FUNDAMENTALS OF HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION

Amitava Sarder

Faculty

Department of Computer Science

Prabhu Jagatbandhu College

Abstract
“We m us t de s i gn f or t he w ay pe opl e
be have , not f or how w e w oul d w i s h t he m
t o be have .”

― Donal d A. No r m an, Li vi ng w it h
Com pl e xi t y Fi gur e 1: H um an Com put e r I nt e r act i on

In t oda y’ s t e c hnol ogy s pe c i f i c wor l d, Huma n Co mput er Int e r a c t i on ( HC I) i s e xtr eme l y

i mpor t a nt a s i t ta ke s a dva nt a ge of pe opl e ’ s e ve r yda y knowl e d ge of t he s ur r oundi ngs t o
de s i gn c l e a r i nt ui t i ve s ys t e ms unde r s t a ndabl e a nd us abl e f or pe opl e wi t h a va r i e d r a nge of
abi l it i e s a nd e xpe r tis e . Thi s pape r di s c us s e s t he f unda me nt a l t he or e t i ca l c onc ept s of
di f f e re nt a r ea s i n t he f i e l d of Huma n Co mp ut e r Int er a c t i on ( HCI) .A br i e f ove r vi e w of HC I
i s pr e se nt e d. Ne e d of a good HC I wi t h i t s de s i r able c ha ra c t er i s ti cs a nd f unct i ona li ti e s wi t h
di f f e re nt a s pe c t s a nd appr oa c he s of de s i gning us e r -f r i e ndl y HC I i nt e r fa c e s or i nt e r a ct ions
a nd s ys t e ms De s i gn a r e di sc us s e d. Spec i fi c e xa mpl e s i n t he di f f er e nt ar e a s of HCI a r e t he n
r e vi e we d. Due t o t he mul t i di s c i pl i nar y na t ur e of HC I, i t i s hi ghl y c ha l l e ngi ng f or de s i gne rs
t o c r e a t e appl i c at i ons whi c h a r e us abl e a nd a f f or dabl e t o a he te r oge ne ous s e t of us e r s .
The s e c ha l l e nge s wi t h pos s i bl e wa ys t o ove r c o me t he m a r e e xpl or e d. Fi na ll y, f u t ure
di r e c ti ons f or r e s e a rch a r e pr opos e d wi t h a r e l e va nt c onc l udi ng r ema r k.

The r e f e r e nc es f or e ve r y f i gur e , num e r i cal dat a and t e xt us e d i n t hi s ar t i c l e have be e n

m e nt i one d i n t he “Ref er e nc e s ” s e ct i on at the e nd of t his doc ume nt .

Introduction
Funda me nt a l l y, Hu ma n -Co mput e r Int e r a c t ion ( HC I) i s t he s t udy of i nt e r a c ti on be twe e n
pe opl e a nd c omput e r s wi t h t he a i m t o unde r s t a nd a nd i mpr o ve t hos e i nt er a c ti ons . W i th
t oda y's t e c hnol ogy a nd t ool s , our mot i va t i on i s t o cr e a te r e all y e f f e c t i ve a nd ef f ic i e nt
s ys t e ms wi t h us abl e i nt e r f a ce s a nd s c r e e ns . It i s about unde r s t a ndi ng a nd c r e a t i ng s of t wa r e
a nd ot he r t e c hnol ogy t ha t pe opl e wi ll wa nt t o us e , wi l l be abl e t o us e , a nd wi l l f i nd
e f f e c ti ve whe n us e d. The f our t hr e a ds of te c hni c a l de ve l opme nt f r om t he 1960s a nd 1970s
pr ovi de d t he f ounda t ion t ha t a ll owe d t hi s int e r di s ci pli na r y pr ogr a m t o ge l s o r api dl y in t he
e a r l y 1980s .The s e f our t hr e a ds a r e: pr ot otypi n g a nd i t e r at i ve de ve l op me nt f r om s of t wa r e
e ngi ne e r i ng; s of t wa r e ps yc hol ogy a nd hu ma n f a c t ors of c omput ing s ys t e ms ; us e r i nter f a c e

1
s of t wa r e f r om c o mpu t e r gr aphi c s ; a nd mo de l s , t he or ie s , a nd f ra me wor ks f r o m c ogni t i ve
s c i e nc e .

Surprisingl y, v er y often, we co ntinue to produ ce s ystems that are i neffi cient an d

confusing or, at wo rst, just plai n un usable. Our igno ran ce about good desi gn of a
s yst em ma y be du e to various causes such as ou r carel es sness abo ut dev elo ping
adapt abl e interfaces, lack of common sen se and time et c.

So, our prim ar y focus will b e to i mprov e th e int eractions bet ween users and
comput ers b y m akin g comp uters mo re u sable an d receptiv e to the user's need and to
design s yst ems that minimize the barri er b etween the hum an 's cognitiv e model of
what the y want to accomplis h and the computer's understan ding of the user's task. In
short, we hav e to focus on the design of an interface which will satisf y t he abov e
criteria.

What is HCI?
The As s oc i a ti on f or Co mput i ng M a c hi ne r y ( ACM ) de fi ne s HCI a s " a di s c i pl i ne c once r ne d
wi t h t he de s i gn, e va l ua t i on a nd i mpl e me nt a t i on of int e r a ct i ve c o mput i ng s ys t e ms f or huma n
us e a nd wi t h t he st udy of maj or phe nome n a s ur r oundi ng t he m" . An i mpor t a nt f a c e t of HC I
i s us e r s at i s fa c t i on or s i mpl y End Us e r Co m put i ng Sa t i s f a c ti on.

An i mpor t a nt f e a t ure of HC I i s End Us e r Comput i n g Sa t i s f a c ti on. As HC I s t udi e s a huma n

a nd a ma c hi ne i n c ommuni c a t i on t hr ough us e r f r i e ndly i nt e rf ac e s , i t r e qui r e s t hor ough
e xpe r t i se on bot h t he ma c hi ne a nd t he huma n s i de . On t he ma c hi ne s i de , t e c hni ques i n
c omput e r gr aphi c s , ope r a t i ng s ys t e ms , pr ogr a mmi n g l a ngua ge s , a nd de ve l o pme nt
e nvi r on me nt s a r e r el e va nt . On t he huma n s i de , c ommuni c a t i on t he or y, gr aphi c a nd
i ndus t ri a l de s i gn di sc i pl i nes , l i ngui s t i c s , s oc i a l s c i e nce s , c ogni t i ve ps yc hol ogy, s oc i a l
ps yc hol ogy, a nd hu ma n f a c t or s s uc h a s comput e r us e r s a t i s f a ct i on r e l e va nt . Due t o t he
mul t i di s c i pl i nar y na t ur e of HCI, pe opl e wi t h di ff e re nt ba c kgr ounds c ont r i but e to i ts
s uc c e s s . HC I i s a l s o s ome t i me s t e r me d hu man–mac hi ne i nt e r act i on ( HM I) , man- mac hi ne
i nt e r act i on ( MM I) or c omput e r - human i nt e rac t i on ( CHI) .

The t hr e e U’ s of de ve l opi ng a s uc c e s s f ul produc t i n HC I a r e

•Us e f ul –a cc ompl i s h wha t i s r e quir e d

•Us abl e –do i t e a s il y a nd na t ur a ll y, wi t hout da nge r of e r r or

• Us e d – ma ke pe opl e wa nt t o us e i t , be at t ra c t i ve , e nga ging, f un, e t c

2
 Fi gur e 2: I nt e r di s ci pl i nary ove r l appi ng f i el ds in H CI

What is Human Computer Interface?

The t e r m i nt e r f a c e i s us e d t o de s c r i be t he bounda r y a c r os s whi c h t wo di f f e r e nt s ys t e ms
c ommuni c a t e . Int e r a c ti ons be t we e n a c ompu t e r us e r and hi s c omp ut e r a r e s a i d t o ta ke p l a c e
a t t he huma n c o mput e r i nt e rf a c e whi c h i s the me a ns of e f f e c t i ve c ommuni c a t i on be t we e n a
huma n us e r a nd a c omput e r s ys t e m t hr ough i nput / out put de vi c e s wi t h s uppor t i ng s of twa r e .
De vi c e s of i nc r e a s i ng s ophi s t i ca t i on ar e bec omi n g a va i l abl e t o re f l e c t t he huma n -c o m put er
i nt e r a ct i on. The s e inc l ude gr aphi c s de vi c e s , t ouc h-s e ns i t i ve de vi c e s , a nd voi c e -i nput
de vi c e s . The y ha ve t o be c onf i gur e d i n a w a y t ha t wi l l f a c i l it a t e a n e f f i c ie nt a nd de s i rabl e
i nt e r a ct i on be t we e n a pe r s on a nd t he c omput e r . Ar t i f i ci a l int e l li ge nc e t e c hni ques of
knowl e d ge r epr e s e nt ati on ma y be us e d t o mode l t he us e r of a c omput e r s ys t e m, a nd s o of f e r
t he opport uni t y t o gi ve pe r s onal i ze d a dvi c e on it s us e . The de si gn of t he ma c hi ne i nte rf a c e
ma y i nc or por a t e e xper t -s ys t e m t e c hni que s t o of f e r powe r f ul knowl e dge -ba s e d c o mput i ng t o
t he us e r .

Some renowned principles for designing an effective interface:

Shneiderman ’s Eig ht Golden Rul es:

Be n Shne i de r ma n i nt e gr a t e d s ome i mpl i c i t fa c t s about des igni n g a nd pr opos e d t he

f ol l owi ng e i ght ge ne r a l gui de l i ne s t o dif f ere nt i a te a good i nt e r f ac e de s i gn f r om a ba d one .

1. St r i ve f or Cons i st e nc y by ut i l i zi ng f a mi l i a r i c ons , c ol ors , me nu hi e r a r c hy, c a l l -t o -

a c t i ons , a nd us e r f lows whe n de s i gni ng s i mi l a r s it ua t i ons a nd s e que nc e of a c ti ons .
St a nda r di zi ng t he wa y i nf or ma t i on i s c onve ye d e ns ur e s t hat us e r s a r e abl e t o appl y
knowl e d ge f r om one c l i c k t o a not her wi t hout t he need t o l e a r n ne w r epr e s e nt a t i ons f or t he
s a me a c t i ons . Cons i s t e nc y pl a ys a n i mpor t a nt r ol e by he l pi ng u s e r s be c ome f a mi l i a r wi t h
t he di gi t a l l a nds c ape of t he pr oduc t s o t he y c a n a chi e ve t he i r goa l s mor e e a s i l y.

2. Enabl e f r e que nt us e r s t o us e s hort c ut s f or qui c ke r me t hods of c ompl e t i ng t a s ks . For

e xa mpl e , bot h W i ndows a nd M a c pr ovi de us e r s wi t h keyboa r d s hor t c ut s f or c opyi ng a nd

3
pa s t i ng, s o a s t he us er be c ome s mor e e xpe r i e nc e d, t he y c a n na vi ga t e a nd ope r a t e t he us e r
i nt e r fa c e mor e qui c kl y a nd e f f or t l e s sl y.

3. Of f er I nf orm at i ve f ee dbac k t o le t t he use r know whe r e t he y a r e a t a nd what i s goi ng on

a t a ll ti me s . For e ve r y a c t i on t he r e s houl d be appropr ia t e , huma n -r e a dabl e f e e dba c k wi t hi n
a r e a s onabl e a mount of t i me .

4. De s i gn Di al ogs t o yi e l d c l os ur e s o t ha t us e r s c a n ge t a s pe c i fic r e s pons e of t hei r a cti on.

For e xa mpl e , us e r s woul d appr e c ia t e a “Tha nk You” me s s a ge a nd a pr oof of purc ha s e
r e c e i pt whe n t he y ha ve c ompl e t e d a n onl i ne pur c ha s e.

5. Of f e r s im pl e e rror handl i ng t o pr ovi de us e r s wi t h si mpl e , i nt uit i ve s t ep-b y-s t ep

i ns t r uct i ons t o s ol ve qui c kl y a nd pa i nl e s s ly t he e rr or whi c h oc cur s , i f una voi dabl e , in t he
s ys t e m de s i gn. For e x a mpl e , f l a g t he t e xt f ie l ds whe r e t he use r s for got t o pr ovi de i nput i n
a n onl i ne f or m.

6. Pe r m i t e as y r e ve rs al of ac t i ons a t va ri ous poi nt s of s ys t e m us a ge whe t he r it occ ur s

a f t e r a s i ngl e a c t i on, a da t a e nt r y or a w hol e s e que nc e of a c t ions . Thi s f e a t ur e r e lie ve s
a nxi e t y of us e r s a nd enc our a ge s t he m e xpl o r a t i on of unf a mi l i a r opt i ons .

7. Suppor t i nt e r nal loc us of c ont r ol t o gi ve us e r s t he s e ns e t hat t he y a r e i n f ul l c ont r ol of

e ve nt s oc c ur r i ng i n t he di gi t a l s pa c e a nd t o e a r n thei r t r us t a s t he de s i gne r de s i gns t he
s ys t e m t o be ha ve a s t he y e xpe c t .

8. Re duc e s hor t t e r m m e m or y l oa d t o ma ke t he i nt e r f a c e s a s s i mpl e a s pos s i bl e wi t h

pr ope r i nf or ma t i on hi e r a r c hy a nd c hoos i ng r e c ogni t i on ove r r e c a l l a s we , t he us e r s , a r e
onl y c apabl e of ma i nt a i ni ng a r ound f i ve i t e ms i n our s hor t -t e r m me mor y a t one t i me .
Re c ogni zi ng s o me t hi ng i s a l wa ys e a s i er t han r e c al l bec a us e r e c ogni t i on i nvol ve s pe r c e ivi n g
c ue s t ha t he l p us r ea ch i nt o our va s t me mor y a nd a l l owi n g r e l e va nt i nf or ma t i on t o s ur fa c e .
For e xa mpl e , we of t e n f i nd t he f or ma t of mu l t i ple choi c e que s ti ons e a s i e r t ha n s hort a nswe r
que s t i ons on a t e s t bec a us e i t onl y r e qui r e s us t o r e c ogni ze t he a ns we r r a t he r t ha n r e ca l l it
f r om our me mor y.

J a kob Ni e l s e n, one of t he wor l d’ s mos t i nf l ue nt i a l de si gne r s , ha s i nve nt e d s e ve r a l us abi l i t y

me t hods i nc l udi ng he ur i s ti c e va l ua t i on. Re c ogni t i on ove r r e c a ll i s one of Ni el s e n’ s t e n
us abi l it y he ur i s t ic s f or i nt er f a c e de s i gn. The s e gui de l i ne s ar e be ne f i ci a l f or nor ma l
de s i gne r s a s we l l a s int e r f a ce de s i gne r s f or me t hods of us e r i nt er f a c e de si gn t ha t f a c i li t a te
t he s moot h i nt e r a c ti on or us e of pr oduc e d i t e ms , t hus r e duc i ng t he nu mbe r of c ont r ol s ,
pl a c i ng t he m i n l oc a ti ons t ha t pr omot e e a s y us e , a nd pr ovi di n g c ons t a nt f e e dba c k .The s e
a r e be ne f ic i a l i n e xper i me nt a l a s s e s s me nt of i de nt if yi ng be t t e r GU Is .

Norman’s Seven Principles

To a s s e s s t he i nt e ra c ti on be t we e n huma n a nd c o mput er s , Dona l d Nor ma n i n 1988 pr op os e d
s e ve n pr i nc i pl e s . He pr opos e d t he s e ve n s t a ge s t ha t c a n be u s e d t o t r a ns f or m di f f i c ult
t a s ks .
Fol l owi ng a r e t he s e ve n pr i nc i pl e s of Nor ma n:

1. Us e bot h knowl e d ge i n wor l d & knowl e d ge i n t he he a d.

2. Si mpl i f y t a s k s t r uc t ur e s .

3. M a ke t hi ngs vi s i bl e .
4
4. Ge t t he mappi n g r i ght ( Us e r me nt a l mod e l = Conc ept ua l mode l = De s i gne d mode l ) .

5. Con ve r t c ons t r a ins i nt o a dva nt a ge s ( Phys i c a l c ons t r a int s , Cul t ur a l c onst ra i nt s,

Te c hnol ogi c a l c ons t r ai nt s ) .

6. De s i gn f or Er r or .

7. W he n a l l e ls e f a il s , s t a nda r di ze

HCI in the design process:

“I f w e w ant us e r s t o l i ke our s of tw ar e , w e s houl d de s i gn i t t o be have l i ke a l i ke able
pe r s on: r e s pe c tf ul , ge ne r ous and he l pf ul .”

— Al a n Coope r , Sof twa r e De s i gne r a nd Pr ogr a mme r

HC I De s i gn Pr oc e s s is a c r e a t i ve goa l -or i e nt e d pr obl e m s ol vi ng a c t i vi t y ke epi ng i n mi n d

t he i nt e nde d us e , t a rge t do ma i n, ma t e r i a ls , c os t a nd f e as i bil i ty of t he i nt e r f ac e wit h a
pr ovi s i on f or a se t of a l t e r nat i ve s a nd s uc c es s i ve e l abor at i ons of the s a me . It i s a de ci si on-
ma ki n g pl a n f or de ve l opme nt of a pr oduc t t o ba l a nc e r e qui r e me nt s of pr oduc t c ompa t i bi l i ty
a nd e a s e of us e

Four basic activities of interaction design

1. Ide nt i f yi n g ne e ds a nd e s t abl i s hi ng r e qui r e me nt s t o pr ovi de s uppor t f or a n i nt e ra ct i ve
pr oduc t wi t h a n i nt ui ti ve s c r e e n i nt e rf a c e
2. De ve l opi ng a l t e r nat i ve de s i gns f or me e t i ng t he re quir e me nt s of a good i nt er f a c e or a
pr oduc t
The r e a r e t wo t ype s of de s i gn:
a ) Logi c a l de s i gn t o pr oduc e t he c onc ept ua l mode l for t he pr oduct
b) Phys i c a l De s i gn t o c ons i der t he t e c hnol ogy-s pe c i f i c de t a il of t he pr oduct i ncl udi ng t he
c ol or s , s ounds , i ma ge s t o us e , me nu de s i gn, i c on des i gn, e t c .
3. Bui l di ng i nt e r a c ti ve ve r s i ons of t he de si gns t o f oc us on me a ni ngf ul c ommuni c a t i on of
me di a t hr ough c yc l i c a l a nd c ol l abor a t i ve proc e s s e s be t we e n pe ople a nd t e c hnol ogy
4. E va l ua t i ng de s i gn s t hr ough us e r i n vol ve me nt t hr ou ghout d e ve l op me nt t o de t e r mi ne
us abi l it y & a c c ept abi li t y of pr oduc t or de s ign

HCI Design Approaches

Ebe r t s ( 1994) des c r i be s f our Huma n -Co mp ut e r Int e r a ct i on ( HCI) de s i gn appr oa c he s t ha t
ma y be appl i e d t o s ingl e us e r i nte r f a ce de s i gns t o de ve l op use r -f r i e ndl y, e f f i c i e nt , a nd
i nt ui ti ve us e r e xper i enc e s f or huma ns . The s e f our appr oa c hes i nc l ude t he Ant hr opomor phi c
Appr oa c h, t he Cogni t i ve Appr oa c h, t he Pr e di c t i ve M ode li ng Ap pr oa c h, a nd t he Empi r i c al
Appr oa c h.

1. Ant hr opom or phi c Appr oac h

The a nt hr opomor phi c appr oa c h t o huma n - c omput e r i nt er a c t i on i nvol ve s de s i gni ng a us e r

i nt e r fa c e t o c ommuni c a t e wi t h us e r s i n a hu ma n -t o -hu ma n ma nne r , a s i f t he c omp ut e r
unde r s t a nd a nd s ha r e t he f e e li ngs of t he use r . Int er f a c e e r r or me s s a gi ng, s uc h a s , “ W e ’ r e
s or r y, but t ha t pa ge c a nnot be f ound.” is a n e xa mpl e of t his appr oa c h. In a ut oma t e d
t e l ephony s ys t e ms , f or e xa mpl e , whe n a vo i c e -r e s pons e s ys t e m c a nnot unde r s t a nd what t he

5
us e r ha s s poke n, a f t e r s e ve r a l a t t e mpt s i t ma y r epl y i n a n apol oge t i c t one , “ I’ m s or r y, I
c a n’ t unde r st a nd you.”

Af f or danc es

Hu ma n a f f or da nc e s re f e r t o a ll a c t i on pos s i bi li t ie s wi t h a n obj ec t depe ndi ng on us e r s '

phys i c a l c apabi li t i es . In t e r ms of HC I, i c ons , f ol de r s , a nd butt ons pr ovi de mous e -c l i c ki ng,
s c r ol l bar s pr ovi de s l idi ng a but t on t o vi e w i nf or mat i on off -s c r e e n, a nd dr op-down me nus
s how t he us e r a l is t of opt i ons f r om whi c h t o c hoose . Si mi l a r l y, pl e a s a nt s ounds ar e us e d
t o i ndi c a te whe n a t a s k s uc h a s t he c o mpl e t i on of a f i l e tr a ns f er ha s c ompl e t e d s o t ha t t he
us e r ma y c ont i nue wi t h t he ne xt s t ep i n a proc e s s .

Cons t r ai nt s

Cons t r a i nts i ndi c at e t he l i mi t a t i ons of use r a c t i ons . A gr a ye d -out me nu opt i on a n d a n

unpl e a s a nt s ound f ol lowe d by a n e r r or me s s a ge i ndi ca t e t ha t t he us e r c a nnot ca r r y out a
pa r t i c ul a r a c ti on. Af for da nc e s a nd c ons tr a int s c a n be de si gne d to non-ve r ba l l y gui de us e r
be ha vi or s t hr ough a n i nt e r fa c e a nd pr e ve nt us e r e r r or s i n a c ompl e x i nt e rf a c e .

2. Cogni t i ve Appr oac h

The c ogni t i ve appr oa c h t o hu ma n -c o mput e r i nt e r a ct i on c ons i de r s t he abi l it i e s of t he huma n

br a i n a nd s e ns or y-pe r c ept i on i n or de r t o deve l op a us e r i nt e r f a c e t ha t wi l l s uppor t t he e nd
us e r .

M e t aphor i c De s i gn

Us i ng a c c ur a t e me t aphor s c a n be a n e ff e c ti ve wa y t o c ommuni c a t e a n abs tr a c t c onc ept or

pr oc e dur e t o us e rs . Co mput e r s us e a “ de s kt op” me t aphor t o r epr e s e nt da ta a s doc ume nt
f i l e s , f ol de r s , a nd appl i c a ti ons . M e t aphor s r e l y on a us e r’ s f a mi l i ar i t y t o unde r s ta nd t he
a c t i ons t he y c a n pe rf or m wi t h t he i r dat a ba se d on t he f or m i t t a kes . For i nst a nc e , a us e r c a n
mo ve a f i l e or f ol de r i nt o t he “ r e c yc l e bi n” t o de le t e i t . Us e r s c an r e l a t e t o t he me t aphor i n
de s i gn a nd a r e abl e t o l e a r n t o us e a new s ys t e m ver y qui c kl y. W he n us e r s e xpe c t a
me t aphor t o be f ul l y r epr e s e nt e d i n a de s i gn but onl y pa r t o f t he me t aphor ha s be e n
i mpl e me nt e d i n r e al i ty, a pot e nt i al pr obl em c a n oc cur . For e xampl e , M a c i nt os h c omput e rs
us e t he ic on of a t r a shc a n on t he de s kt op, whi l e PCs ha ve a r e cyc l e bi n. The r e c yc l e bi n
doe s not a c t ual l y “ r e cyc l e ” t he da t a ; i nst e ad i t beha ve s l i ke t he M a c i nt os h t r a s h c a n and i s
us e d t o pe r ma ne nt l y d e l e t e fi l e s .

At t e nt i on and Wor kload M ode l s

To pr ovi de t he good us abi li t y of t he e nvi r on me nt i n whi c h t he us e r s a r e i nvol ve d i n

c ompl e t i ng a t a s k wi th t he ir per c e i ve d me nt a l wor kloa d, i t i s i mpor t a nt t o c ons i de r t he i r
a t t e nti on s pa n. Typi c a l l y, us e r s ca n f oc us we l l on one -t a s k-a t -a -t i me . For e xa mpl e , whe n
de s i gni ng a web -ba s e d f or m t o c oll e c t i nfor ma t i on fr om a us e r, i t i s be s t t o di vi de t he
f or m, f or e xa mpl e , i nt o t wo s epa r a t e l ogi ca l c ont e xt s s uc h as “ Cont a c t Inf or ma t i on” a nd
“ Bi l l i ng Inf or ma t i on” , r a t he r t ha n mi xi ng t he t wo and c onf us i ng us e r s , t hus pr e ve nt i ng t he
us e r f r om qui t t i ng t he webs i t e be i ng ove r w he l me d b y t he wor k t ha t ne e ds t o c ompl e t e t he
e nt i r e da t a c ol le c t i on i n a s i ngl e f or m. W or kl oa d ca n be me a s ur e d by t he a mount of
i nf or ma t i on be i ng c ommuni c a t e d t o e a c h s e ns or y s ys t e m ( vi s ua l , a udi t or y) a t a gi ve n
mo me nt . So me webs i t e s i nc or por at e Adobe Fl a s h i n a n a t t e mpt t o i mpr e s s t he us e r . If a
Fl a s h pr e s e nt at i on doe s not di r e c t l y s uppor t a us e r ’ s t a s k, t he us e r ’ s a t t e nt i on ma y be c ome

6
di s t r a ct e d by t oo muc h a udi t or y a nd vi s ua l i nf or ma t i on. Ove r l oa di ng t he us e r ’ s me mor y i s
a not he r c ommon pr ob l e m on webs i t e s . For e xa mpl e , whe n t he r e a r e t oo ma n y opt i on s to
c hoos e f r om, a us e r ma y f e e l o ve r whe l me d by t he de ci s i on t he y ha ve t o ma ke , be c ome
f r us t ra t e d, a nd l ea ve t he webs i t e wi t hout c ompl e t i ng t he i r goa l .

H um an I nf orm at i on Pr oc e s s i ng M ode l

In Hu ma n Inf or ma t i on Pr oc e s s i ng ( H IP) The or y, hu ma n c a n be c ha r a c t er i ze d a s a n

i nf or ma t i on-pr oc e s s i ng s ys t e m, whi c h e nc ode s i nput , ope r a t e s on t ha t i nf or ma t i on, s tor e s
a nd r e t ri e ve s i t f r om me mor y a nd pr oduc e s out put i n te r ms of a c t i ons .HIP de s c r i be s t he
f l ow of i nf or ma t i on f rom t he wor l d, i nt o t he hu ma n mi nd, a nd ba c k i nt o t he wor l d. W he n a
huma n pa ys a t t e nt i on t o s ome t hi ng, t he i nf or ma t i on f i r s t ge t s e ncode d ba s e d on t he s e ns or y
s ys t e m t ha t c ha nne l e d t he i nf or ma t i on ( vi s ua l , a udit or y, hapt i c , e tc .) . Ne xt , t he i nf or ma t i on
mo ve s i nt o W or ki ng M e mor y, f or me r l y kn own a s Shor t -Te r m me mor y. W or ki ng M e mor y
c a n hol d a l i mi t e d a mount of i nf or ma t i on for up t o appr oxi ma t e ly 30 s e c onds . Repe a t ing or
r e he a r si ng i nf or ma t i on ma y i nc r e a s e t hi s dur a t i on. Af te r W or ki ng M e mor y, t he i nf or ma t i on
ma y go i nt o Long-Te r m M e mor y or s i mpl y be f or got t e n. Long-Te r m M e mor y i s be l i e ve d t o
be unl i mi t e d, r e l a t i ve l y pe r ma ne nt me mor y s t or a ge . Af t e r i nf or ma t i on ha s be e n s t or e d i n
l ong-t e r m me mor y, h uma ns c a n r e t r i e ve t ha t i nf or ma ti on vi a r e c a l l or r e c ogni t i on. The
a c c ur a c y of i nf or ma t i on r e c a ll is ba s e d on t he e nvir onme nt a l c ondi t i ons a nd t he wa y t ha t
i nf or ma t i on wa s i ni tia l l y e nc ode d by t he s e ns e s . If a hu ma n i s i n a si mi l a r s e ns or y
e xpe r i e nc e at t he time of me mor y r e c a l l a s he wa s dur i ng t he e nc odi ng of a pr i or
e xpe r i e nc e , hi s r e c al l of t ha t e xper i e nc e will be mor e a c c ur a t e a nd c ompl e t e .

3. Em pi r i c al Appr oac h

The e mpi r i c a l appr oac h t o HC I i s us e f ul f or e xa mi ni ng a nd c ompa r i n g t he us abi l ity of

mul t i pl e c onc ept ua l de s i gn c onc ept s a nd c onduc t i ng us abi l ity t e s t i ng on e a c h de s i gn
c onc ept a t t he be gi nni ng of t he pr oj e c t . Oft e n, us er s wi ll appr eci a t e s pe ci f ic e l e me nt s of
e a c h de s i gn c onc ept , whi c h ma y l e a d t o t he de ve l op me nt of a c o mpos i t e c onc ept ua l de s i gn
t o t e s t . Us e r s ’ re a c tions a nd pe r f or ma nc e t o ma nua l s , s i mul a t i ons , pr ot ot ype s , e t c . a r e
obs e r ve d, r e c or de d & a na l yze d .Thi s appr oa c h he l p des i gne r s t o c hoos e be t we e n di ff er e nt
a l t e r nat i ve de s i gns a nd t o c he c k on pr ogr e s s a s t he pr oduc t i s de ve l ope d

H um an Tas k Pe rf orm anc e M e as ur e s

M e a s ur i ng us e rs ’ t a s k pe r f or ma nc e i s i mpor t a nt f or de t e r mi ni ng t he Int ui t i ve ne s s a nd us e r -
f r i e ndli ne s s of a HCI de s i gn. A r e s e a r c he r f a mi l i a r wi t h t he f unc t i on of t he de si gne d HC I
mode l wi l l de ve l op a s e t of te s t ta s ks t ha t r e l at e t o t he t a s k goa l s a s s oci a t e d wit h t he
mode l . Us e r s ma y be gi ve n one or mor e c onc ept ua l des i gns to t e s t i n a l ab s et t i ng t o
de t e r mi ne whi c h i s mor e us e r -f r i e ndl y a nd i nt ui ti ve. Us e r s ’ pe r f or ma nc e i .e ., t he ir
a c c ompl i s h me nt or f ai l ur e t o c ompl e t e a ta s k, c a n be a s s es s e d ba s e d on pr e -e s t abl is he d
c r i t er i a . For i ns ta nc e , i t ma y ha ve be e n de t e r mi ne d t ha t us e r s s houl d be abl e t o r e gi s te r f or
a n a c c ount i n a web pa ge wi t hi n f i ve mi n ut e s a nd wi t h no mor e t ha n t wo e r r or s . If t he
r e s e a r c her obs e r ve s othe r wi s e a nd e ve n i f t he us e r f i na l l y c ompl e t e s t he t a s k ( pe r haps af t e r
f i f t ee n mi nut e s a nd f i ve e r r or s ) , t he t i me a nd nu mbe r of e r r or s ma y be c o mpa r e d t o t he
de s i r e d st a nda r d a s we l l a s t o t he a lt e r na te c onc ept ua l de si gn f or t he web pa ge .

A/ B Te s t i ng

A/ B t e s t i ng( a l s o known a s ‘ s pl i t t e st i ng’ ) i s a c onve r s i on opt i mi za t i on t e c hni que i n whi c h

t wo or mor e ve r s i ons of a web pa ge a r e c ompa r e d a ga i ns t e a c h ot he r , i n or de r t o det er mi ne
7
whi c h ve r s i on pe r f orms be t t e r i n t er ms of dr i vi ng l e a ds , s a l e s or c ompl e t i ng o t he r
c onve r s i ons . One wa y t o do t hi s i s t o s et up a Googl e Ana l yt i c s a c c ount , whi c h a ll ows a
r e s e a r c her t o s et up mul t i ple va r i a t i ons of a web pa ge t o t e s t .

4. Pr e di c t i ve M odel ing Appr oac h

GOM S ( a c r onym t ha t s t a nds f or Goa l s , O pe r a t or s , M et hods , a nd Se l e c t i on Rul e s ) i s a

pr e di c ti ve mode l us e d t o a na l yze e r r or -f r e e t a s k e ff i c i e nc y f or e xpe r t us er s . The mode l
de s c r i be s a use r ’ s t a sks b y t he us e r’ s goa l s t o a c compl i s h t he ta sk; t he a va i l abl e ope r at or s
a r e t he a t omi c -l e ve l a c t i ons t ha t t he us e r pe r f or ms t o r e ac h a goa l ; t he me t hods , c omp r i s e d
of s ubgoa l s a nd ope r at or s e que nc e s , a r e proc e dur e s t ha t t he us er e mpl oys t o a c c ompl i s h a
goa l ; s e l e c t i on r ul es ba s e d on us e r ’ s pe r s ona l de c i s i on about whi c h me t hod wi l l wor k be s t
i n a pa r t i c ul a r s it ua tion i f t he r e a re mul t i pl e me thods t o a c c o mpl i s h t he s a me goa l . The
a na l ys i s of GOM S mo de l r e qui r es pr a c ti t i one r s wi t h di ve r s e s ki l l s s uc h a s us e r e xpe r ie nc e
( UX) de s i gn, hi gh -l e ve l us e r i nt er f a c e ( UI) de ve l op me nt c apabi lit i e s , a nd br oa d ve r s us i n-
dept h knowl e dge of r e s e a r c h t ec hni que s . For e xa mpl e, t he a ve r a ge t i me i t t a ke s a huma n t o
mo ve e ye f i xa t i on t o a not he r pa rt of t he web pa ge , c ogni t i ve l y pr oc e s s i nf or ma t i on, a nd
ma ke a de c i s i on of wha t t o do ne xt c a n be me a s ur e d i n mi l l i s e c onds . The t i me s i t t a ke s f or
e a c h of t hes e ope r at or s c a n be a dde d up t o pr oduc e t he t ot al t i me f or a par t i c ul a r me t hod.
M ul t i pl e me t hods c a n be c o mpa r e d ba s e d o n t he t ot a l t i me t o c ompl e t e a t a s k i n or de r t o
de t e r mi ne whi c h i s t he mos t e f f i c i e nt me t hod f or a cc ompl i s hi ng t he t a s k.

HCI Design Models

& Methodologies:
Software Life Cycle
Models
In or de r t o de ve l op a ny
pr oduc t in HC I, t he
de s i gne r mus t unde r s t a nd
t he r e qui r e me nt s of t he
pr oduc t a nd mus t de ve l op
t he pr oduc t .
Unde r s t a ndi ng
r e qui r e me nt s i nvol ve s
l ooki ng at s i mi l a r
pr oduc t s , di s c uss i ng t he
ne e ds of t he pe opl e who
wi l l us e t he pr oduct a nd
a na l yzi n g a n y e xi s t i ng
s ys t e ms t o di s c ove r t he
pr obl e ms wi t h c u r r e nt
de s i gns . De ve l op me nt ma y
i nc l ude pr oduc i ng a
va r i e t y of r epr es e nt at i ons
unt i l a s ui t able a r ti f ac t i s
pr oduc e d.

8 Fi gur e 3: Bui l di ng Suc c e s sf ul Di git al Produc t s

The r e a r e va r i ous M ode l s a nd me t hodol ogi e s f ol l owe d i n HCI d e s i gn .The s uc c e s s of t he
f i na l pr oduc t depe nds upon t he s e l e ct i on of a s ui tabl e de si gn me t hodol ogy ba s e d on t he
t ype of t he pr oduc t be i ng
de ve l ope d.

The t e r m Li f e c yc l e M ode l i s
us e d t o r epr e se nt a mode l t ha t
c apt ur e s a se t of ac t i vi t i e s
i nvol ve d i n i nt e r a c ti on de s i gn
a nd how t he y a r e r e l a t e d t o
one a not he r s o t ha t t he f ul l
de ve l op me nt pr oc e s s c a n be
s e e n. Suc h mode l s a l l ow
de ve l ope r s a nd pa r t i c ul ar l y
ma na ge r s , t o ge t a n ove r a l l
vi e w of t he de ve l op me nt e f f or t s o t ha t pr ogr e s s
F ig u r e 4 : A s imp le H C I L if e C y c le M o d e l
can be t r a c ke d, de l i ve r abl e s s pec i f i e d,
r e s our c e s a l l oca t e d, t a r ge t s s e t a nd so on.
Exi s t i ng mode l s ha ve va r yi ng l e ve l s of s ophi s t i c at i on a nd c ompl e xi t y. For pr oj e c t s
i nvol vi n g onl y a f e w e xpe r i e nc e d de ve l ope rs , a s i mpl e pr oc e s s woul d pr obabl y be a de q ua t e .
Howe ve r , f or l a r ge r s ys t e ms i nvol vi n g t e ns or hundr e ds of deve l ope r s wi t h hundr eds or
t hous a nds of us e rs , a s t r uc t ure d pr oc e s s i s us e d t o pr ovi de a mor e s t abl e a nd di s c i pli ne d
f or ma l f r a me wor k f or c r e a t i vi t y.

The De s i gn of Sof tw ar e Sys t e m s

The t r a di ti ona l vi e w of s of t wa r e e ngi ne e r ing c ha r ac t e r i ze s t he de ve l op me nt of s of t wa r e a s

c ons i s ti ng of a numbe r of pr oc es s e s a nd r epr e s e nt at i ons t ha t ar e pr oduc e d i n a n e s s e nti a l l y
l i ne a r fa s hi on. Thi s is of t e n c a ll e d wa t e r fa l l model .Al l t he pha s e s a r e c a s ca de d t o e a c h
ot he r i n whi c h pr ogr e s s i s s e e n a s f l owi ng s t e a di l y downwa r ds ( l i ke a wa t e r f a ll ) t hrough
t he pha s e s . The ne xt pha s e i s s t ar t e d only a f t e r t he de f i ne d se t of goa l s i s a c hi e ve d f or
pr e vi ous pha s e a nd it i s s i gne d of f , s o the na me " Wa t e r f a ll M ode l . In t hi s mode l , t he
pha s e s do not ove r l ap.

The s e que nt i al pha s e s i n W a t e rf a ll mode l a r e –

Fi gur e 5: Si m pl e Wat e rf all M ode l

9
 The ac t i vi t ie s i nvol ve d i n dif f e r e nt phas es of Wat erf al l M odel ar e as f ol l ow s :

• Re qui r e m e nt Anal ysis : The De s i gne r a nd the Cus t ome r t r y t o c apt ur e wha t t he s ys t e m i s
e xpe c t e d t o pr ovi de . Al l pos s i bl e r e qui r e me nt s of t he s ys t e m t o be de ve l ope d a r e c aptur e d
i n t hi s pha s e a nd doc ume nt e d i n a r e qui r e me nt s pe c i fi c a ti on doc ume nt
• Sys t e m De s i gn: The r e qui r e me nt s pe c i fi c at i ons fr om f i r s t pha s e a re s t udi e d i n t hi s pha s e
a nd t he s ys t e m de s i gn i s pr epa re d. Thi s sys t e m de s i gn he l ps i n s pe c i f yi ng ha r dwa r e a nd
s ys t e m r e qui r e me nt s a nd he l ps i n de fi ni ng t he ove r al l s ys t e m a r c hi t e c t ur e .

• I m pl e me nt at i on: W i th i nput s f r om t he s ys t e m de s i gn, t he s ys t e m i s f i r s t de ve l oped i n

s ma l l pr ogr a ms c a l l e d uni t s , whi c h a r e i nt egr a t e d i n t he ne xt phas e . Ea c h uni t i s de ve l ope d
a nd t e s t e d f or i ts f unct i ona li t y, whi c h i s r e fe r r e d t o a s Unit Te s t ing.

• Sys t e m Te s ti ng: Al l the uni t s de ve l ope d i n t he i mpl e me nt a t i on phas e a r e i nt e gr a t e d i nt o a

s ys t e m a f t e r te s ti ng of e a c h uni t . Post i nt egr a t i on t he e nt i re s ys t e m i s t e s t e d f or a ny fa ul t s
a nd f a i l ur e s .

• De pl oym e nt of s ys t em : Onc e t he f unc t i onal a nd non-f unc t i ona l te s t i ng i s done; t he produc t

i s depl oye d i n t he c ust ome r e n vi r onme nt or r e l e a s e d i nt o t he ma r ke t .

• M ai nt e nanc e : The re ar e s ome i s s ue s whi c h c ome up i n t he c l i e nt e nvi r on me nt . To f i x t hos e

i s s ue s , pa t c hes a r e r ele a s e d. Al s o t o e nha nce t he pr oduc t s ome be t t e r ve r s i ons a r e r e l e as e d.
M a i nt e na nc e i s done to de l i ve r t he s e c ha nge s i n t he c us t ome r e nvi r onme nt .

Though t he W a t e r f al l M ode l i s s i mpl e a nd e a s y t o unde r s t a nd a nd us e a nd wor ks we l l a nd

yi e l d t he appr opr i a te r e s ul t s f or s ma l l e r pr oj e c ts , i t c a nnot a dopt t he c ha nge s i n
r e qui r e me nt s a nd be come s ve r y di f f i c ul t to mo ve ba ck t o t he pha s e . For e xa mpl e , i f t he
appl i c at i on ha s now mo ve d t o t he t e s t i ng s t a ge a nd t he r e i s a c ha nge i n r e qui r e me nt , it
be c ome s di f f i c ul t t o go ba c k a nd c ha n ge i t .

Due t o t he abo ve di s a dva nt a ge s , Wat e r f al l M ode l w i t h Fe e dback i s i nt r oduc e d whe r e t he

de s i gne r ne e ds abil i ty t o ba c k up t o a pr e vi ous phas e whe n he di s c ove r s a pr obl em i n
c ur r e nt phas e for
de ve l opi ng Int e r a c t ive
Sys t e ms i n HC I.

Fi gur e 6: The Li f e Cyc l e f or Wate rf all Mode l w it h Fe e dbac k

10
Fi gur e 7: The Li f e Cyc l e f or I nt er ac t i ve Sys t e m s

Interactive Systems and the Software Life Cycle Models

W i t h t he i ntr oduc ti on of GU I, mode r n s ys t e ms de ve l ope d t oda y a r e hi ghl y i nt e r a c t i ve a nd i t
i s vi t a l t o t he s uc c e ss of a ny pr oduc t t ha t it i s not onl y e a s y t o ope r a t e but a l s o ef f i ci e nt
a nd a t tr a c ti ve t o use wi t h s moot h f unct i oni ng. For t hi s pur pos e , us e rs ne e d ac t i ve
pa r t i ci pa ti on i n t he pr oc e s s be f or e pr oduct l a unc h t o ma ke s ur e t he y a r e s a t i s f i e d. Some
ne w mode l s we r e de ve l ope d t o ma ke de s i gn pr oc e s s mor e c or r el a t i ve . Some of t he m a r e
br i e f l y de s c r i be d be l ow:

The Pr ot ot ypi ng M ode l

Fi gur e 8: The Pr ot otypi ng M ode l

The Pr ot ot ypi ng M ode l i s a s ys t e ms de ve l opme nt me t hod i n wh i c h a Pr ot ot ype ( s i mul a t i on

or s a mpl e ve r s i on of a f i na l pr oduc t , whic h i s use d f or t e st i ng pr i or t o l a unc h) i s bui l t,
t e s t e d a nd t he n re worke d a s ne c e s s a r y unt i l a n a c c ept abl e outc ome i s a c hi e ve d f r om whi c h
t he c ompl e t e s ys t e m or pr oduc t c a n be deve l ope d. The f our steps of t hi s mode l a re a s
f ol l ows :

1. Es t abl i s h obj e c t i ve s : The obj ec t i ve s of t he pr ot ot ype a r e r e qui r e d t o ma ke pr e c i s e f r om

t he s t ar t of t he proc e s s t o va l i dat e sys t e m r e qui r eme nt s or de t e r mi ne f e a si bil i t y.
2. De f i ne pr ot ot ype f unc ti onal it y: The i nput s a nd t he e xpe c t ed out put fr om a pr ot ot ype
a r e de c i de d f ir s t . Some f unc t i ona li t y, s uc h a s r e s pons e t i me a nd me mor y ut i l i za t i on, i f t he y
a r e not re l e va nt t o t he obj e c t i ve of t he pr otot ype , ma y be i gnor e d t o r e duc e t he pr ot ot ypi ng
c os t s a nd a c c el e r at e the de l i ve r y s c he dul e .

3. De ve l op t he Pr otot ype : The i ni ti a l prot ot ype i s de ve l ope d t ha t i nc l udes onl y us e r

i nt e r fa c e s .
4. Eval uat e t he Pr ot ot ype : Onc e t he us e r s a r e tr a i ne d t o us e t he pr ot ot ype , t he y
11
 di s c ove r r e qui r e me nt s e r r or s t o a s s e s s t he vi abi l i t y of a de s i gn. The De ve l op me nt T e a m
ma y t he n i mpr o ve t he s pe c i f ic a t i ons a nd t he pr ot ot ype ba s e d on us e r s ’ f e e dba c k. If c ha nge s
a r e i ntr oduc e d, t he n a r epe a t of st eps 3 a nd4 ma y be ne e de d.

I nc r e m e nt al De ve l opm e nt M ode l

Fi gur e 9: I nc r e m e nt al De ve l opm e nt M ode l

The Inc r e me nt a l
De ve l op me nt is
ba s e d on t he i de a of de ve l opi ng a s i mpl e wor ki n g s ys t e m i mpl e me nt i n g onl y a f e w b a s i c
f e a t ur es . The s ys t e m i s t he n e xpos e d t o us e r f e e dbac k a nd pr oc e s s e d f urt he r t hrough
s e ve r a l ve r s i ons unt i l a n a c c ept abl e s ys te m ha s be en de ve l o pe d. In t hi s M ode l , t he
a c t i vi t i e s of a pr oc e ss a r e not s epa r at e d but i nt erl e a ve d wi t h f e e dba c k i nvol ve d a c r os s
t hos e a c ti vi t i e s .

The Spi r al M ode l

Fi gur e 10: I nc r e m e ntal De ve l opm e nt M ode l

12
The Spi r a l M odel i s a r i s k-dr i ve n mode l wi t h pr ot ot ypi ng f e a tur e s whe r e t he pr oc es s is
r epr e s e nt e d a s s pir a l r a t her t ha n a s e quenc e of a c ti vi t i e s . Eac h l oop ( f r om r e vi e w t ill
s e r vi c e ) i n t he s pir a l r epr e s e nt s a pha se . Thus t he f i r st l oop mi ght be c onc e r ne d wi t h
s ys t e m f e a s i bi l it y; t he ne xt l oop mi ght be c onc e r ned wi t h t he r equi r e me nt s de f i ni ti on; t he
ne xt l oop wi t h s ys t e m de s i gn a nd s o on. The s pi r al e xpl ic i tl y e nc our a ge s a l t e r nat i ve s to be
c ons i de r e d a nd s t eps i n whi c h pr obl e ms or pot e nt i al pr oble ms a r e e nc ount er e d t o be r e -
a ddr e s s e d.

I t e r at i ve De s i gn M ode l

Thi s M ode l t ri e s to ove r c o me t he i nhe r e nt pr obl e ms of i nc ompl e t e r e quir eme nt s

s pe c i f ic a t i on by c yc l i ng t hr ough s e ve r a l de s i gns a nd t e s t t hem on r e a l us e r s a nd t he n
i mpr o ve upon t he f i na l pr oduc t i ncr e me nt a l l y wi t h ea c h pa s s . The c e nt r a l l oop i s
c ha r a c t er i ze d by t he e xt e ns i ve us e of pr otot ypi ng me t hods a nd t e s ti ng wi t h us e r s or by
pe r f or mi ng he ur i s t i c e va l ua t i on. The l oop woul d r e sume a t t he r e qui r e me nt s e ngi ne e r i ng
pha s e a t t he be gi nn i ng of t he pr oc e s s a nd gr a dua l l y s hi f t t owa r ds t he de s i gn &
i mpl e me nt a t i on pha s es

Fi gur e 11: I t e r ati ve De s i gn M ode l

Design Rules for HCI

The s of t wa r e pr oc e ss mode l s pr e s e nt e d he r e a re a ll si gni f i c ant i mpr ove me nt s ove r t he
i nf l e xi bl e W a t er f al l M ode l as t he y i nt r oduc e d us e r f e e dbac k i nt o t he l oop f r om e a r l y
s t a ge s . M or e M ode l s s uc h a s Agi l e de ve l opme nt or r eus e -or i e nt e d s of t wa r e e ngi ne e r i ng
mode l ha ve be e n pr opos e d f or HC I de s i gn but t her e is st i ll a s i gni f i c a nt pr obl e m. In HC I,
de s i gni ng i nt e r f a c e s wi l l not be s uf f ic i e nt but de si gni ng t he e nt i r e f l ow of t he i nte ra c t i on
of t he us e r a nd t he de vi c e i s a l s o r e qui r e d. Int e r ac t i vi t y of de s i gn i s not a l wa ys a c hi e ve d a t
va r i ous l e ve l s of de s i gn t hr ou gh t he s e mod e l s di s c us se d a s a s oft wa r e e ngi ne e r ha s a ve r y
di f f e re nt appr oa c h t o t he s ys t e m t ha n a n i nte r a c t i on de si gne r . M any s e t s of r ul e s ha ve be e n
pr opos e d t o e nc aps ula t e unde r st a ndi ng a nd be s t pr a ct i c e of i nte r a c t i on whic h ope r ate s a t
va r i ous l e ve l s .

13
 Necessities of good User Interface (UI)
“G ood de s i gn, w he n it ’ s done w el l , be c om es i nvi s i ble . I t ’ s onl y w he n i t ’s done poor ly
t hat w e noti c e i t .”

- Jar e d Spool , t he Am e r i c an w r i te r , r e s ear c he r and us abi l i t y e xpe r t

The f ol l owi ng ne c e s s i t i e s s houl d be kept i n mi nd whi l e de s i gn i ng f or a n e f f e c t i ve a nd

i nt e r a ct i ve i nt e rf a c e in HC I:

• The ul t i ma t e t e s t of us abi l it y of t he pr oduct wi t h Le a r nabi l it y, Fl e xi bi li t y a nd Robus t ne s s

i s r e quir e d ba s e d on me a s ur e me nt of us e r e xpe r i e nce
• St r i ve f or ef f e ct i ve ne s s , e f f i ci e nc y ,s a t i sf a c t i on a nd c onsi s t enc y wi t h opt i mu m e r r or
t ol e r a nce a nd i nf or ma t i ve f e e dba c k i n HC I de s i gn
• Re us e of de s i gn knowl e dge a nd e nf or c eme nt of de si gn di s c ipl i ne a cr os s pr oduct s wi t h
e a s y r e ve r s a l of a c t i ons i n e a r l y s t a ge s
• M a i nt ai n pr oc e s s ori e nt e d a nd st r uc t ur e or i e nt e d desi gn r at i ona l e t o r e c or d de s i gn
knowl e d ge

Fi gur e 12: Us e r
I nt e rf ac e : good
de s i gn vs . bad de s i gn

The us e r i nt er f a c e of a pr oduc t c a n ma ke a l l t he dif f e r e nc e be t we e n a good a nd ba d

e xpe r i e nc e . W he n s ome one us e s a pr oduct t he y s houl d fe e l comf or t abl e t o ha ndle t he
pr oduc t i n a us e r -f r i e ndl y e n vi r on me nt i ns t e a d of expe r i e ncing ne ga t i ve e mot i ons a nd
f e e l i ngs . Thi s i s a c hi eve d t hr ough a good us e r i nt er f a c e ( UI) de s i gn.

Fe at ur e s of good UI :

• Eas y to use
• Eas y to und erst and
• Erro r-free
• Effectiv e for bu ying the p rodu ct
• In tuitive – p eople can feel th eir wa y arou nd quite easil y
• Familiar – even if p eople visit yo ur web site for the first time, the y sho uld feel
like the y kno w ho w it works
• Leading – the best UI’s will lead peo p le from point to po int, moving them
along th eir j ourn e y t o their ultimat e go al : bu ying yo ur p rodu ct

Featu res of a bad UI:

• Sluggish an d un resp onsive – interaction will be sl ow and clu nk y.

• Complicat ed – t he si te will b e h ard fo r p eople to und erstand .

14
• Confusing – it will b e un clear about wh ere the visitor should go next .
• In co nsistent desig n – pag es will l ook di fferent, thro wing us ers off.
• No target – th ere is no cl ear audien ce fo r the website.
• Lack of soci al interaction – so cial medi a pla ys a big part in business nowada ys and
peopl e like to see th at.
• Read abilit y iss ues – unreadabl e user manual and in app ro priat e cont ent m akes it
diffi cult to us e th e p rodu ct.
• In fo rmatio n ov erlo ad.
• Adding di verted F riction to Us er Actio ns .
• Ig nori ng accessibilit y and usabilit y.

The b est wa y to ensure a good UI i s to test t he d esign ed prod uct continu o usl y.
Veri fication and vali dation t esting pla y an import ant role in t his respect. The pro ces s
of v eri fication ai ms at confi rming wheth er a particular prod uct m eet s the
requi rem ents specified at th e b eginnin g of the developm ent ph as e. T he ai m o f
validatio n is to ch eck wh ether t he fin al produ ct con forms to the set requi rem ent s and
standards. Th e desi gner will have to carr y out some b as ic testing and ask the
customers for feedb ack. This n ot onl y s hows th e impo rtan ce of th eir o pinions, it let s
the d esign er get t hei r opinio ns on how to mak e th e int erface of th e p rodu ct b etter for
them.

HCI in Everyday Life with future possibilities

Toda y c o mput e r s a r e i n vi r t ual l y e ve r y obje c t s of our dai l y us age . Co mput e r s a r e no mor e
r e c t a ngul a r obj ec t s eit he r on a de s k or i n our poc ke t s ; but c omput e r s a re i n our ca r s , t he y
a r e i n our t he r mos t a t s , t he y a r e i n our r e f r ige r a t or s . Eve r yt hi ng f r om our f i r s t M P3 pl a ye r s
t o our Bl uet oot h s peake r s ; f r om a n e l e va t or r i de whil e we a re s c rol l i ng t hr ough our e ma i ls
on our phone s t o or de r f ood onl i ne — a ll of t he s e ar e e xa mpl e s of HC I , i n us e r -f r i e ndl y
f or ma t ,de epl y e mbe dde d i nt o our da i l y r out i ne s . Googl e Loc a t i on se r vi c e s ar e a not he r
appl i c at i on of HCI i n our da i l y l i f e t o gui de us t o r e a c h a t a par t i c ul a r de st i na ti on wi t h a
s i ngl e c l i c k i n t ouc hpa d. Ot he r e xa mpl e s a re Logi t ec h Touc hpa d, W a c om Tabl e t , W ebc am +
Spe a ke r phone , USB H e a ds e t a nd Mi c r ophone e t c

Exam pl e s of s om e HCI de vi c e s and appl i c at i ons i n r e al w or l d w i t h Radi c al I nnovat i on

Br e akt hr oughs ( RI Bs ) f or t he f ut ur e pos sibi l i ti e s :

Be l ow a r e s o me e xa mpl e s of hu ma n -c o m put e r i nt er a c tion t ha t ha ve e me r ge d t hr ou gh t he

ye a r s , i nc l udi ng a f e w we e xpe c t t o s e e i n the f ut ur e .
• In ve nt i on of QWERTY l a yout of t he t ype wr i t e r i n 1873 a nd l a t er i n c omput e r
ke yboa r d.
• Cr e a t i on of El e ct r oni c Num e r i c al I nt e grat or And Com put e r ( ENI AC) i n 1946 t o
me a s ur e t he f e a s i bil i ty of t he t he r monuc l e a r we apon
• Cr e a t i on of DAT AR Tr ac kbal l i n 1952 t o t r a ns f e r s onar a nd r a da r da t a f r om one
s hi p t o a not her
• The f i r s t j oys t i c k wi t h a f i r e but t on f or SEGA’ s a r c a de ga me “ M i s s il e ” wa s c r e a t e d
i n 1967
• E me r ge nc e of Vi r t ual Re al i t y i n 1968 w i t h t he c r e a ti on of Swor d of Da moc i e s ,a
he a d-mount e d di s pl a y s ys t e m
• Evol ut i on of M ul t i Touc h Te c hnol ogy i n1 972 t hr ough r e l e a s e of a t e r mi na l us i ng
s i ngl e -t ouc h poi nt s

15
 • Cr e a t i on of 3D Pr i nting t o de ve l op a Rapi d Pr ot ot ypi ng Te c hni q ue
• De s i gn of t he f i rs t Linux- pow e r e d sm ar t-w at c h i n 1998 t o c ommuni c a t e wi r e l e s sl y
wi t h pe r s ona l c omput e r s a nd c e ll phone s .
• Ni nt e ndo Wi i wa s c re a t e d i n 2006 t o t r a c k a us e r ’ s mot i ons a nd t r a ns l at e t he m i nt o
i ns t r uct i ons or r e s pons e s .
• G oogl e Voic e Se ar c h App wa s e vol ve d i n 2011 t o al l ow us er s to i nt er a c t wi t h t he ir
phone s by ma ki n g Go ogl e Que r i e s
• De xt a Robot i c s l a unc he d he pr oj ec t e nti t l e d ‘ De xm o Exos k e l e t on’ i n 2013 t o
s i mul a t e t he a c t of t ouc hi ng obj e c ts i n Vi r tua l Re al i t y
• Em ot i on Se ns i ng t hrough t e s t a nd s me l l wa s i nt r oduc e d i n 2018 .Ther e has be e n a
l ot of a tt e nt i on on e mot i on-s e ns i ng t e c hnol ogy f ue l e d by a r t i f i ci al i nt e ll i ge nc e whi c h
c oul d e ve nt ua l l y r e a d f a c ia l e xpr e s si ons , ski n c onduc t a nc e a nd e ye mo ve me nt s t o
i mpr o ve c onc e nt r a t i on a nd ma na ge s t r e s s .
• The f l e xi bl e Sma r t phone i s a ne w pos s i bi l i t y whe r e or ga ni c l i ght e mi t t i ng di ode
( OLED) , ge ne r a l l y ma de of pl a s ti c , wi l l be re qui r e d f or f l e xi bl e dis pl a ys .
• Br ai n i nt e rf ac e: Br a in -Co mput e r Int e r f a c es ( BCI) a r e be c omi ng mor e a dva nc e d a nd
s oon wi l l be abl e to c ha nge t he l i ve s of t hos e who s uf f er f r om pa r a l ys i s or
a mput a t i ons . Thi s C omput e r Te c hnol ogy c a n i nt e r a ct wi t h ne ur a l s tr uc t ur es by
de c odi ng a nd t r a ns l a ti ng i nf or ma t i on f r o m t hought s i nt o a c t i ons a nd s oon ma y be
us e d f or t hought -t o -t e xt t r a ns la t i on or t o cont r ol mo ve me nt s f r om pr os t he t i c li mbs .
One of t he l a t es t pr oj e c t s i n BCI t e c hnol ogy i s c a l l e d br ai nt e rne t whi c h a i ms t o
c onve r t a us e r ’ s br ai n i nt o a node whi c h wi ll c onnec t t o t he i nte r ne t .
• H um an Body as a c o nt r ol l e r: Ins t e a d of mo vi n g t he mous e wh e n pl a yi ng a n onl i ne
ga me , HC I l e t t he pla ye r e nga ge i n t he ga me wi t h his e nti r e body a nd di r e c t on-
s c r e e n mot i on wi t h a ct ua l phys i c a l move me nt . M i c r osof t K i nec t wa s a br e a kt hr ough
i n t hi s r e ga r d. Le ap M ot i on wi t h i t s e xt e ns i ve l i s t of har dwa r e a nd s of t wa r e de vi c e s ,
s e ns or s i s c ont r i but i ng t o ha nd a nd f i nge r t r a c ki ng.
• M ar k- A Sm ar t Gl ove f or I ndus t r y 4.0: M a r k c o me s wi t h i n-bui l t doc ume nt a t i on
pr oc e s s e s t ha t a r e base d on t he ha nd mo ve me nt s of t he a ve r a ge f a c t or y wor ke r who
ha s t o pr epa re doc ume nt a t i on s epa r a t el y a f t e r a da y of wor k. Thi s ut i li t y c a n be
e xt e nde d f or t hos e wor ki ng i n l a r ge wa r e hous e s .
• Voi c e Us e r I nt e rf ac e s ( VUI s ) a ll ow t he us e r t o i nt e r ac t wi th a s ys t e m t hr ou gh
voi c e or s pe e c h c omma nds . Vi r t ua l a s s is ta nt s , s uc h a s Sir i , Googl e As s i s t a nt , a nd
Al e xa , a r e e xa mpl e s o f VU Is . The pr i ma r y a dva nt a ge of a VU I i s t ha t i t a ll ows f or a
ha nds -f r e e , e ye s -f r e e wa y i n whi c h us e r s ca n i nt er ac t wi t h a pr oduc t whi l e f oc us i ng
t he i r at t e nti on e l se whe r e .
• The f ut ur e s of mobi l it y t ha t Hyunda i M ot or dr e a ms of e mi s s i ons -f r e e e c o-f r i e ndl y
a ut omobi l e s t ha t s e a ml e s s l y c onne c t pe opl e wi t h t hei r home s a nd of f i ce s , a s we l l a s
wi t h ur ba n i nfr a s tr uc tur e s .
• Qua nt a s Compa n y i s wor ki n g on Vi r t ual Re al i t y G oggl es f or fi rs t c l as s pa ss e nge r s
on f l i ght s t o vi s i t vi r tua l de s t i na t i ons .

• Ski nTr ac k i s a ne w t e c hnol ogy de ve l ope d by t he Hu ma n -C omput er Int e r a c t i on

Ins t i t ut e ’ s Fut ur e Int e r f a c e s Gr oup, whi c h e xpa nds t he s ma r t wa t c h’ s “ t ouc hsc r e e n”
ove r t he e nt i r e ha nd a nd a r m b y we a r i ng a s pe c i a ll y de s i gne d r i n g. The us e r c a n us e
hi s pa l m t o ma ke a c a l l on hi s Appl e Wa t c h by ho ve ri ng a f i nge r o ve r hi s ha nd,
a c t i ng a s a c ur s or on a di a l pa d. Ski nTr a c k c oul d eve n be use d to a l l ow hi m t o pl a y
mor e s ophi s t i c a t e d vi de o ga me s on hi s we a r abl e by enabl i ng a f a r br oa de r l i br ar y of
ge s t ur e s t o c ont r ol wha t i s happe ni ng on t hat pos t age s t a mp -s i ze d s c r e e n.

16
 • M i c r os of t Re s e ar c h ca me up wi t h a s ys t e m c a l l e d H apti c Re t arge t i ng whi c h us e d a
ve r y l i mi t e d nu mbe r of phys i c a l pr ops t o ta ke t he pl a c e of a nea r l y i nf i nit e numbe r
of vi r t ua l obj e ct s s o t ha t a VR us e r t hi nks t ha t he i s not i nt er ac t i ng wi t h t he s a me
pr op ove r a nd ove r a ga i n.

• De xt a Robot i c s a l l ows pe opl e t o f ee l vi r t ual r e al i ty by de ve l opi ng a pr oduc t c a ll ed

De xt a H apt i c G l oves , a s e t of e xos ke l e ton -s t yl e gl ove s , b y whi c h a us er , upon
e nt e r i ng vi r t ua l r e a li ty, s i mul a t e f e e dba c k wi t h hapt i c s e ns at i ons s uc h a s ha r dne s s ,
s pr i ngi ne s s , s of t ne s s by l oc ki n g a nd unl oc ki n g f i nge r j oi nt s whe n he t r i e s t o t ouc h
di gi t a l obj e c ts wi t h va r yi ng de gr e e s of f or c e .
• M i c r os of t Re s e ar c h is ope ni ng up ne w U I p os s i bi li t ie s wi t h “Pr e- Touc h Se ns i ng” by
de ve l opi ng a ne w t yp e of Sma r t phone wi t h i mpr o ve d pr e c i s i on of t appi ng on s ma l l
on -s c r e e n e l e me nt s t ha t c a n det e c t a nd dyna mi c a l l y a dj us t how i t i s be i ng gr i ppe d
a nd a l s o de t e ct whe n a f i nge r i s appr oa c hi ng t he s cr e e n .
• Re s e a r c he r s fr om t h e Uni ve r s i t y of W a s hi ngt on, Di sne y Re s e a r c h a nd Ca r ne gi e
M e l l on Uni ve r s i t y a r e t r yi ng t o ma ke Pape r I D wi t h pr i nt abl e ant e nna whi c h i s a s
i nt e r a ct i ve a s a t ouch s c r e e n by gi vi n g a pi e c e of pape r t he abi l it y t o s e ns e i ts
s ur r oundi ngs a nd r e s pond t o ge s t ur e c omma nds , a s wel l a s c onne c t t o t he Int e r ne t of
Thi ngs ( IoT) .
• M at e r i able i s t he l ate s t e xe mpl i f i c a ti on of Inf or m, a ph ys i c al i nt e r fa c e of mo vi ng
“pi xe l s ” de ve l ope d by M IT’ s Ta ngi bl e M e di a Gr oup i n 2013. It gi ve s t hi s e xi s t i ng
Inf or m di s pl a y t he abi l i t y t o mi mi c t he t ouc habl e qua li t i es of re a l -wor l d ma t e r i a l s
l i ke r ubbe r , wa t e r , sand e t c by ma ki n g a l l of i t s pi xe l s r i pple , or qui ve r l i ke j el l y, or
e ve n bounc e l i ke a r u bbe r ba l l .
• H ol of le x i s t he ne xt ge ne r a t i on f l e xi bl e Sma r t phone wi t h bendabl e s cr e e n t ha t
i nt e r a ct wit h t he us er . It i s c apabl e of a chi e vi ng t he ne a t t r ick of vi e wi ng a 3 -D
t e a c up on t he di s pl a y by t wo pe opl e f r om the c or r e ct per s pe c ti ve r e ga r dl e s s of t hei r
pos i t i on re l a ti ve t o t he s c r e e n by pr oj e ct i ng 12 -pi xe l -wi de c i r c ul ar “bl oc ks ” t hr ough
mor e t ha n 16,000 f i s he ye l e ns e s . W e wi l l a l l be wa l ki ng a r ou nd wi t h hol ogr aphi c
i Phone s us i ng t hi s t e chnol ogy i n t he c omi n g ye a r s .

• M i c r os of t ha s de ve l ope d Spar s e Li ght t e c hnol ogy whe r e one c a n a ugme nt t he f i e l d of

vi e w i n he a d -mount e d di s pl a ys by put t i ng c he ap gr i ds of LEDs i n t he us e r ’ s f uzzi e r
pe r i phe r al vi s i on t han hi s di re c t vi s ua l pe r c ept i on. The s e LEDs e s s e nt i al l y j ust
ma t c h a n obj e ct ’ s c ol or a nd bri ght ne s s a nd t r i c k our br ai ns i nt o t hi nki ng we a r e
s e e i ng t he whol e t hi ng. Thi s t e c hnol ogy c a n be appl i e d t o bot h Vi r t ua l Re a l it y
He a ds e t s a nd Augme nt e d Re a l it y He a ds e t s t o i nc r ea s e i mme r s i on a nd c ut down on
s ome of t he mot i on s ic kne s s pr obl e ms us e r s e xpe r i e nc e whe n we ar i ng t he s e he a ds e t s
t oo.

To dr e a m about t he fut ur e of HCI de s i gn i s s ome t i mes da n ge r ous be c a us e mi s gui de d

dr e a ms ma y mi s l e a d de s i gne r s , but it is ne c e s s ar y as wi t hout vi s i on na vi ga t i on i s
di f f i c ul t . Wi t hout drea ms we r i s k s t a gna t i on a nd l os e t he c ha nc e t o ma ke a be t t e r wor l d.
Thi s bi a se d a nd pa rt ia l port r a it of t he f utur e i s off e r e d t o guide de s i gne r s of f ut ure
i nt e r a ct i ve s ys t e ms . It i s or ga ni ze d t op down, f r om goa l s t o appli c a ti ons to
s of t wa r e / ha r dwa r e . Pla nni ng f or t he f ut ur e i s poss i bl e whe n i nnova t i on be c ome s t he
mot i va t i ng f or c e wi t h pr e di c ti ons c l os er t o t he r e al i t y. Thi s re f l e c ti on i s ma i nl y a n
e xt r apol at i on of current trends , outlin ed b y th e high -level goals with a bit of
wishful thi nking.

In addition to th e dev elopments discuss ed abov e, the followin g Radical

In nov ation Breakth roughs (R IBs ) for th e future are eit her directl y cont ributing to
AI b y provi ding new software o r hardware solutions or b y tai loring AI approaches
for s pecifi c ap plicat ions:
17
• Ar t i f i ci a l Int e l l i ge nc e ( a dva nc e d De ep Le a r ni ng Al gor i t hms )
• Co mput a t i ona l c r ea t i vi t y
• Ar t i f i ci a l Synaps e / Bra i n
• Br a i n Func t i onal M appi ng
• Co mput i ng me mor y
• Ne ur omor phi c c hi p
• Cha t bot s
• Spe e c h Re c ogni t i on
• E mot i on Re c ogni t i on
• Touc hl e s s Ge s t ur e Rec ogni t i on
• Swa r m Int e l l i ge nc e
• Dr i ve r l e s s
• Fl yi ng Ca r
• Hu ma noi ds
• Pr e c i s i on Far mi n g
• Aut oma t e d Indoor Fa r mi n g
• Bi ode gr a dabl e Se ns ors
• Ha r ve s t i ng M e t ha ne Hydr a t e
• The r moe l e c t r i c Pa i nt
• Ne ur os c i e nc e of cr e a ti vi t y a nd i ma gi na t i on
• 4D Pr i nt i ng
• Bi ol umi ne s c e nc e
• W a t e r Spli t ti ng
• Unde r wa t e r Li vi ng
• M ol t e n Sa lt Re a c t ors
• Gr aphe ne Tr a ns i st or s
• Ene r gy Ha r ve s t i ng
• Hype r l oop
• Hype r s pe c t r a l Ima gi n g
• W a r f ar e Dr one s
• Fl e xi bl e El ec t r oni c s
• Ge ne Edi t i ng
• Bl oc kc ha i n
• M a r i ne And Ti da l Powe r Te c hnol ogi e s
• Spi nt r oni cs
• As t e r oi d Mi ni ng
• Ho me Cont r ol
• Hype r me di a
• Of f i c e Aut oma t i on
• Di gi t a l Phot ogr aphy
• Col l abor a ti ve M e e t i ng/ Cl a s s r ooms
• Publ i c Ac c e s s
• Pr of e s s i onal W or ks t a ti ons
• M e di c a l Re c or d-K e epi ng.

18
Challenges in HCI Design and some possible ways to overcome those
Challenges
De s i gni ng a nd i mpl e me nt i n g Hu ma n -Co mput e r Int e r f a c es i s dif f i c ult a nd t i me -c ons umi n g a nd
wi l l re ma i n s o f or t he f or e s ee abl e f ut ur e i n t he
c ur r e nt a nd e me r gi ng s c e na r i o of rapi d
t e c hnol ogi c a l e volut i on t owa r ds mor e
i nt e ll i ge nt i nt e r ac t i ve t e c hnol ogi e s , c oupl e d
wi t h i nc r e a s e d a nd wi de ne d s oc i e ta l ne e ds, a s
we l l a s i ndi vi dua l a nd c ol l e c ti ve e xpe c t a ti ons
f r om H C I di s c i pl i ne . M or e ove r ,HC I d e s i gn
ha s t o f a c e wi t h t he i mme ns e pr obl e ms of our
a ge s uc h a s gr ow i ng hu ma n popul a t i ons
c ons ume na t ur a l r e sour c e s , fl our i s hi ng c i t i es
r e qui r e housi ng a nd t r a ns port a ti on, f a mi l i es
de ma nd e duc a t i on a nd s af e t y, ri s i ng
e xpe c t a ti ons f r om pe opl e put pr es s ur e on s oc i a l
s ys t e ms , Hu ma n -T e c hnol ogy S ymbi o s i s ,
Hu ma n -En vi r onme nt Int e r a c t i ons , Et hi c s ,
Pr i va c y a nd Se c ur i t y, W e l l -be i ng, He a l t h a nd
Eude moni a , Ac c e s s i bi l it y a nd Uni ve r s a l
Ac c e s s , Le a r ni ng a n d Cr e a t i vi t y a nd So c i al
Or ga ni za t i on a nd De moc r a c y. The s e i s s ue s ar e br i e fl y di s c us s e d be l ow.

Fi gur e 13: Chal l e nge s i n H CI de s i gn

1. A c ont e m por ar y and de t ai l e d handbook of hum an ne e ds woul d he l p i n t he r ef i ni ng of

de s i gns a nd i nve nt i on of ne w t ools or se r vi c e s t o es t abl i s h a f ounda t i on of s ur vi va l a nd
s a f e t y, e mbr a c i ng l o ve a nd e s t e e m a nd s uppor t i ng s el f -a c t ua l i za t i on t ha t r e a li ze s pe r sona l
pot e nt i al s .
2. Shi f t f r om us er e xpe r i e nc e t o c om m uni ty e xpe r i e nc e : Us e r expe r i e nc e de s i gne r s ha ve
c l e ve r l y i nve nt e d i nt e r f a c e s a nd pr oc e s s e s tha t s uppor t wor k, c ommuni c a t i on, a nd f un. But
whe n t he y a t t e mpt t o s hi f t t o c ommuni t y e x pe r i e nc e de si gn, s oc i a l me di a pa r t i c i pa ti on a nd
mot i va t i ona l s t ra t e gi es t o e nga ge gr owi n g c ommuni t ie s i n c ons tr uc t i ve wa ys , t he c ommon
out c ome i s i ns uf fi c i ent r e s ponse , r ai s i ng the que s t i on of how to ma ke mor e c ons i s te nt l y
s uc c e s s f ul out c ome s .
3. Re f i ne t he or i e s of pe r s uas i on: A pe r i odic t abl e of pe rs ua s i on s t r a t e gi e s woul d char t t he
mi c r o -s t r uc t ur e of mot i va t i on f or de s i gne r s who c r e a t e appl i c at i ons t o mor e r api d pr ogr e s s
i n s mo ki n g c e s s a t i on, obe s i t y r e duc t i on, me di c a t i on c ompl i a nc e and c a nc e r pr e ve nt i on
4. Enc our age r e s our c e c ons e r vat i on: De s i gn of use r i nt e rf a c e s a nd c ommuni t y e nga ge me nt
wi t h e f f i ci e nt s t ra t e gi e s wi l l pl a y ke y r ol e t o i ncr e a s e pr oduct i on f r om r e ne wabl e s our c es
i n pr ovi di ng f e e dba ck t ha t e nc our a ge s wi nni ng s t r a t e gi e s a nd t o c ut of f t he gr owi ng
popul a t i on re duc i ng t he us a ge of wa t e r , e ne r gy, a nd na t ur a l r e s our c e s .
5. Shape t he l e ar ni ng he al t h s ys t em : HCI r e s e a r c he r s a nd de s i gne r s wi t h M a c r o-HC I
t hi nki ng a nd bi g da t a a na l yt i c t ool s ha ve t o he l p shape ma s s i ve he a l t hc a r e s ys t e ms t o
i nc r e a s e t he qua l it y of c a r e of t he pa ti e nts f or t he i r we ll ne s s , but pr oduc i ng me a ni ngf ul
c ha nge s i n s uc h ma s s i ve s ys t e ms r e ma i ns a c ha l l e nge. Bot t om-up s t r a t e gi e s c oul d pr ope l
pa t i e nt a nd c l i ni c i a n pa r t i ci pa ti on, whi l e t op -down go ve r na nc e i s ne e de d t o s e t pol ic i e s ,
c ope wi t h ma l i c i ous ac t or s a nd gui de c ont i nuous i mpr o ve me nt .

19
6. Advanc e t he de s i gn o f m e di c al de vi c e s: Re s e a r c he r s ha ve be e n r api dl y de ve l opi n g me di c a l
de vi c e s l i ke i mpl a nt e d i ns ul i n pumps , vi s i on -r e s t ora t i on s ys t e ms , pr os t het i c l i mbs , br a i n-
c omput e r i nt e r fa c e s , a nd na node vi c e s ma t ur e . The s e r e quir e us e r i nt e rf a c e s t o moni t or
pe r f or ma nc e , l og a c t i vi t y a nd e nabl e appr opr i a t e c ont r ols .
7. Suppor t s uc c e s sf ul agi ng s t r ate gi e s : W hile t he gr owi ng popul a ti ons of ol de r a dul t s wa nt
t o ma i nt a i n t he i r he al t h a nd i ndepe nde nc e whi l e a ging i n pl a ce , t he y c a n i mpr o ve t he i r
qua l i t y of l i ve s t hr ough Io Ts f r om e f f e c t ive l y de s i gne d i nt e r fac e s t hat c oll e c t da t a f r om
s e ns or s , e nc oura ge he a l t hy di e t a nd e xerc i s e , pr omot e s oc i a l c onne c t e dne s s a nd enabl e
ba l a nc e d i nvol ve me nt f r om c a r e gi ve r s .
8. Pr om ot e l if e l ong l e ar ni ng: De ve l opi ng be s t pr a c t ic e s f or a r a nge of a ge s , mot i va t i ons a nd
c ul t ur e s wi ll hel p t o ma ke t he ma s s i ve ope n onl i ne l e ar ni ng c our s e s , pr of e s si ona l j us t-i n -
t i me t r a i ni ng a nd ot h e r s oc i a l l e ar ni ng s ys t e ms more r e l i abl y s uc c e s s f ul f or l a r ge numbe r s
of di ve r s e us e r s .
9. St i m ul ate r api d i nte rf ac e l e ar ni ng: M ul t i la ye r Us e r Int e r f ac e s s i mpl i f i e s de si gn f or
di ve r s e us e r s a nd us er s wi t h di s abi li t i es a nd a l s o e nabl e ne w us e r s t o be c ome e xpe r t s wi t h
ba s i c f e at ur e s .
10. Engi ne e r ne w bus i nes s m ode l s : Us e r i nt e rf a c e s pl a y a ke y r ol e i n e ns ur i ng t he s uc c e s s of
pe e r -t o -pe e r s a l e s of pr oduc t s a nd se r vi c e s t hr ough c l os e r bus i ne ss -t o -c ons ume r
c onne c t i ons a nd c ons ume r -t o -c ons u me r c ol l abor at i on wi t h l owe r ba r r i e r s i f t he us e r
e xpe r i e nc e c a n be des i gne d t o pr omot e t r us t , c onfl i c t r e s ol uti on a nd ope n f e e dba c k fr om
c ons ume r r e vi e ws .
11. De s i gn nove l i nput a nd out put de vi c e s : It i s r e a l l y ve r y c ha l l e ngi n g t o de ve l op r e l i able
me c ha ni s ms of t a c t i l e a nd t a ngi bl e e n vi r onme nt s f or us e r s s o t h a t t he y c a n e xpr e s s t he i r
i nt e nti ons li ke ge s t ur e s , s pe e c h a nd body mo ve me nt s t hr ough t he ‘ t ouc h-di s pl a y’ i nput
de vi c e s l i ke St i l l a nd Vi de o Ca me r a s , 3D s c a nne r s and s e nsor s e t c t o ac c e l er a t e t he
c apa c i t y t o r ec or d, ana l yze a nd s ha r e r i c h da t a s tre a ms . An out put de vi c e s houl d pos s e s s
di s pl a y di ve r s i t y, t i n y hapt i c f e e dba c k, a mbi e nt s ound ge ne r a t or s , pr oj e c t e d di s pl a ys a nd
l a r ge publ i c di s pl a ys t ha t wi l l c ha ll e nge de s i gne r s t o pr ovi de a ve r y e f f i c i e nt c oupl i ng
be t we e n ma n a nd ma c hi ne wi t h appr opr ia t e i nf or ma t i on r at e s a nd c ont e nt a dj us t ed t o
c ur r e nt t a s ks . Tr a ns pa r e nt gl a s s e s , i mme r s i ve go ggl e s a nd a mbi e nt de vi c e s off e r ne w
pos s i bi li t ie s a l ong t he s pe c t r um of pr i va t e t o publ i c pr e s e nt at i on. 3D pr i nt i ng a nd nove l
f abr i c at i on me t hods wi l l e nabl e t he pr oduc t i on of phys i c a l i t ems s uc h a s j e we l r y, f oods ,
a nd l a r ge r obj e c t s s uch a s c ha i r s , c ar s , a nd bui l di ng-c ons t r uc t i on c ompone nt s .
12. Ac c e l e r at e anal yt ic cl ar i t y: Anot he r c ha l le nge i s t o a na l yze t he bi g da t a move me nt wi th
hi gh vol u me a nd a va r i e t y of dat a whos e a na l ys i s wi t h we l l -i nt e gr a t e d vi s ua l i nt e r fa c e s a nd
s t a t is t i ca l t e c hni que s c oul d l e a d t o a be t t e r unders t a ndi ng of i nvi s i bl e pr oc e s ses i n
bus i ne s s , c ommuni t y gr owt h/ de c a y, l e a r ni ng a nd publ i c he a l t h a nd c oul d r e s ul t i n mor e
c onf i de nt a nd bol de r de c i s i ons t ha t i mpr ove i ndi vi dua l , c ommuni t y a nd pl a ne t a r y we l f a r e .
13. Am pl if y e m pat hy, c om pas s i on, and c ar i ng: The HC I de s i gne r s , wi t h a he a r t f e l t de si r e ,
s houl d de ve l op a deepe r unde r st a ndi ng of t he ir c us t ome r s ’ ne e ds . M or e s pec i fi ca l l y,
Te mki n Gr oup c r e a t e d t he Ampl i f y E mpa t hy mo ve me nt to e nc our a ge i ndi vi dua l s t o he l p
bui l d s t r onge r e mpa t hy f or t he i r c us t ome r s wi t hi n t hei r or ga niza t i ons t o unde r s ta nd a nd
e nc our a ge c ompa s s i o na t e a nd c a ri ng a c t i ons t ha t ma ke l i f e be t te r f or i ndi vi dua l s , f ami l i e s
a nd c ommuni t i e s .
14. Se c ur e c ybe r s pac e: W i t h our i nc r e a si ng depe nde nc e on onl ine s e r vi c e s, s e c ur it y a nd
pr i va c y pr obl e ms l i ke c r i mi na l a c ti vi t y a nd pr i va c y vi ol a t i ons pre s e nt a gr owi ng c onc e r n.
Unde r s t a ndi ng t he int e r a c ti on bet we e n huma ns a nd c o mput e r s i s i mpor t a nt f or HC I
de s i gne r s t o de s i gn int e r f a ce s wit h us abl e pr i va c y a nd s e c uri ty wi t h s a f e t y whi c h c a n

20
 e xpl or e s ol uti ons t o the pr obl e ms of i nt r usions a nd e nabl e us er pa r t i ci pa ti on i n e ve r y f or m
of t r a ns a ct i on, poli t ica l e nga ge me nt a nd t ool us a ge.
15. Enc our age r e f l e c ti on, c al m ne s s , and m i ndf ul ne s s: M i ndf ul ne s s a nd t e c hnol ogy
e nc our a ge s t he us e r to be c ome a wa r e of t he pr e s e nt mo me nt , r a t he r t ha n l osi ng one s e l f i n a
t e c hnol ogi c a l de vi c e . HC I de s i gne r s ha ve t o r e de s i gn a nd c r e a t e t e c hnol ogy t hr ough n ove l
i nt e r fa c e s t o i mpr ove t he we l l bei ng of i t s us e rs and e nc our a ge r e f l e c ti on on pa s t
e xpe r i e nc es a nd i nt e nde d a c t i ons wi t h a c a lm a nd mindf ul a t t it ude a nd s e l f -a wa r e ne s s .
16. Cl ar if y r e s pons i bi l ity and ac c ount abi l i t y: Though ma c hi ne a ut onomy i s s e e n a s a goa l by
s ome de s i gne r s , i n ma ny c ont e xt s t he pr ef e rr e d appr oa c h ma y be t o de s i gn i nt e r f ac e s whi c h
e ns ur e huma n c ont r ol whi l e i ncr e a si ng t he l e ve l of a ut oma t i on. Al gor i t hmi c a c c ount abi l i t y
i nt e r fa c e s woul d a ll ow us e r s t o be t te r unde r s t a nd unde rl yi ng c omput a t i ona l pr oc e s se s i n
di f f e re nt a l gor i t hms o f i nt e r fa c e s a nd gi ve s us e r s t he pot e nt ia l t o c ont r ol t he ir a c t i ons i n a
be t t e r wa y.
Be s i de s t he poi nt s di s c us s e d above , t he r e a r e ot he r c ha l l e nge s a nd une xpe c t e d
de ve l op me nt s i n HC I de s i gn. In a ddi t i on t o t he di f f i c ul t ie s a s s oci a t e d wi t h de s i gni ng a ny
c ompl e x s ys t e m, us er
i nt e r fa c e s a dd t he f ol lowi ng pr obl e ms :
• De s i gne r s of t e n f a c e di f f i c ul t y t o l e a r n t he us e r ’s t a s ks due t o c ompl e xi t y of
doma i ns
• The r e a r e ma n y di f f e r e nt a s pe c t s t o t he de s i gn whi c h mus t a l l be t a ke n i nt o
c ons i de r at i on wi t h e qua l i mpor t a nc e , s uc h a s s t a ndar ds , gr aphi c de s i gn, t e c hni c al
wr i t i ng, i nt e r nat i onali za t i on, pe r f or ma nc e , mul t i ple l e ve l s of de t a i l , s oc i al f a ct or s ,
l e ga l i s s ue s a nd i mpl e me nt a t i on t i me .
• The e xi s t i ng t he or i es a nd gui de l i ne s a r e not s uf f i ci e nt a nd It e r a t i ve de s i gn i s
di f f i c ul t . The y a r e rea c t i ve a nd r e quir e mu l t i pr oc es s i ng a nd mo dul a r i za t i on of us er
i nt e r fa c e s ys t e m i s di f f i c ult
• The s ys t e m mus t be r o bus t whi l e s upport i ng abor t i ng a nd undoi ng of a l l a ct i ons .
• It i s di f f ic ul t t o t e st us e r i nt e r f ac e s of twa r e when t he t ool s t o hel p wit h us er
i nt e r fa c e s a r e e xt re me l y c o mpl e x. Th e t r a di ti ona l cont rol l e d e xpe r i me nt al
appr oa c he s a s s oci a t ed wi t h mi c r o -HC I r e s e a r c h wi l l nee d t o be c ompl e me nt e d b y
r i gor ous a nd r epe a t ed i n -dept h c a s e s t udi e s wi t h f r e s h t hi nki n g a nd i mpr o ve d
i nt e r di s c i pl i na r y me t h ods , whi c h a r e pa r t of ma c r o -HC I r e s e a r c h.

Conclusions
“M ac hi ne s c e r t ai nl y c an s ol ve pr obl e m s , st or e i nf orm at i on, c orr e l at e and pl ay gam es –
but not w i t h pl e as ure .”
- - Le o Ros t e n
Enor mous r api d c ha nge s ha ve be e n obs e r ve d i n HCI de ve l op me nt f r om t he be gi nni ng of
c omput e r s us i ng c o mpl e x c omma nds t o t he c ur r e nt s ophi s ti c a te d A I i nt e r f a c e s . It ha s be e n
one of t he mos t i mp or t a nt r e se a r c h pr oj e c t s i n t he wor l d.
HC I i s a c o mpr e he n s i ve f i e l d a nd i ts de ve l op me nt r equi r e s knowl e d ge f r o m di f f e r e nt
r e s e a r c h ar e a s whi c h c ombi ne t he HC I mode l a nd H C I i nt e r f a c e de s i gn r e s e a rc h a nd
a na l ys i s t o r e a c h s pe ci f i c us abil it y goa l s a nd t he us e r e xpe r i e nc e goa l s wi t h us e r -c e nt e r e d
appr oa c h.HC I s t a r t e d de a l i ng wi t h huma n va l ue s , de si gn f or a l l , i nvol ve us e r s t o de s i gn
t hi ngs , f oc us on us e r f e e dba c k, f oc us on i nt e r a c ti on a nd pos i ti ve e xpe r i e nc e a nd a ll t he s e
pr ovi de us a wa y t o e nt e r i ng i nt o ne w mode r n e r a .
Lot s of t he or i e s a nd fr a me wor ks ha ve be e n pr opos e d f r om di f f e r ent a ge s but de s i gne r s ha ve
l e s s a wa re ne s s , pr a c tic e a nd t r a i ni ng t o appl y t he se t he or i e s a nd t o c hoos e t he r i ght one t o
e mpo we r hu ma n be i ngs f r o m t he i nc r e a si ng nu mbe r of c o mpe t i ng t he or e t i c a l appr oac he s .
21
The de ma nd a nd ne e d of us e r s f or ne w a nd sma r t s ys t e ms put t he r e s e a r c her s a nd de s i gne r s
t o c r e a t e ne w t he or i es a nd c onc ept ua l fr ame wor ks t o f i nd out be s t s ol uti ons , s ol ve hi dde n
pr obl e ms a nd c r e a t e mor e i nt e r a c t i ve s ys t e ms . HC I des i gn wor k of t e n r e qui r e s e xpe ns i ve
de s i gn c ons ul t a nt s , l ot of t i me , c os t a nd gr e a t e r exper t is e . The de s i gne r s ha ve t o f i nd out
be t t e r a nd l e s s e xpe ns i ve f r a me wor ks , app r oa c he s a nd me t hods t o o ve r c ome t hi s ga p or
pr obl e m be t we e n H C I t he or y a nd pr a c t i c e .HC I s t a r t e d i t s j our ne y wi t h de s i gn f or
c ons ume r s , t he n s hi fte d t o de si gn wi t h pe opl e a nd now f oc us i ng on de s i gn by pe opl e (f r om
De s i gni ng t o Co -De s i gni n g t o Col l e c t i ve Dr e a mi n g) and hope s t o ge t s uc c e s s t o i nduc e
“ De s i gn i n Pe opl e ” i n ne a r f ut ure .
The HC I i s s t a r t i ng t o s hi f t f r om “ t he us e r ” t o a c cept a wi de r c ont e xt a s us e r s t udie s i s
be i ng r epl a c e d wi t h mul t i pl e a nd hybr i d me t hodol o gie s l i ke r unni ng t he e xpe r i me nt a nd
doi ng e t hnogr aphy t o ge t he r . The de s i gne r s ha ve t o st a y c ons c i ous of ne w de si gn t r e nds i n
t he s e s e c t or s a nd s t a r t wor ki n g wi t h t he s e ne w c o mput e r s ys t e ms a nd de s i gn pa t t e r ns . W he n
t i me a nd r e s our c e s a re t i ght , i t i s c l e ar t ha t t he mos t i mpor t a nt t hi ng about a s ys t e m i s
f unc t i onal i t y, us abi l ity a nd pl e a s ur e , s o t ha t t hi ngs a r e e a s y t o l e a r n, e a s y t o do. HC I wi l l
unde r go a n abr upt c ha nge o ve r t he ne xt 5 -10 ye a r s and we ha ve t o pr epa r e our s el ve s f or
t hi s ne w c omi ng wor l d. The har s h r e a li t y t o e ndl e s s pr oble ms pus he s HCI de s i gne r s to
wor k mor e di l i ge nt l y wi t h l i ke -mi nde d a n d we l l -i nt ent i one d peopl e who f i nd me a ni ng i n
t r yi ng t o ma ke a be t te r wor l d. It ma y be a r oma nt i c be l i ef , but t he y s houl d be opt i mi s t ic
a nd hope f ul t o ma ke t omor r ow be t t e r da y.
“I f w e w ant us e r s t o l i ke our s of tw ar e , w e s houl d de s i gn i t t o be have l i ke a l i ke able
pe r s on: r e s pe c tf ul , ge ne r ous and he l pf ul .”
— Al an Coope r , Sof tw ar e De s i gne r and Pr ogr am m e r

22
 References:
[1 ] C a te g o rie s : 4 K U l t ra -H D (2 1 6 0 p ) E n g in e e rin g a n d T e c h n o lo g y ( 2 0 1 9 ) H u ma n C o mp u te r
In te ra c tio n H C I, A va il a b le a t: h ttp s :/ /p ix e lz . c c /i ma g e s /h u ma n -c o mp u te r -in te ra c tio n -h c i -u h d -4 k -
wa llp a p e r / (A c c e s s e d : 2 0 th O c to b e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[2 ]. B e th a n y A u s t in (2 0 1 9 ) 7 q u o te s th a t p ro v e yo u r b u s in e s s n e e d s d e s ig n th in k in g , A va i l a b le a t:
h ttp s :// me d iu m. c o m/s n a p o u t/7 -q u o te s -th a t -p r o ve -yo u r -b u s in e s s -n e e d s -d e s ig n -th in k in g -8 9 b 4 1 c 5 9 8 0 3 c
(A c c e s s e d : 2 0 th O c to b e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[3 ] D a n a S p ie g e l (1 9 9 8 ) 'H u ma n C o mp u te r In t e ra c tio n ', H u ma n C o mp u te r In te ra c t io n , (), p p . 1 -1 0
[O n lin e ]. A va ila b le a t : h ttp : //a lu mn i. me d ia . mit. e d u/~ sp ie g e l/p a p e rs / H C I. p d f (A c c e s s e d : 2 0 th
O c to b e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[4 ] In fo r ma t io n , P e o p le , a n d T e c h n o lo g y b y b y W ik ip e d ia , w ith h e l p fro m B a rt P u rs e l ( ) 3 4 H u ma n -
c o mp u te r In te ra c t io n , A va ila b le a t : h t tp s : //p s u . p b .u n iz in . o rg / is t1 1 0 / c h a p te r/5 -2 -h u ma n -c o mp u te r -
in te ra c tio n / (A c c e s s e d : 2 0 th O c to b e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[5 ] W ik ip e d ia , th e f re e e n c yc lo p e d ia (3 D e c e mb e r 2 01 9 ) H u ma n – c o mp u te r in te ra c tio n , A v a ila b le a t:
h ttp s ://e n . wik ip e d ia . o r g /wik i/H u ma n % E 2 % 8 0 % 9 3 c o mp u te r_ in te ra c t i o n (A c c e s s e d : 2 0 th
O c to b e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[6 ] IN T E RA C T IO N D ES IG N FO U ND AT IO N (2 0 1 9 ) U s e r In te r fa c e ( U I) D e s ig n , A va ila b le a t:
h ttp s :// ww w. in te ra c t io n -d e s ig n . o rg / li te ra tu re /to p ic s /u i -d e s ig n (A c c e s s e d : 2 1 th O c to b e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[7 ] D ix A la n , Fin la y J a n e t, A b o wd D . G re g o ry, B e a le R u s s e ll (2 0 0 9 , T h ird E d itio n ) H u ma n -C o mp u te r
in te ra c tio n . G o o g le B o o k s [O n lin e ]. A va ila b l e a t:
h ttp s ://b o o k s . g o o g le . c o . in /b o o k s ? id =O 0 u 0 6 Ks z v IE C &p g = P A 5 &lp g =P A 5 (A c c e s s e d : 2 1 s t O c to b e r,
2 0 1 9 ).
[8 ] H a a k o n S u n d b ø (2 01 6 ) In te rd is c ip lin a r y o ve r la p p in g f ie ld s o f In te ra c t io n D e s ig n . , A va i la b le a t :
h ttp s :// ww w. re s e a rc h g a te . n e t/ fig u re / In te rd i s c ip lin a r y-o ve rla p p in g -f i e ld s -o f -In te ra c tio n -
D e s ig n _ fig 1 _ 3 3 2 1 4 3 9 4 4 (A c c e s s e d : 2 1 s t O c to b e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[9 ] T u to ria lsp o in t (2 0 1 9 ) H u ma n C o mp u te r In te rfa c e In tro d u c t io n , A va i la b le a t:
h ttp s :// ww w. tu to ria lsp o in t. c o m/h u ma n _ c o mp u te r_ in te rfa c e /h u ma n _ c o mp u te r_ in te rfa c e _ in t ro d u c tio n . h
t m (A c c e s s e d : 2 1 th O c to b e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[1 0 ] E u p h e mia W o n g ( 2 0 1 9 ) S h n e id e r ma n ’s E ig h t G o ld e n R u le s W il l H e lp Y o u D e s ig n B e tt e r
In te rfa c e s , A va i la b le a t: h t tp s :// ww w. in te ra c t io n -d e s ig n . o rg /l ite ra tu re /a r tic le /s h n e id e r ma n -s -e ig h t -
g o ld e n -ru le s -w il l -h e lp -yo u -d e s ig n -b e t te r -in te r fa c e s (A c c e s s e d : 2 2 n d O c to b e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[1 1 ] S a c h in R e k h i (2 0 1 7 ) D o n N o rma n ’s P rin c ip le s o f In te ra c tio n D e s ig n , A va i la b le a t:
h ttp s :// me d iu m. c o m/@ s a c h in re k h i /d o n -n o r ma n s -p rin c ip le s -o f -in te ra c tio n -d e s ig n -5 1 0 2 5 a 2 c 0 f3 3
(A c c e s s e d : 2 2 n d O c to b e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[1 2 ] H . C . S o (2 0 0 8 ) HC I D e s ig n P ro c e s s : a n O ve r vie w, A va i la b le a t :
h ttp : // www. e e . c it yu . e d u . h k /~ h c s o /e e 4 2 1 3 _ c h 4 . p d f (A c c e s s e d : 2 3 rd O c to b e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[1 3 ] D ix A la n , Fin la y J a n e t, A b o wd D . G re g or y, B e a le R u s s e ll (2 0 0 9 ) T h e d e s ig n p ro c e s s , A va ila b le
a t: h t tp s :// ww w. h c ib o o k . c o m/h c ib o o k /d o wn lo a d s /p d f/s lid e s . 5 . p d f (A c c e s s e d : 2 3 rd O c to b e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[1 4 ] P re e c e , J . , R o g e rs, Y . , S h a rp , H . (2 0 0 2 ), In te ra c tio n D e s ig n : B e yo n d H u ma n -C o mp u te r
In te ra c tio n , N e w Y o rk : W ile y, p . 2 1 (2 0 0 7 ) S u mma r y o f D o n N o rma n ' s D e s ig n P rin c ip le s , A va i la b le
a t: h t tp s :// ww w. c s u n . e d u /s c ie n c e /c o u rs e s /6 7 1 /b ib l io g ra p h y/p re e c e . h t ml (A c c e s s e d : 2 3 rd O c to b e r,
2 0 1 9 ).
[1 5 ] W is d o mjo b s . c o m (2 0 1 8 ) D e s ig n P ro c e s s & T a s k A n a l ys i s - H u ma n C o mp u te r In te rfa c e ,
A va ila b le a t : h t tp s : // w ww. w is d o mjo b s . c o m/e -u n ive rs i t y/h u ma n -c o m p u te r -in te rfa c e -tu to ria l -
2 3 7 4 /d e s ig n -p ro c e s s -ta s k -a n a l ys i s -2 5 5 9 7 . h t ml (A c c e s s e d : 2 4 th O c to b e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[1 6 ] U s a b ili t yf irs t (2 0 1 5 ) H C I D e s ig n a p p ro a c h e s , A va i la b le a t :
h ttp : // www. u s a b il it yf ir s t. c o m/u s a b il it y -me th o d s /h c i -d e s ig n -a p p ro a c h e s / (A c c e s s e d : 2 4 th O c to b e r,
2 0 1 9 ).
[1 7 ] E b e rts , R . E . (1 9 9 4 ). U s e r in te r fa c e d e s i g n . E n g le wo o d C liffs , N J : P re n tic e H a ll. [2 ] C a rd , S . ,
M o ra n , T . , & N e we ll, A . (1 9 8 3 ). T h e p s yc h o l o g y o f h u ma n -c o mp u te r in te ra c t io n . H ills d a le , N J :
La wre n c e E r lb a u m A s s o c ia te s , 2 5 th O c to b e r, 2 0 1 9
[1 8 ] W e b B a rb a ra (2 0 1 7 ) H C I Le c tu re 1 : P rin c ip le s , A v a ila b le a t :
h ttp : // www. in f. e d . a c . u k /te a c h in g /c o u rs e s /h c i / 1 0 1 1 /le c s /1 _ p r in c ip le s . p d f (A c c e s s e d : 2 5 th O c to b e r,
2 0 1 9 ).
[1 9 ] H . S h a rp , Y . R o g ers & J . P re e c e (2 0 0 7 ) In te ra c t io n D e s ig n . J o h n W ile y & S o n s , C h ic h e s te r. id -
b o o k [O n lin e ]. A va i la b le a t : ww w. id -b o o k . c o m (A c c e s s e d : 2 5 th O c t o b e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[2 0 ] S h n e id e r ma n (1 9 8 7 ) D e s ig n in g th e u s e r i n te rfa c e : s t ra te g ie s fo r e ffe c t i ve h u ma n c o mp u te r
in te ra c tio n . A d d is o n -W e s le y, R e a d in g M A . [O n lin e ]. A va ila b le a t : (A c c e s s e d : 2 6 th O c to b e r, 2 0 1 9 ).

23
[2 1 ] S h i mo d a i ra H iro s h i (2 0 1 7 ) H C I Le c tu re 1 : P rin c ip le s , A va ila b l e a t:
h ttp : // www. in f. e d . a c . u k /te a c h in g /c o u rs e s /h c i / 1 1 1 2 /le c s /0 1 _ P rin c ip le s . p d f (A c c e s s e d : 2 6 th O c to b e r,
2 0 1 9 ).
[2 2 ] D r. S a b in -C o rn e li u B u ra g a – www. p u rl. o rg /n e t /b u s a c o , Fil ip V is n jic (C re a ti ve te c c h n o l o g ie s )
(2 0 1 4 ) H u ma n c o mp u te r in te ra c t io n d e s ig n me th o d s a n d me th o d o lo g i e s , A va i la b le a t:
h ttp s :// ww w. s l id e s h a re . n e t/b u s a c o /h c i -2 0 1 5 -3 1 0 -d e s ig n -me th o d o lo g i e s (A c c e s s e d : 2 7 th O c t o b e r,
2 0 1 9 ).
[2 3 ] Ze e P e d ia . c o m () L e c tu re 1 7 : H C I P ro c e s s a n d M e th o d o lo g ie s : Li fe c yc le M o d e ls in H C I,
A va ila b le a t :
h ttp s :// ww w. z e e p e d ia . c o m/re a d . p h p ? h c i_ p ro c es s_ a n d _ me th o d o lo g ie s _ life c yc le _ mo d e ls_ in _ h c i_ h ma n _
c o mp u te r_ in te ra c t io n & b = 1 1 &c = 1 7 (A c c e s s e d : 2 8 th O c to b e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[2 4 ] U s a b ili t y Fi rs t () H C I D e s ig n a p p ro a c h e s , A va i la b le a t: h t tp : // www. u s a b il it yf irs t. c o m/u s a b i li t y-
me th o d s /h c i -d e s ig n -a p p ro a c h e s / (A c c e s s e d : 2 9 th O c to b e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[2 5 ] C a rro l l, J . M . (2 0 0 3 ) H C I M o d e ls , T h e o r ie s , a n d Fra me wo rk s , A va ila b le a t :
"h t tp s : //e n . wik ib o o k s . o rg /w/ in d e x . p h p ? title = M o d e ls_ a n d _ T h e o rie s_ in _ H u ma n -
C o mp u te r_ In te ra c tio n / G O M S_ ma y_ b e _ u s e fu l , _ b u t_ is_ i t_ p ra c t ic a l % 3 F&o ld id = 3 0 9 3 1 5 3 " ( A c c e s s e d :
2 9 th O c to b e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[2 6 ] P h ilin e W a rn k e , Ke rs tin C u h l s , U lric h S c h mo c h , Le a D a n ie l Fra u n h o fe r IS I, Li viu A n d r e e s c u ,
B ia n c a D ra g o mi r, R a d u G h e o rg h iu , C a ta lin a B a b o s c h i, A d ria n C u ra j In s t itu tu l d e
P ro sp e c tivă , M a r ju k k a P a rk k in e n , O s mo Ku u s iU n ive r s i t y o f T u rk u ( 2 0 1 9 ) '1 0 0 R a d ic a l In n o va t io n
B re a k th ro u g h s fo r th e fu tu re ', 1 0 0 R a d ic a l In n o va t io n B re a k th ro u g h s fo r th e fu tu re , KI-0 1 -1 9 -8 8 6 -
E N -N (S B N 9 7 8 -9 2 -7 6 -1 3 0 4 5 -1 ), p p . 1 -2 0 [O n lin e ]. A va i la b le a t :
h ttp s ://e c . e u ro p a . e u / in fo /s i te s /in fo /f ile s /re s e a rc h_ a n d _ in n o va tio n /k n o wle d g e _ p u b lic a tio n s _ to o ls_ a n d
_ d a ta /d o c u me n ts /e c _ r t d _ ra d ic a l -in n o va t io n -b re a k th rou g h _ 0 5 2 0 1 9 . p d f (A c c e s s e d : 3 1 s t O c t o b e r,
2 0 1 9 ).
[2 7 ] g e ts ma rte r (N o ve mb e r 2 8 , 2 0 1 8 ) 1 4 h u ma n c o mp u te r in te ra c tio n e x a mp le s , A va ila b le a t:
h ttp s :// ww w. g e ts ma rte r. c o m/b lo g / ma rk e t -t re n d s /1 4 -h u ma n -c o mp u te r -in te ra c tio n -e x a mp le s /
(A c c e s s e d : 1 s t N o ve m b e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[2 8 ] H a n s e l ma n S c o tt ( D e c e mb e r 1 , 2 0 1 3 ) H u ma n C o mp u te r In te ra c t io n D ive r s i t y - 7 D e v ic e s th a t
A R EN 'T a mo u s e a n d k e yb o a rd , A va ila b le a t :
h ttp s :// ww w. h a n s e l ma n . c o m/b lo g /H u ma n C o mp u te r In te ra ct io n D ive rs i t y7 D e v ic e s T h a tA R E NTA M o u s e A
n d Ke yb o a rd . a sp x (A c c e s s e d : 2 n d N o ve mb e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[2 9 ] S a n to s A n a (1 6 A p r 2 0 1 8 ) 8 G o ld e n R u le s fo r b e t te r In te rfa c e D e s ig n , A va ila b le a t :
h ttp s :// we b d e s ig n . tu tsp lu s . c o m/a rt ic le s /8 -g o ld e n -ru le s -fo r -b e tte r -in te rfa c e -d e s ig n --c ms -3 0 8 8 6
(A c c e s s e d : 2 n d N o ve mb e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[3 0 ] M ye rs B ra d A . (J u l y 1 9 9 3 ) 'W h y a re H u ma n -C o mp u te r In te rfa c e s D iffic u lt to D e s ig n a n d
Imp le me n t? ', W h y a re H u ma n -C o mp u te r In te r fa c e s D iff ic u lt to D e s i g n a n d Imp le me n t? , CM U -C S -9 3 -
1 8 3 (), p p . 1 -1 5 [O n lin e ]. A va i la b le a t: h ttp s : //w ww. c s . c mu . e d u /~ b a m/p a p e rs /W h yH a rd -C M U -C S -9 3 -
1 8 3 . p d f (A c c e s s e d : 2 n d N o ve mb e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[3 1 ] In te ra c t io n D e s ig n Fo u n d a tio n () U s e r In te rfa c e (U I) D e s ig n , A va ila b le a t :
h ttp s :// ww w. in te ra c t io n -d e s ig n . o rg / li te ra tu re /to p ic s /u i -d e s ig n (A c c e s s e d : 4 th N o ve mb e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[3 2 ] B ie lle r E ric (2 0 1 8 ) W h a t 's T h e Fu tu re o f H u ma n -C o mp u te r In te ra c tio n (H C I)? , A va ila b le a t:
h ttp s ://c a re e rfo u n d r y. c o m/e n /b lo g /u i -d e s ig n / t h e -fu tu re -o f -h u ma n -c o mp u te r -in te ra c tio n -wh a ts -n e x t /
(A c c e s s e d : 5 th N o ve mb e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[3 3 ] Iq b a l M u b a s h a r (2 0 1 5 ) wh a t’s T h e Fu tu re o f H u ma n -C o mp u te r In te r a c tio n (H C I)? , A va ila b le
a t: h t tp s :// mu b a s h a r iq b a lh c i. wo rd p re s s . c o m/2 0 1 5 /1 2 /2 1 /h c i -th e o r ie s -c o n c lu s io n s / (A c c e s s e d : 5 th
N o ve mb e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[3 4 ] R its o J a a k (2 0 1 6 ) C o n c lu s io n o f H C I T h e o r y, A va il a b le a t : h t tp : //b lo g . ja a k ri ts o . c o m/c o n c lu s io n -
o f -h c i -th e o r y/ (A c c e s s e d : 6 th N o ve mb e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[3 5 ] S h n e id r ma n B e n ( ) Fu tu re D ire c tio n s fo r H u ma n -C o mp u te r In te ra c tio n , A va ila b le a t :
h ttp s :// ww w. c s . u md . e d u /~ b e n /p a p e rs /S h n e id e r ma n 1 9 9 0 Fu tu re . p d f ( A c c e s s e d : 6 th N o ve mb e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[3 6 ] T h e N a tio n a l A c a d e mic P re s s () 7 — C o n c lu s io n s a n d R e c o mme n d a tio n s , A va ila b le a t :
h ttp s :// ww w. n a p . e d u /re a d /5 7 8 0 /c h a p te r /9 (A c c e s s e d : 7 th N o ve mb e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[3 7 ] E l mq vis t N ik la s ( 2 0 1 6 ) G ra n d C h a lle n g e s fo r H C I R e s e a rc h e r s , A va ila b le a t :
h ttp s :// s i te s . u mia c s . u md . e d u /e l m/2 0 1 6 /1 0 /1 8 / g ra n d -ch a lle n g e s -fo r -h c i -re s e a rc h e rs / (A c c e s s e d : 8 th
N o ve mb e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[3 8 ] S h n e id e r ma n B e n , P la is a n t C a th e rin e , C o h e n M a x in e , J a c o b s Ste ve n , E l mq vis t N ik la s ,
D ia k o p o u lo s N ic h o lo a s (2 0 1 6 ) G ra n d c h a lle n g e s fo r H C I re s e a rc h e rs , A va ila b le a t :

24
h ttp s :// in te ra c t io n s . a c m. o rg /a rc h i ve / vie w/ s e p te mb e r -o c to b e r -2 0 1 6 / g ra n d -c h a lle n g e s -fo r -h c i -
re s e a rc h e rs (A c c e s s e d : 8 th N o ve mb e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[3 9 ] P a o lo M o n tu s c h i, A n d re a S a n n a , Fa b r iz i o La mb e r ti, a n d G ia n lu c a P a ra va ti (2 0 1 4 ) H u ma n -
C o mp u te r In te ra c tio n : P re s e n t a n d Fu tu re T re n d s , A va ila b le a t :
h ttp s ://c o mp u tin g n o w . c o mp u te r. o rg / we b /c o mp u tin g n o w/a rc h i ve / s e p t e mb e r2 0 1 4 (A c c e s s e d : 9 th
N o ve mb e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[4 0 ] S ia n g T e o (2 0 1 9 ) B a d D e s ig n vs . G o o d D e s ig n : 5 E x a mp le s we c a n le a rn fro m, A va i la b le a t:
h ttp s :// ww w. in te ra c t io n -d e s ig n . o rg / li te ra tu re /a rt icle /b a d -d e s ig n -vs -g o o d -d e s ig n -5 -e x a mp l e s -we -c a n -
le a rn -f ro mb a d -d e s ig n -vs -g o o d -d e s ig n -5 -e x a mp le s -we -c a n -le a rn -f r o m-1 3 0 7 0 6 (A c c e s s e d : 9 th
N o ve mb e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[4 1 ] E n g in e s s (2 0 1 8 ) W h a t is Ite ra ti ve D e s ig n? (a n d wh y yo u s h o u l d u s e it), A va i la b le a t:
h ttp s :// ww w. e n g in e s s . i o /in s ig h ts /wh a t -is -i te r a ti ve -d e s ig n (A c c e s s e d : 1 0 th N o ve mb e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[4 2 ] B ra d A . M ye rs (1 9 9 4 ) C h a lle n g e s o f H C I D e s ig n a n d Imp le me n ta tio n , A va i la b le a t:
h ttp : //c ite s e e rx . is t. p s u . e d u /v ie wd o c /d o wn lo a d ? d o i= 1 0 . 1 . 1 . 1 15 . 8 5 6 2&re p = re p 1 &t yp e = p d f ( A c c e s s e d :
1 1 th N o ve mb e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[4 3 ] O p ti miz e S ta r t () A /B T e s tin g o r U s a b ili t y T e s tin g , wh ic h o n e i s b e tte r , A va i la b le a t:
h ttp s :// ww w. o p ti miz e s ma rt. c o m/a b -te s t in g -u s a b ili t y-t e s t in g -o n e -b e t t e r/ (A c c e s s e d : 1 1 th N o ve mb e r,
2 0 1 9 ).
[4 4 ] H u a n g Ku o -Y in g ( 2 0 0 9 ) 'C h a lle n g e s in H u ma n -C o mp u te r In te ra c tio n D e s ig n fo r M o b il e
D e vic e s ', C h a lle n g e s i n H u ma n -C o mp u te r In t e ra c tio n D e s ig n fo r M o b ile D e v ic e s , IS B N : 9 7 8 -9 8 8 -
1 7 0 1 2 -6 -8 ( W C E C S 2 0 0 9 ), p p . 2 3 6 -2 4 1 [O n l i n e ]. A va i la b le a t:
h ttp : // www. ia e n g . o rg /p u b lic a t io n /W C E C S 2 0 09 /W C E C S 2 00 9 _ p p 2 3 6 -2 4 1 . p d f (A c c e s s e d : 1 2 h
N o ve mb e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[4 5 ] W ik ib o o k s (2 0 1 6 ) M o d e ls a n d T h e o rie s i n H u ma n -C o mp u te r In t e ra c tio n /G O M S ma y b e u s e fu l,
b u t is it p ra c tic a l? , A va ila b le a t: h ttp s :/ /e n . w ik ib o o k s . o rg / wik i/M o d e ls_ a n d _ T h e o rie s_ in _ H u ma n -
C o mp u te r_ In te ra c tio n / G O M S_ ma y_ b e _ u s e fu l , _ b u t_ is_ i t_ p ra c t ic a l% 3 F (A c c e s s e d : 1 3 th N o ve mb e r,
2 0 1 9 ).
[4 6 ] A la n D ix , J a n e t Fi n la y, G re g o r y D . A b o wd , R u s s e ll B e a le (2 0 0 4 ) H u ma n – C o mp u te r in t e ra c tio n .
h ttp s :// fa c u l t y. p s a u . e d u . s a [O n lin e ]. A va ila b l e a t: h t tp s :/ /fa c u l t y. p s a u . e d u . s a › fi le d o wn lo a d › d o c -
1 0 -p d f -f5 a 6 5 5 6 2 2 5 b b 4 e 8 (A c c e s s e d : 1 4 th N o ve mb e r, 2 0 1 9 ) .
[4 7 ] B ro wn le e J o h n (2 0 1 6 ) 8 In c re d ib le P ro t o t yp e s T h a t S h o w T h e Fu tu re o f H u ma n -C o mp u te r
In te ra c tio n , A va ila b le a t: h t tp s :// ww w. fa s tc o mp a n y.c o m/3 0 5 9 8 4 8 /8 -in c re d ib le -p ro to t yp e s -t h a t -s h o w -
th e -fu tu re -o f -h u ma n -c o mp u te r -in te ra c tio n (A c c e s s e d : 1 5 th N o ve mb e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[4 8 ] D ix , Fin la y, A b o wd B e a le () H u ma n -C o mp u te r In te ra c t io n , 4 e : E g o , E mo tio n a n d E x p e rie n c e ,
A va ila b le a t : h t tp s : //h c ib o o k . c o m/e 4 /c h a p te rs / e mo tio n / (A c c e s s e d : 1 5 th N o ve mb e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[4 9 ] J o h n M . C a rro ll ( 2 0 0 1 ) T h e e vo lu t io n o f H u ma n -C o mp u te r In te ra c tio n , A va ila b le a t :
h ttp : // www. in fo r mi t. c o m/a r tic le s /a rtic le . a sp x ? p= 2 4 10 3 (A c c e s s e d : 1 6 th N o ve mb e r, 2 0 1 9 ).
[5 0 ] S e n ic (2 0 1 5 ) T h e Fu tu re o f H u ma n C o mp u te r In te ra c t io n , A va i l a b le a t:
h ttp s :// me d iu m. c o m/s e n ic -g mb h / th e -fu tu re -o f -h u ma n -co mp u te r -in te r a c tio n -9 e 1 f1 a 4 d 9 4 8 e ( A c c e s s e d :
1 7 th N o ve mb e r, 2 0 1 9 ).

25