts are predicting a decline due to falling birth rates
which will cause the world’s population to stabilize at approximately 10.5 billion sometime after 2,100. However, it is by no means certain.

Population distribution:
Population distribution describes the way in which people are spread out across the Earth’s surface. . It is the spread of people within an area whether that area is a
village, parish, county, country, continent or the globe. This distribution is uneven and there are often considerable changes over periods of time.
An even distribution means that within a region each area has the same number of people living in it.
An uneven distribution means that the population is unevenly spread out. For example; people might be concentrated in particular towns or cities.
On a global scale, 75% of the population live within 1000km of the sea. 85% live in areas less than 500 metres high. Another 85% live between latitudes 68 degrees
north and 20 degrees north. Less than 10% live in the southern hemisphere. The most favored location includes; fertile valleys where there is a regular suppl of
water and the climate is not too extreme, places with good communication. By contrast disadvantaged areas include; deserts, mountains, high latitudes and
rainforests.
Dot maps to show population distribution and the Lorenz Curve shows inequality in population distribution.

Population density:
Population density describes the number of people living in a given area, usually a square kilometer (km2).

The method of calculation is : population density =

A densely populated area has many people living in it.

A sparsely populated area has few people living in it.
Some islands are very densely populated. For example; Great Britain, Japan and The Philippines. Whereas Iceland is sparsely populated. Similarly, some countries in
continental interiors are densely populated. For example; Rwanda. Whereas the interior of the USA and Russia are sparsely populated. Even within a country there
are many contrasts.
However, it must be remembered that population density are average figures for a given area and don’t necessarily indicate population distribution.

Population densities are often shown by means of a choropleth map.

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 Factors Affecting Population Distribution and Density
Tuesday, September 22, 2020 8:32 AM

16/9/2020
Factors Affecting Population Distribution and Density

Global:
Physical factors (Natural/ Environmental Influences) such as:
1. Relief
2. Climate
3. Vegetation
4. Soils
5. Resources/ Water Supply
6. Diseases and Pests

Human Factors such as:

1. Communication
2. Economic
3. Political (government policy)

Climate:
Areas of extreme cold such as The Arctic and Antarctica and extreme aridity such as the Sahara Desert remains sparsely popul ated. People tend to seek out
climates that are not extreme. Therefore, temperate and tropical climates such as North-West Europe and Asia tend to support the greatest clustering of
population.

Soils:
Fertile soils for the cultivation of food have always attracted human settlement. River valleys in the past such as The Nile, as well as in the present have
attracted large populations because of soils that are enriched by the river, access to portable water and food. For example; the Tigris-Euphrates a major
river system in Western Asia starts in the Armenian Highlands of Western Turkey through Syria, Iraq and into the Persian Gulf . The valleys of the large Asian
rivers such as; The Ganges, HwangHo (Yellow River) in China are some of the closely settled areas of the world.

Relief:
Low lying areas attract large populations. Highlands are less favored because of their rugged nature, low temperatures, thin soils, steep slopes and short
growing seasons.

Natural Resources:
Some areas are either poor in natural resources or lack the capital to develop them. They therefore cannot support large popu lations.

Human Factors:

Economic factors:
- Good infrastructure such as roads, water and electricity attract populations.
- Transportation costs make it difficult to exploit the resources. For example; in the interior of South America. Thus, populat ion remains low in this area.

Political (Government Policy):

In many cases governments have influenced population distribution patterns. The state may directly or indirectly decide to en courage development in a
particular area or region.

Example 1: Venezuelan Government established Ciudad Guyana on the Orinoco River to smelt bauxite and iron ore brought in fro m the Highlands and
incentives such as tax breaks and contracts to investors.
Example 2: Brasilia, the capital of Brazil was changed from Rio de Janeiro.

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 Example 2: Brasilia, the capital of Brazil was changed from Rio de Janeiro.
Example 3: Abuja, the new capital of Nigeria moved away from the coast where the old capital Lagos was located.

Communication:
Caribbean capitals developed because their port function links between the colonies and Britain. Most places are easily acces sible over land. People tend to
settle in areas that are easily accessible via roadways, airports and railways.
For example; in Barbados the Adams-Barrow-Cummings Highway. Modern modes of transportation and communication have allowed population
distribution to spread over most continents.

Regional:
Physical factors such as:
1. Relief
2. Vegetation and Soil
3. Natural Resources
4. Water Supply

Human factors such as:

1. Economic
2. Urban

Local (Trinidad):
1. Physical:
- Relief of the land
mountain ranges
plains such as Caroni and naparima plains
swamps
rivers (St. Joseph river)
coastal areas

2. Economic:
- Cities
- Central Business District
- Industrial Estates ( Point Lisas, Omeara Industrial Estate
- Manufacturing

3. Social:
- Education: UWI, tertiary education
- Public Utilities: water, electricity, internet, telephone
- Transport
- Entertainment areas: malls, racetracks, cinemas
- Housing
- Health: public and private hospitals

4. Historical:
- Sugar cane estates
- First capital: St. Joseph
- Train route: where Priority Bus Route now located

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 Dot Maps
Wednesday, September 23, 2020 6:35 PM

Dot maps are used to show absolute or actual quantities which relate to areas. The dots used on a map are quantitative symbols each having a specific or fixed
value. It is thus possible to count the number of dots on this type of map and multiply by the dot value to calculate with some accuracy the total value.

Constructing Dot Maps:

Step 1: selecting a suitable dot value -
It is first necessary to decide what one dot should stand for by considering the range and distribution of the data. If the dot values are too large, there will be too
few dots. If it is too low, there will be too many dots and the map will become overcrowded and unclear. On a small scale map dot values must be high. On a large
scale map, dot values must be low.

Step 2: choosing an appropriate dot size –

Extremes of sizes must be such that, they convey a clear visual impression of differences in distribution. Contrasting as far as possible, areas of a more
sparse/scattered nature. If the dot size is too large it will give the map a very coarse appearance and overfill the spaces. Dots that are too small will result in a
map that looks too light and empty.

Step 3: locating the dots

The first step in locating the dots is to investigate those factors that control the distribution. For example; topography or land use. By a process of progressive
elimination, a mapping surface is generated. Where no other information is available, dots can be spread evenly throughout the area.

Step 4: drawing the dots –

Ensure that all dots are of uniform size and shape. Stencils and templates are available for this purpose.

Points to note:
- Boundaries of statistical units should not be shown on the finished map.
- The key should include reference to the value of the dots.

Advantages of Dot Maps :

• A wide variety of uses
• A string visual impact
• Can recover original data by counting dots
• Manual placement of dots takes into account the distribution of other phenomena

Disadvantages of Dot Maps:

• Human placement is subjective resulting in different distributions for the same data
• If dots from too dense of a pattern there will be visual overlap. Therefore, it will become impossible to recover original data facts.
• The poor choice of dot size can distort the accuracy of the map

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Lorenz Curve (25/9/2020)
Friday, September 25, 2020 3:20 PM

Constructing the Lorenz Curve:

- When representing population distribution, population on the x axis is plotted against area on the y-axis.
- Both are plotted from 0-100%

Steps:
1. Calculate the percent population and percentage area
2. Order the data by decreasing size of population
3. Calculate the cumulative percentage of the population
4. Set up the graph-values on the axes for values 1-100%, cumulative population on x-axis and cumulative area on the y axis.
5. Plot the cumulative percentages and join the points to form a smooth curve
6. The line x=y may be indicated

Points to note:

- The diagonal line represents a perfectly even distribution

- The concave curve illustrates the degree of concentration of population within an area.
- The greater the concavity of the slope, the greater the inequality of population distribution.

Advantages of the Lorenz Curve:

- Gives a visual representation of inequality of population distribution

- It can be compared across countries and easily interpreted
- Scale independence
- Population independence

Disadvantages of the Lorenz Curve:

- May not give an accurate picture of actual inequalities if resources are unevenly distributed
- Population of similar size may have dissimilar shaped curve
- Can only be analyzed in terms of cumulative percentages
- Different results when applied to different levels

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Choropleth Maps (25/9/2020)
Friday, September 25, 2020 3:33 PM

- Show population density

- Relative data which relates to an area
- 'choro' Greek means place
- Expressed as densities per unit area

Three stages:

1. Deriving the value to be mapped

2. Grouping the data
3. Selecting a shading sequence

Deriving the value to be mapped:

Takes into account the different sizes of administrative regions and presents data in a relative form. Thus you need to calculate density/unit area for areas
given. Densities are calculated in the following way:

TOTAL POPULATION/AREA = DENSITY

Grouping The Data:

- Next the data calculated must be grouped into classes.

- The range of the data must be considered
- Four intervals are commonly used to sort data into classes:
1. An arithmetic interval whereby values change by a regular ratio e.g. 0-9, 10-19, 20-29, 30-39
2. A geometrical interval whereby values change by a regular ratio e.g. 0-4, 5-14, 15-44, 45-134
3. An irregular interval whereby the data are grouped by means of a dispersion diagram
4. A sectional interval

Selecting The Shading Sequence:

- A suitable system is chosen to represent the groupings.. Two principles should be followed:

1. Shadings need to be graduated from light to dark. Darkest shade highest intensity; lightest for lowest. No black or white
2. Each shading must have sufficient individuality to be readily identifiable in the series.

Advantages:
- Immediate visual impression
- Actual density values can identified
- Objective calculation of values

Disadvantages:
- Sharp boundaries give false impression of change
- Equal densities over large areas hide area variations
- Show rates rather than total values

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Population Census
Saturday, October 3, 2020 9:50 PM

What is a population census?

- A collection of information done at a specific period of time

What information is collected?

- Economic factors
- Births and Deaths
- Emmigration and Immigration
- Age and the amount of persons living in the home

How is it collected?
- Online survey
- Hotline
- Home visit/appointment

How often is a census done?

- Every 10 years

What is this information used for?

- For planning for the future of the country. An example is to know how many hospitals are needed

In Trinidad, which body is responsible for a conducting a population census?

- Central statistical office (CSO)
When was the last one done?
- The last census was done in 2011

Terms and Concepts Associated with Population:

- Birth rate (BR): The number of live births per thousand persons per annum/year.

Formula for live births:

Example: in 2000, country a had 65 live births for every 1000 persons.

- Death rate (DR): the ratio of deaths to the population of a particular area or during a particular period of time, usually calculated as the number of
deaths per one thousand people per year.

Formula:

Example: for every 1000 persons in a population there are 20 deaths.

- Natural Increase/Decrease: the difference between the BR and the DR. It may be expressed as a rate/percentage of the total population.

- Dependency Ratio: the ratio of the combined child population less than 15 years old and adult population over 65 years old to the population of
those between 15 and 65 years of age. (The dependency does not take into account those who are unemployed)

Formula:

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- Life Expectancy: the average period of time that a person may expect to live.

- Infant Mortality Rate: the average number of children out of every 100 born alive that die after the age of 1.
OR
The number of infants per 1000 who die before 1 year of age.

Formula:

- Fertility Rate: the number of children born per year per 1000 females in a population. In 2017, the fertility rate for the world was 2.4. In Trinidad the
rate was 1.7.

Formula:

- Population growth: For individual countries/regions the natural population increase/decrease modified by subtracting emigration out of that
area/added immigration into that area.
Zero population growth is a stabilization of a population in which births = deaths and the rate of increase is zero.

- Replacement Rate: The total fertility rate that stabilizes a population. It is about 2.1

- Doubling Time: The time necessary for a population to double in size. The standard way to calculate doubling time is to assume that the population
is growing exponentially (at a constant rate). We can then estimate doubling time by dividing 70 by the annual growth rate stated as a percentage. It
changes quickly as the growth rate changes.
For example; the current population growth of 0.6% in U.S.A has a doubling time of 70/0.6 = 117yrs.
No population can sustain an expotential rate of growth indefinitely. Eventually the population will run out of food and space.
It is estimated that Trinidad and Tobago’s population to double in 188yrs.
Jamaica and Barbados - 193yrs
Haiti - 63 yrs
St. Lucia- 74 yrs
Martinique – 278 yrs

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Population Change
Thursday, October 1, 2020 9:00 AM

Factors Affecting Birth Rate:

- Population changes naturally because of the relationship between numbers of persons being born and numbers dying.

- A country's birth rate is affected by its age and sex composition.

- High proportion of young adults = high BR.

- Given the size of a young population, population growth will continue to be high.

- Birth rates of 30 and above are considered to be high.

Other Factors:

1. Age structure:
- In rapidly increasing populations, where there is a high proportion of people in the reproductive age groups, birth rates will tend to be high
simply because there are large numbers of potential parents. In populations where there is a proportion of elderly people, the birth rate
tends to be low.

2. Child Labor:
- In countries where families are poor, children are valued as a source of labor and seen as an economic asset. Many work in th e home, on the
farm or in workshops. This causes the birth rate to be relatively high. In MDCs, the general perception is reversed.

3. Religion:
- In countries where there is an opposition to contraception, birth rates are generally high. For example; in some countries where a large
proportion of the population comprises roman Catholics or Muslims. However, this may not always be the case, since other fact ors may affect
a country's birth rate. For example; Italy with over 90% of the population being Roman Catholics, has one of the lowest birth rates in Europe.

4. Age of Marriage:
- The younger the age of marriage, the birth rate tends to be higher.

5. The Level of Education and the Status of Women:

- The level of education in a country and especially the level among women affect the birth rate, where women have access to education
opportunities, they limit their family size. In cases where children have to go to school rather than work, children become an economic
burden to their parents, rather than a source of income. The introduction of compulsory education is a factor that causes the birth rate to fall.

6. Government Policies

Factors Affecting Death Rate:

- Generally death/mortality rate are higher in LDCs than MDCs.

Death Rate for 2012:

Mali- 13.94
Italy- 9.93
USA- 8.39
Barbados- 8.39
Trinidad and Tobago- 8.35
Guyana- 7.18
Jamaica- 6.59

Countries with a high proportion of young adults will have a lower death rate than countries with an aging population.

- Public Health Care: the provision of clean drinking water and safe disposal of sewage reduces the death rate. In places where this is not
obtained, diseases such as cholera, is a major cause of the high death rates in LDCs. The WHO (World Health Organization) est imates that 1/6
of all diseases in the world are caused by contaminated water.

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 of all diseases in the world are caused by contaminated water.

- Nutrition, Diet and Lifestyle: in many LDCs, persons don’t have access to nutritious food to withstand illness and disease. F or example; in Sub-
Saharan Africa, the UN estimates that 40% of the population are under-nourished and these countries have the highest death rates.

- Medical Care: includes both treatment and prevention of diseases. In MDCs the medical care is better and therefore the death rate will be
lower than LDCs due to the availability of medicines, vaccination etc.

- Wars: internal wars have caused the death rate to increase in different parts of the world (e.g. Syria and different parts of the Middle East). It
also affects medical care.

- Age Structure: a younger population will have a lower death rate than an older population.

Factors Affecting Fertility Rate

These factors can be grouped into 4 categories:

1. DEMOGRAPHIC-
Mortality rate and the influence of social norms rearding fertility will impact the fertility rate. For example, in sub – Saharan Africa, where the
average infant mortality is over 100,000, it is calculated that a woman must have an average of 10 children to be 95% certain of a surviving adult
male.

2. SOCIAL/CULTURAL –
In some societies particularly in Africa, tradition demands high rates of reproduction. Here the opinion of women in the reproductive years will
have little influence weighted against intense cultural expectations. Educations especially female literacy is key to lower fertility. With education
comes the knowledge of birth control. There are social differences between MDCs and LDCs.

3. POLTICAL –
Government policy (Pro – natal/Anti – Natal) affects how much children a woman will have.

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Demographic Transition Model
Tuesday, October 6, 2020 9:38 AM

DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION MODEL

The demographic transition model is based on population change in several industrialized countries in Western Europe and
North America (based on MDCs). This model suggests that all countries (both MDCs and LDCs) passes through similar
demographic transition stages or population cycle. Or it will do so given time.

Stages of the Model:

Stage 1 : Pre modern/High Fluctuating

Stage 2: birth rate is high , death rate is low

Stage 3: Contraceptives being used, government incentives, increased industrialization and mechanization, increased desire for
material possession, emancipation of women ( women have more say , they are more educated),

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 material possession, emancipation of women ( women have more say , they are more educated),

Stage 4: postmodern/ low fluctuating. The birth rate is levelling off and the death rate is fluctuating. The population begins to
stable off. Giving a steady population.

LIMITATIONS OF THE MODEL:

1. Birth rates in several of the most economically developed countries have, since the model was put forward, fallen below death
rates, (Germany, Sweden) causing for the first time, a population decline which suggests that perhaps the model should have a
fifth stage added to it.

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2. The model being more or less Eurocentric, assumed that in time all countries would pass through the same four stages. It now
seems unlikely however that many LDCs will ever become industrialized.

3. The model assumed that the fall in the death rate in stage 2 was the consequence of industrialization. Initially, the death rate in
many British cities rose, due to the insanitary conditions which resulted from rapid urban growth, and began to fall after medical
advances were made. The delayed fall in death rate in LDCs has been mainly due to the inability to afford medical facilities. In
many countries, the fall in birth rate in stage 3 has been less rapid than the model suggests due to religious/political opposition
to birth control (Brazil). Whereas the fall was more rapid and came earlier for China, following the one child policy.

4. The timescale of the model, especially in several South-east Asian countries such as Hong Kong and Malaysia, is being squashed
as they develop at a much faster rate than did the early industrialized countries.

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One Child Policy
Monday, October 5, 2020 11:51 PM

China’s One Child Policy

Aim:
- To manage the nation’s food supplies
- To slow down the rapid increase in population

The regulations were introduced in 1978. The population was kept in check using persuasion, cohesion and
encouragement.

Problems With the Policy:

- Sexism: girls not preferred by parents and are left in orphanages.
- Suicide: mostly girls because parents preferred male children than female children.
- Selective Abortion: if couples knew they were having a girl, they would abort her in order to have a boy.
- Gender Imbalance: more males than females resulting in problems reproducing.
- Abandonment: girls were abandoned by their parents since they didn’t want them and when placed in orphanages
no adopted them. ( there are 120 males to 100 girls). Approximately 40 – 60 million females are missing in order to
balance the gender population.
- The replacement rate dropped below 2.1 and is now around 1.7
- Old persons that need care is going to burdened on the one child that was born (4 grandparents, 2 parents)
- Female Abortions: number of female abortions and use of infanticide notably increased since the introduction to the
policy creating a surplus male population
- By the midpoint of the century, ¼ of the Chinese population will be over 65, resulting in a burden of needed care.

Changes from the Policy:

- Nov. 8, 2013, couples were allowed to have 2 children if one of the parents was an only child. If one of the parents
was an only child. (slight relaxation of the one child policy )
- At first it was encouraged for people to have less children because of the growing population but by 1979, the policy
was introduced where couples were only allowed to have one child and one child only.

How was it Enforced?

There were penalties if you had more than 1 child.
- Families that didn’t conform to the one child policy has to pay a fine
- If they refuse to pay the fine, they would have to get an abortion (forcefully)
- Economic Hardships: you would lose your job
- Sterilization of Husband/Wife
- Incentives:
1. Cash Awards: if couples had 1 child they got cash awards
2. Preferential Access to housing, free education and healthcare

It is suggested that the policy worked as it may have avoided 400 million births

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Pro - Natalist Policy
Sunday, October 25, 2020 11:52 PM

Pro – Natalist Policy

- A country is in favor of females having more than 1 children

France:

What is a Pro-Natalist Policy?

- A type of population policy that encourages births and aims to raise the population level.

Why Was the Policy Introduced?

- France wanted a larger workforce as they thought they were underpopulated
- They feared the impacts of an ageing population

France was faced with a decreasing population in the 1960s and policies were put in place to boost the birth rate
The fertility rate was below 2.1 and is now 1.9

What Did They Do to Manage the Population?

- They passed the “Code de la Famille” in 1939. This was a project which offered a number of incentives to mothers and fathers
that wanted to have more children in France
- Economic Incentives: families were given £ 1064 to have a third child
- Maternity grants: money and longer time off was given to mothers who had a baby, 20 weeks off if they had a child, full pay w as
paid by the government so mothers would spend more time home potentially looking after more children
- Tax Benefits: full tax benefits were given to families until their youngest child reached 18. Thus, influencing people to hav e more
children younger than 18 so they won’t have to pay their taxes.
- Pension Schemes: mothers and housewives were given more money in the form of a pension in order to look after and have more
children.
Impacts from the Policy:
Advantages:
- Size of the workforce increased
- Not as much had to be spent on healthcare (elderly)

Disadvantages:
- More money had to spent on healthcare (youth)
- The young age index was high, so people had less disposable income

Incentives were given to help boost the population

They incentives included things like:
1. Community funded day care
2. Facilities and nursery schools
3. Family allowances
4. Allowances for handicapped children in parents
5. Child allowances for children less than 3 years old
6. Paternity leave for 2 weeks

Did the Policy Work?

- It was not entirely successful as there were downsides to it.

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DTM Applicability
Tuesday, October 20, 2020 9:17 PM

THE APPLICABILITY OF THE DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION MODEL TO POPULATION CHANGE IN MDCs AND LDCs

The DTM can be used to show how the rate of population growth of a country changes over a period of time and to
compare rates of growth between different countries at a given point in time. It is therefore useful in helping a
government to plan for its country.

MDCs
The DTM can easily be applied to MDCs and shows its best fit with industrialized nations of Europe and North America.
These countries generally experience the changes in BR and DR proposed by the model as they industrialized their
economies. Similar cultural norms and improved status of women in the 20th century in these areas have contributed
to the applicability of the demographic transition model. It must be noted, however, that some MDCs such as Japan and
France maybe at a fifth stage where the DR is higher than the BR. Thus there is a natural decrease in population.

LDCs
In LDCs, however, the DRM does not accurately map the stages of population change. A significant difference is the
economic conditions which see many countries struggling to industrialize in the late 20th and 21st centuries. For
example, Haiti and West and Sub-Saharan Africa. Many LDCs experience more rapid population change with DR falling
rapidly. They have also experienced higher rates of growth. There has been a longer lag in LDCs between falling DR and
falling BR. Many LDCs are still dependent on primary activities. Socio-cultural and religious customs, natural disasters
wars globalization and migration have all worked against the traditional DTM.
However, some countries such as Singapore, Hong Kong and Barbados (recently developed) the model can be applied.
In these countries, the crude BR and DR fell from high to low and they are in the fourth stage of the DTM.

BOTH MDCs AND LDCs

In both regions, infant mortality was high in the period when total fertility was high and fell with declining fertility.

Books used 1. CXC Geography Study Guide Unit 1. Page 17

2 S. Bleasdell. New Integrated Geography CAPE Unit 1. Page 56

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Migration
Wednesday, October 21, 2020 6:49 PM

Human Migration

Terms:

- Mobility: umbrella term used to embrace all population movements that is both migration and circulation.

- Migration : movement of people from one administrative area to another involving a change of permanent of
semi-permanent residence by an individual or group of people OR movement from one place to another usually
across a political boundary.

- Circulation: a typically short-term, repetitive or cyclical movement without a permanent or long-standing change of
residence.

As of 2019, the top ten migration destinations were:

- United States
- Germany
- Saudi Arabia
- Russian Federation
- United Kingdom
- United Arab Emirates
- France
- Canada
- Australia
- Italy

In the same year, the top ten countries of origin were:

- India
- Mexico
- China
- Russian Federation
- Syrian Arab Republic
- Bangladesh
- Pakistan
- Philippines
- Afghanistan
- Indonesia

Types of Migration

Migration affects the distribution of people over a given area as well as the total population of a region and the
population structure of a country or city.

1. International or External (emigrants and immigrants)

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1. International or External (emigrants and immigrants)

- Movement between countries and generally involves far greater distances than in the case of internal migration. It
involves movement across national boundaries. This could involve moving from (LDC to MDC) OR (MDC to MDC)
OR (LDC to LDC) OR (MDC to LDC)
Emigrant – people who leave a country
Immigrant- new comers arriving in a country

2. Internal Migration

- Refers to population movement within a country. This can take place across all distances within a country

3. Permanent

4. Temporary (Circulation)

- A daily movement/ cycle

Example: fruit pickers that go up to foreign countries and spend sometime there and come back down to their country.

5. Forced Migration

- Unintended movement resulting from conflict, development policies, projects and disasters.
- People may be forcibly removed from their homes and relocated to make room for economic development

- Examples of countries that these things take place are: Iraq, Sudan, Myanmar, Haiti, Somalia.
- In Iraq in 2008, 2.8 million persons had to flee from Baghdad due to the internal wars that were happening.
- In Montserrat, persons had to leave their homes to go to foreign countries because of the volcano eruption.
- The slave trade between Africa and The New World.
- Within Iraq, persons were forced to move to other towns (forced internal migration)

Forced internal migration examples:

- Building of the three gorges dam in China. The dam was built across the Yangtze River and provides hydroelectric
power. Over 2 million people were forced to be removed out of the area in order to build the dam.
- Today climate change is expected to produce new ways of forced migration and it is estimated that by the year
2050, about 200 million persons may be displaced by climate change

CAUSES OF MIGRATION

- PUSH FACTORS – are those that cause people to leave due to some type of pressure which make them dissatisfied

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 - PUSH FACTORS – are those that cause people to leave due to some type of pressure which make them dissatisfied
with there present home.

- PULL FACTORS - are those perceived qualities that attract people to a new settlement.

REASONS FOR MIGRATION

Pull Factors:

- Food
- Peace
- Health Care
- Education
- Money
- City Life
- Jobs
- Fertile Land
- Less Risk of Natural Disasters
- Friends and Family

Push Factors:

- Climatic Disasters
- Farmers' Life
- War
- Poverty
- Drought
- Isolation
- Unemployment

CONSEQUENCES OF MIGRATION

- To the host country

- To the receiving country

MIGRATION PATTERNS

1. Step migration- the migrant change location in a series of small steps each taking them to their intended
destination. They may move from a small town to a nearby town then to a city and finally to a foreign country.

2. Chain migration- is a series which may begin with one family member who sends money to bring family members
to the new location. This process leads to the clustering of people from specific locations in neighbourhoods of the
towns in which they settle(MIGRATION FIELDS).Eventually migration may be channelized as people move between

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 towns in which they settle(MIGRATION FIELDS).Eventually migration may be channelized as people move between
areas that are connected by past migration.

- (taken from CXC STUDY GUIDE p.22)

MIGRATION THEORIES

1. E.G RAVENSTEIN—MIGRATION LAWS

- Ravenstein put forward his seven laws of migration in 1885 based on his studies of migration within the UK

2. LEE’S MODEL OF MIGRATION-

- This 1966 model is based on push and pull factors. Push factors include the disadvantages of remaining in a place
of origin, such as unemployment, while pull factors include the advantages of migrating to a particular destination
such as employment. Migrants base their movement on both real and imagined factors. Between both places there
are intervening obstacles and opportunities. An obstacle maybe high cost involved and an opportunity maybe part-
time employment that provide sufficient money to continue to their final destination.

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Flow Lines
Wednesday, October 21, 2020 6:38 PM

- Flow lines are lines of variable width drawn to represent the quantity passing along a given route
(Bleasdell,2019,p.69)

- These lines relate to flows of some kind. These include migrations of people, traffic flows, shipment of goods,
movements of materials such as crude oil and volume of telephone calls.

1. Flow lines are excellent for showing migration flows

2. Arrowheads point in the direction of movement and the thicker the arrow, the larger the volume of migrants.
3. When appropriately placed on a map, flow lines give a good visual representation of migrations allowing volume as
well as the sending and receiving countries to be identified.

CONSTRUCTION OF FLOW LINES-STEPS

- Collect relevant data

- Choose a base map on a large scale enough to draw flow lines
- Examine the data and determine smallest and largest volume and choose a scale for the thickest of line to ensure
that both the thinnest and thickest arrows are visible. A simple proportional scale may be used , for example, 1mm =
1000persons
- Determine the thickness of each line to show the volume of the movement
- Pencil in the direction of the arrows to ensure that they do not overlap or cross each other. Arrows must be shown
as distinct and separate lines
- Place the scale on the map
- Draw the lines of the desired thickness.(arrows are shaded in dark tones or colours for clarity and visual impact)

ADVANTAGES

- Relatively quick and easy to construct

- Provide a visual representation of movement in a particular direction while at the same time showing number of
migrants.
- The length of the arrow also shows distance travelled

DISADVANTAGES

- It is sometimes difficult to portray accurately the thickness of arrows for both small and very large numbers on a
map.
- When using a arrow of a particular thickness for a given number of people, there may be some loss of data.
- In cases where many migrations from a wide range of places are going to the same destination, there may be a
cluster of arrows making it difficult to see each stream.

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 Population Structure
Tuesday, October 27, 2020 9:49 AM

Population Structure

What is Population Structure?

- The term population structure refers to the measurable characteristics of a population which may be either innate or achieved. The
variables usually considered are those which may be available from a census including age, sex, education, occupation, religion,
ethnic status and socio-economic status that is the quantitative aspects of population.

- Structure refers to the age and sex balance of a population. It can be displayed in a population or age sex pyramid. These
structures are the end result of varying levels of fertility, mortality and migration.

- Population pyramids show the number or percentage of the population by age and sex. The shape of the pyramid reflects the long-
and short-term trend in population growth, both by natural increase and net migration. These structures are important because the
makeup of the population by its age and sex together with its life expectancy, has implications for the future growth, economic
development and social policy of a country.

- Age sex pyramids can be used to determine which stage a country is in on the DTM.

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 Population Structures in LDCs

Generally, the population structure of LDCs is marked by a higher proportion of young persons with a sharp decline in numbers at
increasing ages. These pyramids have wide bases because of high birth rates and narrow sharply because of high death rates. There
may be sex inequalities (males and females differ) in the population structure depending on migration patterns. This structure is
sometimes referred to a youthful one. There may be missing males and females of working age. Wars and high maternal mortality
also result in sex inequalities. This structure is sometimes found as a ‘youthful’ one.
There is a great variety of population structures within LDCs. Poorer countries such as Papa New Guinea has very young populations
while more developed LDCs, such as Barbados has aging populations.
Differences in culture, religion and status of women, diseases, along with levels of poverty, account for these differences in
population structure.
E.g. HIV/AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa has reduced some life expectancy in some countries to 40-50 yrs.

Most Caribbean countries would be considered as having ‘youthful’ populations, although it varies among countries.

Population Structure in MDCs

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 The population structure in MDCs tends to show a narrow base reflecting lower broth rates and a relatively small proportion of its
population under age 15. The birth rate is very low, sometimes below replacement level. The apex of the pyramids tends to be
broader than those of LDCs because life expectancy is high.
Medical care is available from cradle to grave and ensures low infant mortality rates and long lives. The crude death rate may be
high as a result of an ageing population.
There are variations among MDCs. Countries, such as Ireland have higher BR than Sweden with its declining population. MDCs such
as USA and Germany with high immigrant populations and have more complex population structures. For example, males may
outnumber females in the working age group as this is typically the migrant group.
Migrants may have higher BR than the resident population as a result of cultural differences.
In both LDCs and MDCs, women outlive men, so the population structure after age 60 is almost always imbalanced in favor of
females.

Interpretation of Population Pyramids

There are four critical aspects of the pyramid.

1. Shape
This refers to the overall slope created by the shortening bars.
It may be:
- Concave that is, declining rapidly with age
- Even steep slope – true pyramid shape
- Straight especially at base – shortening slowly
- Convex – bulging in the middle and to the top
- Inverted – wider towards the top

2. Base to Height Ratio

Generally, the base reflects the BR and the height of the life expectancy
• Wide base, short height indicates high BR and low life expectancy
• Narrowing base and lengthening height reveal falling BR and longer life expectancy
• Narrow base and tall height may indicate a very high BR and very long-life expectancy

3. Relative Size of 15-65 Age Groups

This is the economically active part of the population. Its size relative to the over 65 and under 15 would indicate the size of the
dependency ratio, that is, those who have to supported. It can also suggest the future BR.

4. Differences in Male and Female Population by Age Group

Males may be missing (shorter bars) as a result of war or migration. Females may die in child birth.

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 Males may be missing (shorter bars) as a result of war or migration. Females may die in child birth.

Interpretation of Population Structure LDCs and MDCs Populations

Implications for The Future

The population pyramid also allows predictions to be made about the future. The present size of any age group can be used to
predict the future size of older groups.

LDCs (Youthful)
In countries such as Kenya that has a broad-based pyramid, indicates that there is a large reproductive group (0-14). The 0-5 age
group is larger than any other.
- One can expect continued growth of the population.
- Government would have to plan for reproductive health education and possibly family planning measures to deal with a high
fertility rate.
- There will also be a high demand for jobs.
- There will be a need for more schools and youth care facilities.
- Improved medical care may result in lower infant mortality.

MDCs (Ageing)
The pre-reproductive group is declining and population growth will soon begin to decline. Countries would have experienced their
greatest growth 35-40 yrs. ago and as this group moves through the population, policies will have to be put in place for an ageing
population.
- The numbers forming the economically active group have started to shrink.
- Plans will have to be made for retirement and pensions, care for the elderly and geriatric health facilities.
- Countries will have large numbers of dependent elderly persons especially women, with a decline in the economically active age
group.
- Countries will have to import labor.

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Construction Of Population Pyramid
Thursday, October 29, 2020 2:28 PM

Construction of Population Pyramid

Step 1: Collect population data by age and sex

Step 2: Divide the population into age groups. (5 yr. intervals are usually used
and the data is usually absolute)
Step 3: Plot the data on a suitable scale
a. Vertical axis shows age groups in 5 yr. intervals
b. Horizontal axis represents the no./percentage of people in each of these age
groups.
c. Males are plotted to left and females are to the right of the vertical axis

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 Dependency Ratio
Thursday, October 29, 2020 1:35 PM

Dependency Ratio

- Is a measure of the population that is dependent either because they are too young or too old to work.

Formula:

e.g.

A low dependency ratio means that the country will be better able to benefit from its economic production without having to
divert resources to support those who are not economically active.
The dependency ratio can be caused by a large ‘youthful’ population or large elderly population. The ratio can be calculated for
each one.
A high dependency ratio will result in a diversion of resources from development projects to support the dependent population .

Example 2:

AGE GROUP POPULATION (M)

0-4 3.9
5-9 4.1
10-14 3.7
15-19 3.35
20-24 3.65
25-29 3.2
30-34 3.9
35-39 2.8
40-44 2.9
45-49 3.1
50-54 2.9
55-59 2.95
60-64 2.85
65-69 2.5
70-74 1.65

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 70-74 1.65
75-79 1.25
80+ 1.25

Persons below 15 = 11.65

Persons 65+ = 6.85
= 18.55
Persons between 16-65 = 30.6

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 Resources and Population
Tuesday, November 10, 2020 8:03 AM

Resources and Population

Optimum Population:
- Is the number of people which when working with all the available resources will
produce the highest per capita economic return. It assumes, the ideal situation in
which people use all resources to produce the highest standard of living

- Any change in either population or resources used will change the output and
result in either over or underpopulation

Standard of living:
- Are the results of interaction between physical and human resources and can be
expressed as:

Standard of Living =

Overpopulation:
- This occurs when there are too many people relative to the resources and
technology available to maintain an adequate standard of living.

- For example, parts of Bangladesh, Ethiopia and parts of China, Brazil and India are
often said to be overpopulated as they have insufficient food, minerals and
energy resources to maintain their population.

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 Why is Bangladesh Overpopulated?
- Bangladesh is smaller than Florida
- Has a population of 164 million (8th most populated country in the world)
- Bangladesh has a population density of around 1265 per km2 ( the highest in the
world)
- In the 1960’s, the fertility rate was at an all time high of 7 children per woman.
This number, however, did decrease over tome (2.8 by 2003)
- Bangladesh had a lack of education – Adult literacy rate of 41%
- Social and religious factors – Having big families was seen as the usual and what
was best for a family
- Poverty and Economy – Bangladesh is mostly rural and finding jobs in the urban
areas was hard due to overpopulation so agriculture and local work was common.
Agriculture and farms, however, take up a lot of space despite Bangladesh being
so small.
- Jobs – couples would intentionally have more children to help the family
financially, raising the children to help them work. Mostly for free.

UNDERPOPULATION:
- This occurs when there are far more resources in an area, for example energy
and mineral than can be used by people living there.

- For example, Canada and Australia can export their surplus food, energy and
mineral resources, have high incomes, good living conditions and high levels of
technology and immigration

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-

It is possible that standard of living can rise through increased production and
exploitation of resources if population increases.

Care is needed when making comparisons on a global scale.

For example:
There does not seem to be any direct correlation between population density
and over/under population. As in the case of North-East Brazil which is said to be
overpopulated with 2 people per square kilometer compared to California which
is perceived to be underpopulated with over 600 persons per square kilometer.

Also, population density is not necessarily related to the GDP.

For example:
The Netherlands and Germany both have high GDP per capita and a high
population density.
Canada and Australia have a high GDP per capita and a low population density.
Bangladesh and Puerto Rico have a low GDP per capita and have a high
population density.
The Sudan and Bolivia have low GDP and low population density.

The balance of population and resources within a country may also be uneven.

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For example:
A country may have a population that is too great for one resource such as
energy, yet too small to use fully a second such as food supply as in Saudi Arabia.

Some parts of a country may be well off as in South-East Brazil whereas others
may be relatively poor as in North-East Brazil.

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 Carrying Capacity
Tuesday, November 10, 2020 8:05 AM

The maximum number of ‘uses’ that can be supported by a given resource or set of resources. For example, the
greatest number of livestock that can be adequately fed on the output of a given area of pasture; the amount of
plant life sustained in an ecosystem; the visitor capacity of a recreational area or the number of vehicles that can
move along a road without undue impedence.

The ecological concept of carrying capacity is defined as the population of a given species that can be supported
indefinitely in a defined habitat without permanently damaging the ecosystem upon which it is dependent.
Therefore, the carrying capacity is the largest population of humans/animals/plants that a particular
area/environment/ecosystem can carry or support. When applied to human population, it refers to maximum rates
of resource use, waste production and sustainability without damaging the ecosystem.
Human beings consume resources well beyond basic needs but with creating technology, they are not dependent
on the environment. Human beings are the only species that can change the relationship negatively or positively
between resource and population through the use of technology.
The carrying capacity will vary depending on the level of technology and capacity of population to manipulate the
environment.

Carrying capacity (saturation level) refers to the largest numbers of people that can be supported by an
environment without long-term damage to that environment. This suggests the maximum use of the resources in a
sustainable manner that also allows for a high standard of living. The carrying capacity is dependent upon the
ability of the population to manipulate the physical environment through the use of technology. With advancement
in technology, new resources can be accessed or a greater supply from previous sources can be harnessed.
Innovation can allow for a more efficient use of resources as resources are recycled and reused.

Factors That Influencing Changes in the Carrying Capacity

Any change in population or resources in the environment will affect the carrying capacity of the environment.
They may be short term or long term.

1.Population Size:
- An increase in the population can be caused by natural increase or immigration. This will increase the demand for

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- An increase in the population can be caused by natural increase or immigration. This will increase the demand for
resources and affect the carrying capacity. There can also be a natural decrease which can also affect the carrying
capacity.

2.Environmental Resistance (Negative Impact):

- Changes in the environmental conditions such as food availability, natural disasters, diseases and climate change
will all negatively impact carrying capacity.

3.Resource Innovation (Positive Impact):

- Development and increase efficiency can all increase the carrying capacity of an environment.

FACTORS WHICH AFFECT CARRYING CAPACITY:

Any change in the population or resources in an environment will change the carrying capacity. These changes
maybe short or long term.

(1) Improvements in technology e.g. solar power. (RESOURCE INNOVATION)

(2) Change in environmental conditions e.g. depletion in non-renewable resources. (ENVIRONMENTAL RESISTANCE)

(3) Natural and technological disasters e.g. climate change, disease. (ENVIRONMENTAL RESISTANCE)

(4) A sudden increase in population of an area from immigration (POPULATION SIZE)

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 Settlement Processes
Tuesday, November 10, 2020 8:05 AM

Settlement Processes

History:
- The change in human lifestyle from nomadic hunter/gatherers to sedentary cultivators
- The domestication and cultivation of plants and animals led to a food surplus. Farming developed
- Thus, some persons could do other tasks and specialize
- The earliest settlements were located along rivers/springs and often near fertile alluvial/volcanic soils
- Eventually, large towns and urban centers developed with a wide range of functions

Site and Situation:

Site: describes the characteristics of the actual point at which a settlement is located.
Situation: describes the location of a place relative to its surroundings as neighboring settlements, rivers.

Settlement Location Factors:

- Early settlements developed in a rural economy which aimed at self-sufficiency, largely because transport systems
were limited.
- Several factors would usually operate together when a choice in location of a settlement was being made.

Settlement Location Factors:

1. Water Supply
2. Flood Avoidance
3. Building Materials
4. Food supply
5. Relief
6. Defense
7. Nodal Points
8. Fuel Supply
9. Harbors
10. Shelter and Aspect
11. Bridging-points
12. Resources

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Urban Settlement
Thursday, November 26, 2020 1:41 PM

URBAN SETTLEMENT

Urbanization:
- Urbanization is an increase in the population that lives in towns and cities
- Urbanization is defined as the process by which an increasing proportion of the total population usually that of a country lives in towns and
cities.
- Urbanization is the process of change from a rural society in which people live scattered across the landscape to an urban society where
people are concentrated into thickly populated nodes.
- An urban area is therefore a concentration of people buildings infrastructure and economic activities.

Defining Urban Settlements:

- Population size :
This is commonness and simplest definition. However, on a worldwide basis, the problem is whether countries reach agreement on the
minimum population size at which is settlement stops being a village and becomes a town. Sometimes as in Sweden in addition to the
minimum population size a town has to have a limited distance between houses for example in Sweden 200 inhabitants and not more
than 200 meters between houses

- Employment:
Some countries use the presence of agricultural employment as a measure for separating villages from towns

- Facilities and Functions:

Settlements which contain basic amenities are called towns. In Czech Republic areas are defined as having 5000 inhabitants piped water
and sewage system at least five physicians and a pharmacy and nine-year secondary school and a hotel with at least 20 beds.

- Government Legislation:
Some governments such as Iraq designate certain administrative areas as being urban. (sometimes the government may deem an
administrative area as an urban area, though it may be smaller and not very built up)

The World Pattern of Urbanization:

- The process of urbanization was very important in the MDCs of Western Europe during the 19th century and in North America during the early
20th century. Urbanization is a phenomenon today of most LDCs and the post socialist countries of Eastern Europe.

Urbanization in MDCs
- Generally, most developed countries have over 70% of their population living in urban areas for example in the UK the percentage of urban
dwellers rose from 33.8% in 1801 to 78% in 1901 today it is 89%.
- Industrialization
- Sub urbanization
- Counter urbanization
- Re-urbanization
- Gentrification

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 Industrialization:
The urbanization process in many MDCs was closely associated with industrialization in the 19th and 20th century. Because of the Industrial
Revolution, society gradually changed from being dependent on agriculture to depending on industry. These industries were mainly located in
towns, they attracted large numbers of people/workers to live near the factories.
A process of cumulative growth began in which industries not only attracted workers to the growing towns but also services such as roads,
railways and sewer systems.

Sub Urbanization:
The movement of people out of the inner areas of the city to the edges. Increasing affluence, improvement in transportation and the
development of housing estates and a desire to escape deteriorating neighborhoods in the city have all fueled this movement. It results in the
development of suburbs, an extension of the built-up areas and a lifestyle involving daily commuting to work in the city.

Sub Urban Intensification:

The infilling of sub urban areas

Sub urban Extensification:

The spread of the sub urban area. (urban sprawl)

These are 2 processes that are responsible for the development of the cities.

Counter Urbanization:
the opposite to urbanization. This involves people abandoning cities in favor of areas which are essentially rural in character. People and
businesses move into rural areas, changing the nature of the village to an outlying suburb beyond the suburbs.
Two factors encourage this process.
- Easier movement/ transportation/ car ownership/ construction of road ways
- Development in information technology and telecommunications

Re-urbanization:
A process designed to improve the quality of inner city life for people and households in different social strata. It is an attempt to provide
vibrant living space within urban cause that have fallen into decline. As a result, people are attracted back into areas where the population
was declining.

Gentrification:
A form of re-urbanization. Previously abandoned buildings are refurbished and specialized commercial services encouraged until the area
becomes a desirable location for the wealthy. It involves refurbishment and change in social composition through the displacement of the
original inhabitants and immigration of middle-class households. As a result, many city centers have become socially exclusive.

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Urbanization in LDCs
Thursday, November 26, 2020 1:42 PM

Urbanization in LDCs

- Urbanization in the European countries was a relatively gradual process but in most economically LDCs, the change is much
more rapid. The urban population of LDCs in Asia, Africa and Latin America is growing more swiftly. The speed and scale of this
urban growth is a new phenomenon for the world, and it is a result of a series of interrelated factors.

1. Rapid Population Growth

2. Modernization of Agriculture
3. Industrial Competition
4. Improved Communication

Rapid population growth:

Increased global population growth results from rapidly lower death rates combined with slowly declining birth rates. This then
contributes to the urbanization process both as cities themselves grow and as the pressure of population in relation to the
resources in rural areas increases.
This forces people to migrate into cities.

Much rural change in LDCs has seen a shift towards higher capital input and relatively high technology. As a result, fewer
agricultural workers are needed and therefore many people looking for work migrate to cities.

In MDCs the agricultural revolution took place alongside an industrial revolution and the 2 processes were closely related. By
contrast, current agricultural change in LDCs pushes people to the cities, but there is only limited industrial development to
support them.

MDCs such as the UK and USA are urgently seeking new markets in the poorer LDCs. The LDCs import manufactured goods
ranging from pots and pans to cars, tractors and chemicals and with this their own traditional industries are destroyed.

Improved Communication:
Media and especially the spread of televisions have made millions of people in LDCs aware of urban living standards and of the
possibility of migrating to share them.

Rapid Urbanization in LDCs:

Over urbanization:
One result of recent rapid urbanization is that cities lack the economic growth to support large and increasing populations. For
example in cities such as Calcutta and Mumbai in India, development of manufacturing and service industries have not been
fast enough to keep peace with population growth. In Mumbai, with 12.5 million people only 3.4 million are employed in
industry.

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 Urban Primacy:
- Is the degree to which a country’s largest city dominates all other cities. If two large cities dominate, for example, in Brazil, this
is called a binary (bi-primate) pattern.

- This is due to socio cultural and historic factors. During colonial times these cities served as centers for trade come on industry
and political power. It is often the administrative center and main port that dominates commercial activity of the entire
country. Most Caribbean countries are dominated by one very large tell town.

- Primacy also occurs in developed countries for example, London, England and Paris, France.

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Models Of Urban Structure
Thursday, November 26, 2020 1:43 PM

Models of Urban Structure:

Urban structure is the arrangement of land use in urban areas, in other words, how the land use of a city is set
out… Urban structure can also refer to urban spatial structure, which concerns the arrangement of public and
private space in cities and the degree of connectivity and accessibility.

Urban models are models of urban morphology investigate the spatial arrangement of functional
zones/activities in an urban area. They assume spatial specialization where similar activities will locate in
similar places. The main functional zones identified in the models are;
1) CBD (central business district)
2) Light Manufacturing
3) Heavy Manufacturing
4) Lower Income Housing
5) Middle Income Housing
6) High Income Housing

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