Laboratory Manual

Applied Physics

BSc. Electrical Engineering

(2020-2024)

Submitted By
Name:
Roll No:

Submitted to

Engr. Huma Iqbal

Department Of Electrical Engineering

College of Engineering & Technology
University of Sargodha

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Lab Safety Rules
If proper procedures are followed, the electronics lab is a safe place in which to work. There are some
basic rules:

1. No food or drink is allowed in lab at any time.

2. Liquids are of particular danger as they are ordinarily conductive.
3. While the circuitry used in lab is normally of no shock hazard.
4. Spilling a bottle of water or soda onto such equipment could leave the experimenter in the
receiving end of a severe shock.
5. Similarly, items such as books and jackets should not be left on top of the test equipment as it
could cause overheating.
6. In the event of an emergency, all test equipment may be powered off through this one switch.
Further, the benches are controlled by dedicated circuit breakers in the front of the lab. Next to this
main power panel is an A/B/C class fire extinguisher suitable for electrical fires. Located at the
rear of the lab is a safety kit.
7. This contains bandages, cleaning swaps and the like for small cuts and the like. For serious injury,
the Security Office will be contacted.
8. A lab bench should always be left in a secure mode. This means that the power to each piece of test
equipment should be turned off, the bench itself should be turned off, all AC and DC power and
signal sources should be turned down to zero, and all other equipment and components properly
stowed with lab stools pushed under the bench.
9. It is important to come prepared to lab. This includes the class text, the lab exercise for that day,
class notebook, calculator, and hand tools.

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 Lab Contents

Lab No Lab Title Page No.

1 The Simple Pendulum 4

2 Center of Gravity 9

3 Drawing Magnetic Curves 14

4 Reed Relay and Solid State Relay 18

5 Faraday‟s Laws and Lenz‟s Law 22

6 Self-Induction and Mutual Induction 26

7 Ampere‟s Right Hand Grip Rule 30

8 Resistor Color Coding 33

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9 OHM‟s Law

10 Resistors in Series and Parallel 43

11 Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode 46

12 Half Wave Rectifier 50

13 First law of Thermodynamics 54

14 Design Project

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 Experiment No. 1: The Simple Pendulum

1. Objective
Determine the time period (T) of simple pendulum.
2. Apparatus
 Supporting rod
 String
 Table clamp
 Stop watch
 Bob
 Vernier caliper
 Scale

3. Theory
A simple pendulum may be described ideally as a point mass suspended by a massless string from some
point about which it is allowed to swing back and forth in a place. A simple pendulum can be
approximated by a small metal sphere which has a small radius and a large mass when compared
relatively to the length and mass of the light string from which it is suspended. If a pendulum is set in
motion so that is swings back and forth, its motion will be periodic. The time that it takes to make one
complete oscillation is defined as the period T. Another useful quantity used to describe periodic motion
is the frequency of oscillation. The frequency f of the oscillations is the number of oscillations that occur
per unit time and is the inverse of the period, f = 1/T. Similarly, the period is the inverse of the frequency,
T = l/f. The maximum distance that the mass is displaced from its equilibrium position is defined as the
amplitude of the oscillation.

When a simple pendulum is displaced from its equilibrium position, there will be a restoring force that
moves the pendulum back towards its equilibrium position. As the motion of the pendulum carries it past
the equilibrium position, the restoring force changes its direction so that it is still directed towards the
equilibrium position. If the restoring force ⃗ is opposite and directly proportional to the displacement x
from the equilibrium position, so that it satisfies the relationship,

⃗ ⃗ (1.1)
Then the motion of the pendulum will be simple harmonic motion and its period can be calculated using
the equation for the period of simple harmonic motion

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 √ (1.2)

It can be shown that if the amplitude of the motion is kept small, Equation (1.2) will be satisfied and the
motion of a simple pendulum will be simple harmonic motion, and Equation (1.2) can be used.

a b c
Figure 1.1: Illustration of the restoring force for simple pendulum

The restoring force for a simple pendulum is supplied by the vector sum of the gravitational force on the
mass, mg and the tension in the string, T. The magnitude of the restoring force depends on the
gravitational force and the displacement of the mass from the equilibrium position. Consider Figure 1.1
where a mass m is suspended by a string of length l and is displaced from its equilibrium position by an
angle θ and a distance x along the arc through which the mass moves. The gravitational force can be
resolved into two components, one along the radial direction, away from the point of suspension, and one
along the arc in the direction that the mass moves. The component of the gravitational force along the arc
provides the restoring force F and is given by
(1.3)
Where g is the acceleration of gravity, θ is the angle the pendulum is displaced, and the minus sign
indicates that the force is opposite to the displacement. For small amplitudes where θ is small, sinθ can be
approximated by θ measured in radians so that Equation (1.3) can be written as
(1.4)

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The angle θ in radians is , the arc length divided by the length of the pendulum or the radius of the circle

in which the mass moves. The restoring force is then given by

(1.5)

and is directly proportional to the displacement x and is in the form of Equation (1.1) where .

Substituting this value of k into Equation (1.2), the period of a simple pendulum can be found by

√ (1.6)
⁄

√ (1.7)

Therefore, for small amplitudes the period of a simple pendulum depends only on its length and the value
of the acceleration due to gravity.

4. Procedure
1. Use a vernier caliper to measure the diameter d of the spherical ball and from this calculate its
radius r. Record the values of the diameter and radius in meters in the table 1.1.
2. Adjust the length of the pendulum to 400 mm. The length of the simple pendulum is the distance
from the point of suspension to the center of the ball. Measure the length of the string ls from the
point of suspension to the top of the ball using a meter stick. Record this value for the length of
the string in the table 1.1. Add the radius of the ball to the string length ls and record that value as
the length l of the pendulum in the table 1.1.
l = ls + r (1.8)
3. Displace the pendulum about 5º from its equilibrium position and let it swing back and forth.
Measure the total time that it takes to make 20 complete oscillations. Record that time in the table
1.1.
4. Increase the length of the pendulum by 100mm and repeat the measurements made in the
previous steps until the length increases to approximately 800 mm.
5. Calculate the period of the oscillations for each length by dividing the total time by the number of
oscillations, 20. Record the values in the appropriate column of your data table 1.1.
6. Graph the period of the pendulum as a function of its length and place in Figure 1.2. The length
of the pendulum is the independent variable and should be plotted on the horizontal axis or
abscissa (x axis). The period is the dependent variable and should be plotted on the vertical axis
or ordinate (y axis).
7. Compare your measured time period T with the calculated value of T by using Equation 1.7 and
record the %Difference in the table. The value of g on earth is 9.8 m/s2.

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 Table 1.1: Observations and Calulations
Length Time
Length of
of Time for 20 Time Period Period
Pendulum %Difference
S# String Oscillations (S) (Theoretical
l= lS + r ( )
lS (S) values)
(mm)
(mm) (S)
1 400
2 500
3 600
4 700
5 800

Figure 1.2: The Time Period versus Length of Simple pendulum

5. Questions
1. How would the period of a simple pendulum be affected if it were located on the moon instead of the
earth?

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2. What effect does the mass of the ball have on the period of a simple pendulum? What would be the
effect of replacing the steel ball with a wooden ball, a lead ball, and a ping pong ball of the same size?

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3. Examine your graph of Figure 1.2 and describe the change in the period per unit length.

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6. Conclusions

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 Experiment No. 2: Center of Gravity

1. Objective
Find the center of gravity of regular and irregular shapes.
2. Apparatus
 Regular Shapes
 Irregular Shapes
 Suspension Board
 Plumb Bob
 Cord

3. Theory
The center of gravity (CG) of a body is the point at which its weight is concentrated. This point may be
within or outside the body. This is the point where it balances itself when on knife-edge support. Locating
the center of gravity of an object is very important in our daily lives. The earth pulls down on each
particle of an object with a gravitational force that we call weight. The net effect is as if the total weight
of the object were concentrated in a single point. In general, determining the center of gravity (CG) is a
complicated procedure because the (mass and weight) may not be uniformly distributed throughout the
object. The general case requires the use of calculus.

If the mass is uniformly distributed; the problem is greatly simplified. If the object has a line or plane of
symmetry, the CG lies on the line of symmetry. For a solid block of uniform material, the center of
gravity is simply at the average location of the physical dimensions. Regularly shaped bodies have CG at
their geometric centers. In irregular elongated bodies CG can be located by balancing method. While,
irregular flat bodies like a sheet model or board center of CG is located by locating two or more plumb
lines from different points of suspension. The interaction of these plumb lines is the center of gravity.

4. Center of Gravity of Regular Shapes

a. Circle
The center of gravity (CG) of a circle lies at the center of circle (at the midpoint). The radius of a circle is
measure of its center of gravity as shown in the Figure 2.1.

(2.1)
Where G is the center of gravity and r is the radius of circle.

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 Figure 2.1: Center of Gravity of Circle
b. Trapezium
The center of gravity of the trapezium shown in Figure 2.2 with parallel sides „a‟ and „b‟ is given by the
Equation (2.2)

(2.2)

Figure 2.2: Center of Gravity of Trapezium

c. Triangle
The center of gravity G of a triangle lies at a point where the three medians of the triangle intersect as
shown in Figure 2.3 and given by the Equation (2.3).

⁄ (2.3)

Figure 2.3: Center of Gravity of Triangle

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d. Semi-Circle
The center of gravity G of a semi-circle shown in Figure 2.4 lies at distance given by Equation (2.3) from
its base measured along the vertical radius.

(2.4)

Figure 2.4: Center of Gravity of Semi-Circle

5. Procedure (The Plumb Line Method)

1. You have received different shapes of material. The shapes of regular object and irregular object
were cut out from the acrylic pieces.
2. Small holes at non-collinear points were punched on each sample e.g. circle, semi-circle, triangle,
trapezium and some irregular shapes.
3. Suspend the sample of circle on the board supplied with the apparatus at the suspending pin at the
top center of the body.
4. Hang the sample loosely from the support and it should not touch any surface.
5. Suspend a plumb bob from the support with the cord extending down in front of main body and
suspending sample.
6. Drawn a line on the sample along the path of the cord.
7. Remove the sample and suspend again through another hole and draw the line again.
8. Mark the intersection of two lines as CG (center of Gravity).
9. Repeat the above procedure for the other regular and irregular shapes to get the center of gravity.
10. For the regular shapes (circle, semi-circle, triangle, trapezium) record the measured CG in Table
2.1.
11. Calculate the theatrical values of CG for circle, trapezium, triangle and semi-circle by using the
Equations (2.1), (2.2), (2.3) and (2.4) respectively.
12. Record the theoretical values in the Table 2.2 and compare these with the measured values.

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 Table 2.1
Theoretical value Practical Value
S# Shape Formula
(cm) (cm)
1 Circle
2 Trapezium
3 Triangle ⁄
4 Semi-Circle

Figure 2.5: Center of Gravity of Triangle

6. Lab Tasks
1. Draw an equilateral triangle in Figure 2.5 having one side length of 5 cm and find its center of
gravity?

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2. Increase the number of tested holes of trapezium and observes the effect.

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7. Conclusions

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 Experiment No. 3: Drawing Magnetic Curves

1. Objective
Examine the magnetic field associated with a bar magnet and construct the magnetic field lines.
2. Apparatus
 Magnetic Bar
 Compass needle

3. Theory
Magnetism is a class of physical phenomena that is mediated by magnetic fields. Electric currents and the
magnetic moments of elementary particles give rise to a magnetic field, which acts on other currents and
magnetic moments. The most familiar effects occur in ferromagnetic materials, which are strongly
attracted by magnetic fields and can be magnetized to become permanent magnets, producing magnetic
fields themselves. Only a few substances are ferromagnetic; the most common ones are iron, cobalt and
nickel and their alloys. The prefix ferro- refers to iron, because permanent magnetism was first observed
in lodestone, a form of natural iron ore called magnetite, Fe3O4.
The direction of the magnetic field at any point in space can be measured by placing a small compass at
that point; the N pole of the compass will point in the direction of the magnetic field. Pictorial
representations of magnetic fields are usually produced by drawing magnetic field lines. The field line
passing through any point in space must be parallel to the magnetic field at that point. Small arrowheads
are usually drawn on the field lines to indicate the field direction. Since the field can only point in one
direction at one point in space, field lines can never cross. Magnetic field lines always make complete
loops, and field lines are closest together where the magnetic field strength is largest.
Magnetic field strength is measured in units of (N/C)/ (m/s). This combination of units is called a tesla
(T). The Earth's magnetic field at the location of Tempe points roughly towards geographic North with a
strength of about 20-50 µT. The field strength near the end of a common bar magnet is typically hundreds
of times larger than the field of the Earth. Following are the properties of magnet,
1. Attractive Property: Magnet attracts ferromagnetic materials like iron, cobalt, and nickel.
2. Repulsive Property: Like magnetic poles repel each other and unlike magnetic poles attract each
other.
3. Directive Property: A freely suspended magnet always points in a north-south direction.

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 Figure 3.1: Setup for Constructing Magnetic Field Lines of a Bar Magnet

Figure 3.2: Direction of Compass Placed Near Bar Magnet

4. Procedure
1. Tape a sheet of paper to your lab table with the long edge of the paper as shown in the Figure 3.1,
and stay far away from any iron objects.
2. The arrow on the compass is magnetic and will experience a torque so that the North pole of the
compass will point in the direction of the Earth‟s magnetic field if no other magnetic fields are
present.
3. Determine which ends of your magnet are north or south magnetic poles. Place the compass near
the bar magnet, the North pole of your compass will point toward the South pole of the bar
magnet or away from the North pole when placed as shown in Figure 3.2.
4. Trace the bar magnet on the paper, then remove the magnet so that you can indicate on the paper
the S and N pole locations of the magnet, and finally replace the magnet.
5. Place a compass near one end of the magnet. Make two dots on the paper, one at the end of the
compass needle next to the magnet and the second at the other end of the compass needle.
6. Move the compass so that the end of the needle that was next to the magnet is directly over the
second dot, and make a new dot at the other end of the needle.
7. Continue this process until the compass comes back to the magnet or leaves the edge of the paper.

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 8. Draw a line through the dots and indicate with an arrowhead the direction in which the North end
of the needle pointed, as shown below in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3: Constructing Magnetic Field Lines

Figure 3.4: Magnetic Field Lines

5. Lab Tasks:
1. Repeat the process described above, when the compass touching the magnet approximately 1 cm
in from the same end of the magnet that you used above and draw the field lines of bar magnet
in Figure 3.4.
2. Using a clean portion of the paper (or turn the paper over, or get a new piece of paper), arrange
compasses and two magnets as shown in Figure 3.5 below. Allow enough room between the
magnet poles to place three compasses roughly as shown below. Sketch the compass needles‟
directions in the diagram. Based on these compass directions

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 Figure 3.5: Two Magnets With Opposite Poles Facing Each Other
6. Conclusions

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 Experiment No. 4: Reed Relay and Solid State Relay

1. Objective
a. Understand the construction of Reed Relay and Solid State Relay
b. Operate Reed Relay and Solid State Relay
2. Apparatus
 Magnetic Bar
 IT-100 and IT-100A Trainer
 12V AC Lamp
 2mm Patch Cords
 Digital Multi-meter

3. Theory
A relay is a switching device as it works to isolate or change the state of an electric circuit from one state
to another. These are found in all sorts of devices. Relays allow one circuit to switch over to a second
circuit that can be completely separated from the first. There is no electrical connection inside the relay
between the two circuits – the link is magnetic, optical and mechanical only.

3.1. Reed Relay

A reed relay is a type of relay that uses an electromagnet to control one or more reed switches. The
contacts are of magnetic material and the electromagnet acts directly on them without requiring an
armature to move them. They are comprised of at least two overlapping blades, or reeds, which are sealed
within a gas-filled capsule as shown in the Figure 4.1. When the metal coil surrounding the reeds is
energized, the reed contacts are drawn together and the switch closes. When the coil is de-energized, the
spring force in the reeds pulls them apart and opens the switch.
A reed relay's contacts are much smaller and lighter than those of a typical electromechanical relay,
resulting in a lightweight product capable of fast switching. However, the small sizes of reed relay
contacts make them especially susceptible to contact damage due to arcing. Arcing often melts a small
section of one contact to the other contact, resulting in a bond that is too strong for the reed's spring action
to reverse.

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 Figure 4.1: Construction of Reed Relay

3.2. Solid State Relay

A solid-state relay (SSR) is an electronic switching device that switches on or off when a small external
voltage is applied across its control terminals. SSRs consist of a sensor which responds to an appropriate
input (control signal), a solid-state electronic switching device which switches power to the load circuitry,
and a optical coupling mechanism to enable the control signal to activate this switch without mechanical
parts as shown in the Figure 4.2. The relay may be designed to switch either AC or DC to the load. It
serves the same function as an electromechanical relay, but has no moving parts.
Packaged solid-state relays use power semiconductor devices such as triac, thyristors and transistors, to
switch currents up to around a hundred amperes. Solid-state relays have fast switching speeds compared
with electromechanical relays, and have no physical contacts to wear out. Application of solid-state relays
must consider their lower ability to withstand momentary overload, compared with electromechanical
contacts, and their higher "on" state resistance. Unlike an electromechanical relay, a solid-state relay
provides only limited switching arrangements (SPST switching).

Figure 4.2: Circuit Diagram of SSR

4. Procedure
1. Locate the Reed relay block on IT-100A trainer.
2. Construct the circuit as shown in the Figure 4.3.
3. Apply the +5V to coil terminals (TP18 and TP19) through the switch SPDT as shown the Figure
4.3.

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4. Switch ON the power and observe the status of Lamp.
5. Measure the resistance of the switch as shown in the Figure 4.4 and record in the Table 4.1.
6. Switch OFF the power and measure the resistance of the switch and record in the Table 4.1.
7. Locate the SSR block on IT-100A trainer.
8. Construct the circuit as shown in the Figure 4.5.
9. Connect the variable power supply to the terminals (TP22 and TP23) as shown in the Figure 4.5.
10. Slowly increase the power supply voltage until SSR and lamp are turned ON.
11. Measure the power supply voltage and record in the Table 4.1.

Figure 4.3: Connection Diagram of Reed Relay

Figure 4.4: Measuring Resistance of Reed Switch

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 Figure 4.5: Connection Diagram of Solid State relay

Table 4.1
Reed Relay Solid State Relay
Switch Status Resistance of Switch (Ω)
ON Power Supply Voltage= _____V
OFF

6. Lab Tasks:
1. Locate the Reed switch block on IT-100A trainer and connect the Lamp and 12V AC with the
Reed switch. Operate the Reed switch with the help of magnet and conclude your observations.

7. Conclusions

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 Experiment No. 5: Faraday’s Law and Lenz’s Law

1. Objective
Verify Faraday‟s law and Lenz‟s law.
2. Apparatus
 Magnetic Bar
 IT-100 and IT-100B Trainer
 2mm Patch Cords

3. Theory
Faraday‟s law of electromagnetic induction (referred to as Faraday‟s law) is a basic law of
electromagnetism predicting how a magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to produce an
electromotive force (EMF). This phenomenon is known as electromagnetic induction.
Michael Faraday formulated two laws on the basis of experiments. These laws are called Faraday‟s laws
of electromagnetic induction. Faraday‟s First Law states that any change in the magnetic field of a coil of
wire will cause an e.m.f to be induced in the coil. This e.m.f induced is called induced e.m.f and if the
conductor circuit is closed, the current will also circulate through the circuit and this current is called
induced current. Methods to change the magnetic field are,
 By moving a magnet towards or away from the coil
 By moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field
 By changing the area of a coil placed in the magnetic field
 By rotating the coil relative to the magnet
Faraday‟s Second Law states that the magnitude of e.m.f induced in the coil is equal to the rate of change
of flux that linkages with the coil. The flux linkage of the coil is the product of the number of turns in the
coil and flux associated with the coil.
Lenz‟s law of electromagnetic induction states that the direction of this induced current will be such that
the magnetic field created by the induced current opposes the initial changing magnetic field which
produced it. The direction of this current flow can be determined using Fleming‟s right-hand rule.
Faraday‟s law of induction explains the working principle of transformers, motors, generators, and
inductors. The law is named after Michael Faraday, who performed an experiment with a magnet and a
coil. During Faraday‟s experiment, he discovered how EMF is induced in a coil when the flux passing
through the coil changes.
According to Faraday‟s law of electromagnetic induction, the rate of change of flux linkage is equal to
induced e.m.f as given in Equation 5.1.

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 5.1

Considering Lenz‟s Law,

Where,
Flux in Wb = B.A
B = magnetic field strength
A = area of the coil

We can demonstrate these phenomena by considering the relative motion between a movable magnet and
a stationary coil as shown in Figure 5.1. When the magnet is put in the coil, the coil produces a magnetic
field with the same pole as the end pole of magnet on the left and trying to prevent the magnet in and the
induced current causes the pointer of Galvanometer to deflect to one side. If the magnet is putting, out the
coil, the coil will produce a magnetic field with the opposite pole to the pole of magnet on the left end
trying to prevent the magnet out and the induced the pointer of Galvanometer to deflect to the other side
illustrated Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.1: Movement against Repulsion

Figure 5.2: Movement against Attraction

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4. Procedure
1. Locate the Lenz‟s block on IT-100B trainer.
2. Connect the both ends of coil to the Galvanometer located on IT-100 trainer.
3. Bring the magnet close to the coil and observe the deflection in galvanometer.
4. Move in and out the magnet in the coil and observe the current indication on Galvanometer.
5. Change the moving speed of the magnet and observe the indication to the Galvanometer.
6. Record your observations in the Table 5.1.

Table 5.1
S. No. Position of Magnet Deflection in Galvanometer

1 Magnet at rest

2 Magnet moves towards the coil

Magnet is held stationary at same position

3
(near the coil)

4 Magnet moves away from the coil

Magnet is held stationary at the same

5
position (away from the coil)

5. Questions:
1. How the induced e.m.f in a coil can be increased?

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2. What is the relationship between induced e.m.f and moving speed of magnet?

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6. Conclusions

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 Experiment No. 6: Self Induction and Mutual Induction

1. Objective
Verify the phenomenon of self-induction and mutual induction.
2. Apparatus
 IT-100, IT-100B Trainer
 2mm Patch Cords
 12V AC Lamp

3. Theory
3.1 Self-Induction
Any change in current causes an expansion or collapsing of the magnetic field around a conductor, which
in turn induces an e.m.f. in the conductor. This phenomenon is self-induction induction. The magnitude of
the self-induced e.m.f. is proportional to the amplitude and frequency of the current. By Lenz's Law, we
can also find the relationship between the induced e.m.f. and the applied voltage that causes the current
flow is such that the two voltages are always 180 degrees out of phase.
Since the magnitude of the magnetic flux is proportional to the magnitude of current in the coil. The self-
induced e.m.f. of coil can be expressed by the Equation 6.1. Of course, the magnetic field of a coil can be
made stronger, more flux lines too, by keeping a soft iron core inside the coil.

(6.1)

Where L is the inductance of the coil due to which it opposes the change of current flowing through it.
Inductance is attained by a coil due to the self-induced e.m.f produced in the coil itself by changing the
current flowing through it. If the current in the coil is increasing, the self-induced e.m.f produced in the
coil will oppose the rise of current, which means the direction of the induced e.m.f is opposite to the
applied voltage. If the current in the coil is decreasing, the e.m.f induced in the coil is in such a direction
as to oppose the fall of current; this means that the direction of the self-induced e.m.f is same as that of
the applied voltage. This property of the coil only opposes the changing current (alternating current) and
does not affect the steady current that is (direct current) when flows through it. The unit of inductance
is Henry (H).
The circuit of Fig. 6.1 can be used to demonstrate the phenomenon of self-induction. When the switch is
closed, the coil then current changes in the coil and build a magnetic field (flux). If the switch is opened,
the magnetic flux will collapse rapidly.

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 Figure 6.1: Self-Induction

3.2 Mutual Induction

When the current in a coil is changing that a voltage will be induced in another coil placed near to it. This
effect is called mutual-induction. Consider the Figure 6.2, current flowing through the coil of inductance
L1 builds up a magnetic field (flux) around itself. A part of this flux which links only coils 1. The other
part links both the 1 and 2 coils and therefore is a component of mutual flux. This mutual flux sets up an
induced e.m.f. in coil L2 given by Equation 6.2.

( ) (6.2)

Or

⁄ (6.3)
( )

Where, em is the voltage induced in the secondary coil and I1 is the current flowing in the primary coil. M
is the mutual inductance, defined as the property of the coils that enables it to oppose the changes in
the current in another coil and measured in Henry (H).We can use this formula when we know the value
of the mutually induced e.m.f as well as the change of current in coil two, or the neighboring coil.
Now, if em = 1 and dI1 / dt = 1, then on substituting the value in the given equations, we see that the value
of M, that is mutual inductance is 1 Henry. Thus two coils have a mutual inductance of 1 henry when
e.m.f of 1 volt is induced in coil 1 and when the current flowing through coil 2 is changing at the rate of
one ampere per second.

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 Figure 6.2: Mutual Induction

4. Procedure
1. Set the module IT-100B and locate the Self Induction block.
2. According to Figure 6.3, complete the experiment circuit with short-circuit clips.
3. Observe the states of the lamp while pressing or releasing the switch and conclude your
observation.
4. Set the module IT-100D and locate the Mutual Induction block.
5. Connecting the battery through a switch at one coil
6. Connect the other coil with the Galvanometer(G)
7. Observe the deflection on the galvanometer while pressing or releasing the switch and conclude
your observation.

Figure 6.3: Connection Diagram of Self Induction Experiment

28
5. Lab Task:
1. Connect the secondary coil in mutual induction experiment with the lamp. Will the lamp brighten?
Why?

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6. Conclusions

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 Experiment No. 7: Ampere’s Right Hand Grip Rule

1. Objective
Verify the ampere‟s right grip hand rule.
2. Apparatus
 IT-100 and IT-100D Trainer
 2mm Patch Cords

3. Theory
Since the magnetic field around an electron forms a loop, the fields of the electrons combine to form a
series of loops around the wire. The direction of the magnetic field depends on the direction that the
current flows. This can be examined by using a compass. The compass moved around the wire will align
itself with the flux lines.
A right-hand rule, also called Ampere's rule, can be used to determine the direction of the magnetic field.
If you wrap your fingers around the wire with your thumb pointing in the direction of conventional
current flow, your fingers will point in the direction of the magnetic field.
If a number of wire loops are wound in the same direction to form a coil, more fields will add to make the
flux lines through the coil even denser. The magnetic field through the coil becomes even stronger. The
more loops there are, the stronger the magnetic field becomes.

(a) (b)

Figure 7.1: (a) Circuit Diagram (b) Connection Diagram using Single Wire

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 (a) (b)

Figure 7.2: (a) Circuit Diagram (b) Connection Diagram using Single Wire

(a) (b)

Figure 7.3: (a) Circuit Diagram (b) Connection Diagram using Coil

4. Procedure
1. Set the module IT-100D and locate the Ampere‟s law block.
2. Complete the experiment circuit according to Figure 7.1 (a) and (b) with short-circuits clips.
3. Where R= 10Ω
4. Apply +5V to one end of the switch SW1.
5. Approach the compass to single wire.
6. Press SW1 (for short time) and observe the deflection of the compass needle and write the
observation in the table 7.1.
7. Complete the experiment circuit according to Figure 7.2 (a) and (b) with short-circuits clips.
8. Apply -5V to one end of the switch SW1.
9. Approach the compass to single wire.

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 10. Press SW1 (for short time) and observe the deflection of the compass needle and write the
observation in the table 7.1.
11. Again locate the Ampere‟s law block and connect the circuit according to Figure 7.3 (a) and (b)
with short-circuits clips.
12. Repeat the steps 4 to 6.
13. Compare the results of step 12 with those of steps 4 through 6 and conclude your observations.

Table 7.1

S. No. Cases Deflection Direction of Compass

1 Figure 7.1 (a) and (b)

2 Figure 7.2 (a) and (b)

3 Figure 7.3 (a) and (b)

5. Lab Task:
1. Apply the -5V to one end of the switch SWI 1 of Figure 7.3 (b) and discuss the deflection of
compass?

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6. Conclusions

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 Experiment No. 8: Resistor Color Coding

1. Objective

Determine the value of resistors from their EIA (Electronic Industries Association) color code and
measure the resistance using ohmmeter.

2. Apparatus
 Resistors of various color bands
 Digital Multi-meter

3. Theory
An electronic color code is used to indicate the values or ratings of electronic components, usually for
resistors, but also for capacitors, inductors, diodes and others. A basic resistor with color bands is shown
in Figure 8.1. The standard color code marking consists of four bands around the body of the resistor. The
colors and their numerical values are given in the resistor color chart; Table 8.1. The color of the first
band indicates the first significant figure of the resistance value. The second band indicates the second
significant value. The color of the third band indicates the multiplier that follows the first two significant
figures. If the third band is gold or silver then the third band indicates the fractional value of the first two
significant figures as shown in the Table 8.1.
The fourth band indicates the percent tolerance of the resistance. Percent tolerance is the amount the
resistance may vary from the value indicated by the color code. Because the resistors are mass produced,
variations in materials will affect their resistance. Tolerances are usually given as plus or minus of the
nominal, or color-code value.

Example:

Brown 1

Red 2

Orange 103

Gold 5%

The value of the resistor will be written as,

R = 12KΩ ±5%

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 Percent tolerance

Multiplier
Second significant figure
First significant figure

Figure 8.1: Color Code for 4 Band Resistors

Table: 8.1 Color Values for 4 Band Resistors

%
1st Digit(First 2nd digit(Second Multiplier (Third
Color Tolerance (Fourth
band) band band)
band)

Black 0 0 0 -
Brown 1 1 101 -
Red 2 2 102 -
Orange 3 3 103 -
Yellow 4 4 104 -
Green 5 5 105 0.5
Blue 6 6 106 -
Violet 7 7 107 -
Gray 8 8 108 -
9
White 9 9 10 -
-1
Gold - - 10 5

Silver - - 10-2 10

No color - - - 20

High precision resistors have five bands and 6 bands. For the 5 band resistors as shown in the Figure 8.2
the first three bands indicate the first three significant figures (digits) of the resistance; the fourth band
indicates the multiplier; the fifth band is the percent tolerance as given in the Table 8.2.

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 Figure 8.2: Color Code for 5 Band Resistors

Table: 8.2 Color Values for 5 Band Resistors

2nd digit %
1st Digit 3rd digit Multiplier
Color (Second Tolerance (Fourth
(First band) (Third band) (Third band)
band band)

Black 0 0 0 0 -
1
Brown 1 1 1 10 -
2
Red 2 2 2 10 -
3
Orange 3 3 3 10 -
Yellow 4 4 4 104 -
Green 5 5 5 105 0.5
Blue 6 6 6 106 -
Violet 7 7 7 107 -
8
Gray 8 8 8 10 -
White 9 9 9 109 -
Gold - - - 10-1 5

Silver - - - 10-2 10

No color - - - - 20

For the 6 band resistors as shown in the Figure 8.3 the first three bands indicate the first three significant
figures (digits) of the resistance; the fourth band indicates the multiplier; the fifth band is the percent
tolerance and sixth band indicates the temperature coefficient of resistor as given in the Table 8.3.

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Percent tolerance for these resistors ranges from 0.1 percent to 2 percent. 6 band resistors are used for
military purposes.

Figure 8.3: Color Code for 6 Band Resistors

Table: 8.3 Color Values for 6 Band Resistors

1st Digit 2nd digit Multiplier %

3rd digit TCR(ppm/k)
Color (First (Second (Fourth Tolerance
(Third band) (Sixth band)
band) band band) (Fifth band)

Black 0 0 0 0 -
1
Brown 1 1 1 10 - 100
Red 2 2 2 102 - 50
Orange 3 3 3 103 - 15
Yellow 4 4 4 104 - 25
Green 5 5 5 105 0.5
Blue 6 6 6 106 - 10
Violet 7 7 7 107 - 5
8
Gray 8 8 8 10 -
White 9 9 9 109 -
Gold - - - 10-1 5

Silver - - - 10-2 10

No color - - - - 20

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4. Procedure

1. You are given with resistors of various values and tolerances. Examine each one and determine
its resistance and tolerance according to its color code. Record the coded resistance value, and
tolerance in Table 8.4.

2. Using the coded resistance value as a guide, select an appropriate meter range by rotating the
multi-range selector switch to Ohms, and measure the resistance of each of the resistors. Record
your reading under “measured value” in Table 8.4.
3. Measure and record the resistance of a short length of hookup wire given to you.
R = _____Ω.
4. Select one of the resistors in step 1 and connect the wire given in step 3 across it. By connecting
the wire across the leads of resistor, the resistance has been short circuited. Measure the
resistance across the resistor-hookup wire connection.

R = _____ Ω.
Table 8.4: Observations

First Second Third Fourth Coded value Measured

Resistors Tolerance
color color color color value
band band band band
% Ω Ω
1
2
3
4
5

Table 8.5: Lab Task

Coded value Tolerance First Second Third Fourth

Resistors
Ω % color band color band color band color band
1
2
3
4
5

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5. Lab Task:

What are the colors of the bands for each of the following carbon resistors having coded values and
tolerances given in Table 8.5?

6. Conclusions

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 Experiment No. 9: OHM’s Law

1. Objective

Verify Ohm‟s law.

2. Apparatus
 Resistors (Different values)
 Bread Board
 Digital Multi-meter
 Variable DC power supply(maximum 30V)

3. Theory
Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the
voltage across the two points. The resistance R is the constant of proportionality as given in the Equation
(9.1).

(9.1)

Or

(9.2)

1 (9.3)

Where I, is the current through the conductor in units of ampere (A), V is the voltage measured across the
conductor in units of volt (V), and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohm (Ω). From the
Equation (9.3), voltage drop across the resistor having 1Ω resistance will be 1V when 1A current through
it. More specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in this relation is constant, independent of the current.
Ohm's law is an empirical relation which accurately describes the conductivity of the vast majority of
electrically conductive materials over many orders of magnitude of current. However some materials do
not obey Ohm's law, these are called non-ohmic.

39
 Figure 9.1: Circuit Diagram
4. Procedure
1. Construct the circuit as shown in the Figure 9.1.
2. Do not switch on the power supply. Disconnect the resistor R from the circuit and set it to a 1K by
using ohmmeter. Now reconnect it.
3. Turn on the power supply and increase the value of voltages from 0 to 2V. Measure the current I
(mA) and record it in the Table 9.1.
4. Measure and record in turn, the current I (mA) at each of the voltage settings shown in the Table 9.1
for R = 1KΩ.
5. Calculate the value of current I by using the Equation (9.1).
6. Use the measured value of resistance in Equation (9.1) to calculate the I in step 5.
7. Plot a graph of I (mA) versus V (V) from the measured values of Table 9.1.
8. Now fix the power supply voltage to 10V.
9. Measure the current I (mA) for the different values of R and record in the Table 9.2.
10. Plot a graph of I (mA) versus R from the measured values Table 9.2.

Table 9.1: Observations from the Constant R

R R I I
Voltage
S. No. Calculated Measured Calculated Measured
(V)
(kΩ) (kΩ) (mA) (mA)
1 0

2 2

3 4

4 6

5 8

6 10

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 Table 9.2: Observations from the Variable R

R R I I
Voltage
S. No. Calculated Measured Calculated Measured
(V)
(kΩ) (kΩ) (mA) (mA)
1 10

2 10

3 10

4 10

5 10

Figure 9.2: Current Vs Voltage

Figure 9.3: Current Vs Resistance

41
5. Questions
1. Examine your graph of Figure 9.2 and describe the change in the current per unit voltage.

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2. Do your experimental results verify ohm‟s law? Justify your answer.

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6. Conclusions

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 Experiment No. 10: Resistors in Series and Parallel

1. Objective
Examine the effect of resistors in series and parallel.

2. Apparatus
 Resistors (Different values)
 Bread Board
 Digital Multi-meter (DMM)

3. Theory
Resistors can be connected in a series connection, a parallel connection or combinations of both series
and parallel together, to produce more complex networks whose overall resistance is a combination of the
individual resistors. Whatever the combination, all resistors obey Ohm's Law and Kirchhoff‟s Circuit
Laws.

3.1 Resistors in Series

Resistors are said to be connected in "Series", when they are daisy chained together in a single line as
shown in Figure 10.1. Since all the current flowing through the first resistor has no other way to go it
must also pass through the second resistor and the third and so on. Then, resistors in series have a
Common Current flowing through them, for example:

IR1 = IR2 = IR3 = IAB = 1mA

In the following example the resistors R1, R2 and R3 are all connected in series between points A and B.

Figure 10.1: Resistors in series

43
As the resistors are connected in series the same current passes through each resistor in the chain and the
total resistance, RT of the circuit must be equal to the sum of all the individual resistors added together.
As given in Equation (10.1).

(10.1)

By taking the individual values of the resistors in our simple example above, the equivalent resistance is
. Therefore, we can replace all 3 resistors above with just one single resistor with a value of
9kΩ.

When 4, 5 or even more resistors are all connected in series, the total resistance of the series circuit R T
would still be the sum of all the individual resistors connected. This total resistance is generally known as
the Equivalent Resistance and can be defined as;” a single value of resistance that can replace any number
of resistors without altering the values of the current or the voltage in the circuit". Then the equation
given for calculating total resistance of the circuit when n resistors are connected in series is given in
Equation (10.2).

(10.2)

3.2 Resistors in Parallel

Resistors are said to be connected in "Parallel" when both of their terminals are respectively connected to
each terminal of the other resistor or resistors as shown in the Figure 10.2. The voltage drop across all the
resistors in parallel is the same. In the following circuit the resistors R1, R2 and R3 are all connected in
parallel between the two points A and B.

Figure 10.2: Resistors in Parallel

The equivalent resistance of the circuit of Figure 9.2 is given in Equation (10.3).

44
 (10.3)

4. Procedure
1. Construct the circuit as shown in the Figure 10.3 (a).
2. Calculate the equivalent resistance by using the Equations (10.2) and (10.3), where applicable
and record in the Table 10.1.
3. Measure the value of equivalent resistance across A and B by using DMM and record in the
Table 10.1.
4. Compare the calculated and measured values of equivalent resistance
5. Repeat the steps 1-4 for the figure 10.3 (b) and 10.3 (c).

Table 10.1: Observations

Req Req
S. No. Resistances Case a Case b Case c Calculated Measured
(kΩ) (kΩ)
1 1kΩ 220Ω 1kΩ

2 5.6kΩ 470Ω 220Ω

3 470Ω 4.7kΩ 4.7kΩ

4 - - 5.6kΩ

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 10.3: Resistors in series and Parallel
5. Conclusions

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 Experiment No. 11: Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode

1. Objective
Observe and plot forward and reverse V-I Characteristics of a P-N junction diode.

2. Apparatus
 Resistor (470Ω, 1k Ω)
 Bread Board
 Digital Multi-meter
 Variable DC power supply(maximum 30V)
 Diode

3. Theory
Diodes are semiconductor devices which have conductivity between conductors and insulators. By the
process of doping, P type and N type semiconductors are formed. By doping with penta-valent and
trivalent element, P-N junction diode is form.

Application of voltage across a diode, transistor etc. is called Biasing. A diode can be in three states. It
can be in an unbiased, forward biased or reverse biased condition. In forward biased condition, positive
terminal of diode is connected to positive terminal of battery while in reverse biased condition; they are
connected in reverse polarities as shown in the Figure 11.1 (a) and (b).

(a) (b)

Figure 11.1: Biasing of a Diode (a) Forward (b) Reverse

46
4. Procedure
1. Construct the circuit as shown in the Figure 11.1(a).
2. Do not switch on the power supply. Connect the resistor R of value 470Ω.
3. Turn on the power supply and increase voltage from the power supply from 0.1V to 1V in given
steps as shown in the Table 11.1.
4. Measure and record in turn, the voltage VF (V) and current IF (mA) at each of the voltage settings
shown in the Table 11.1.
5. Plot VI characteristics for forward bias of diode in the Figure 11.2.
6. Now construct the circuit as shown in the Figure 11.1(b).
7. Do not switch on the power supply. Connect the resistor R of value 1kΩ.
8. Turn on the power supply and increase voltage from the power supply from 0V to 20V in given steps
as shown in the Table 11.2.
9. Measure and record in turn, the voltage VR (V) and current IR (µA) at each of the voltage settings
shown in the Table 11.2
10. Plot VI characteristics for forward bias of diode in the Figure 11.3.

Table 11.1: Forward Characteristics of Diode

Voltage VF IF
S. No.
(V) (V) (mA)

1 0.1

2 0.2

3 0.3

4 0.4

5 0.5

6 0.6

7 0.7

8 0.8

9 0.9

10 1.0

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 Table 11.1: Reverse Characteristics of Diode

Voltage VR IR
S. No.
(V) (V) (µA)

1 2

2 4

3 6

4 8

5 10

6 12

7 14

8 16

9 18

10 20

Figure 11.2: Forward V-I Characteristics of Diode

48
 Figure 11.3: Reverse V-I Characteristics of Diode

5. Questions
1. Examine your graph of Figure 11.3 and describe the change in the current.

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6. Conclusions

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 Experiment No. 12: Half Wave Rectifier

1. Objective
Analyze and Implement half wave rectifier.

2. Apparatus
 Resistor (470Ω, 1k Ω)
 Bread Board
 Digital Multi-meter
 Function generator
 Diode (1N4007)
 Oscilloscope

3. Theory
The primary objective of rectification is to establish a DC level from a sinusoidal input signal that has
zero average (DC) level. Most of the electronic equipment requires DC voltage for their operation. Yet
our electrical distribution system is an AC system. Therefore it must be changed to DC before the
electronic equipment can be operated. The diode, because of its one-way conduction characteristic, is the
basic element for rectification process.
A half wave rectifier is a special case of a clipper. In half wave rectification, either the positive or
negative half of the AC wave is passed easily, while the other half is blocked, depending on the polarity
of the rectifier. Because only one half of the input waveform reaches the output, it is very inefficient if
used for power transfer. Half-wave rectification can be achieved with a single diode in a single phase
supply as shown in the Figure 12.1.

Figure 12.1: Half Wave Rectifier

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The input and output voltage waveforms of an example rectifier with a resistive load are shown in Figure
12.2. In the diagram, only the positive part of the input waveform does useful work. Thus the efficiency
of the half-wave rectifier is very low.

Figure 12.2: Half Wave Rectifier

According to the waveform in Figure 12.2, the voltage relationship of the input and output can be
calculated. The average voltage on the load is:

∫ ∫

From the Figure 12.2, output is zero from , so

= 0.318 (12.1)
Which is

51
4. Procedure
1. Construct the circuit as shown in the Figure 12.1.
2. Do not switch on the function generator. Connect the resistor RL of value 470Ω and oscilloscope
across the resistor RL.
3. Turn on the function generator and observe the waveform displayed on the oscilloscope.
4. Paste the output wave form in the Figure 12.3.
5. Calculate the average value from the Equation (12.1) and conclude your observation.

Figure 12.3: Output of Half Wave Rectifier

Figure 12.4: Waveform across the Diode

52
5. Questions
1. For the Figure 12.1, what type of waveform you expect across the diode. Draw in the Figure 12.4 and
comment.

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6. Conclusions

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 Experiment No. 13: First law of Thermodynamics

1. Objective

Verify the first law of thermodynamics.

2. Apparatus
 Balloon
 Plastic bottle
 Water
 Container
3. Theory

The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can be converted from one form to another with the
interaction of heat, work and internal energy but it can neither be created nor destroyed, under any
circumstances. Mathematically, this is represented as
1st law of Thermodynamics

∆U=q-w (13.1)
where
 ∆U is the total change in internal energy of a system,
 q is the heat exchanged between a system and surroundings, and
 q is positive if the heat added to the system
 w is positive if work is done by the system
 q is negative if heat leaves the system
 w is negative if work is done on the system

The internal energy of a system would decrease if the system gives off heat or does work. Therefore,
internal energy of a system increases when the heat increases (this would be done by adding heat into a
system). The internal energy would also increase if work were done onto a system. Any work or heat that
goes into or out of a system changes the internal energy. However, since energy is never created nor
destroyed (thus, the first law of thermodynamics), the change in internal energy always equal to zero. If
energy is lost by the system, then it is absorbed by the surroundings. If energy is absorbed into a system,
then that energy was released by the surroundings.
The first law of thermodynamics is the application of the conservation of energy, principle of heat and
thermodynamic processes.
It can be demonstrated as;
Take an empty container put a plastic bottle inside the container. Cover its lid with a balloon as shown in
Fig 13.1. Pour boiling water inside the container as shown in Fig 13.2. As the boiling water will be
poured inside the container, the balloon will expand as indicated by Fig 13.3. The balloon will expand
because when hot water is added into the container, heat transferred from the surrounding (hot water) to
the system (the air inside the bottle and balloon). Before the system manage to transform the heat input
into work, it is stored inside the system as internal energy.

System: the air inside the bottle and balloon surroundings (hot water) has higher temperature.

54
4. Procedure
1. Put a plastic bottle inside a container. Remove the lid of plastic bottle and attach a balloon as shown
in Fig 13.1.
2. Pour the boiling water inside the container as shown in Fig 13.2.
3. Observe the result in balloon as shown in Fig 13.3.

Figure 13.1: Container without water

Figure 13.2: Container with water

55
 Figure 13.3: Heat transferred inside balloon
5. Questions
1. What are the two ways that energy can be transferred between a system and its surrounding?

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2. 3000J of heat is added to a system and 2500J of work is done by the system. What is the change in
internal energy of the system?

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6. Conclusion

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