Fibonacci number

In mathematics, the Fibonacci numbers, commonly denoted Fn form a sequence, called

the Fibonacci sequence, such that each number is the sum of the two preceding ones,
starting from 0 and 1. That is,[1]

and

for n > 1 .
A tiling with squares whose side lengths are
One has F2 = 1. In some books, and particularly in old ones, F0, the "0" is omitted, and successive Fibonacci numbers
the Fibonacci sequence starts with F1 = F2 = 1.[2][3] The beginning of the sequence is
thus:

[4]

Fibonacci numbers are strongly related to the golden ratio: Binet's formula expresses the nth Fibonacci
number in terms of n and the golden ratio, and implies that the ratio of two consecutive Fibonacci
numbers tends to the golden ratio asn increases.

Fibonacci numbers are named after Italian mathematician Leonardo of Pisa, later known as Fibonacci.
They appear to have first arisen as early as 200 BC in work by Pingala on enumerating possible patterns
of poetry formed from syllables of two lengths. In his 1202 book Liber Abaci, Fibonacci introduced the
sequence to Western European mathematics,[6] although the sequence had been described earlier in
The Fibonacci spiral: an
Indian mathematics.[7][8][9]
approximation of the golden spiral
Fibonacci numbers appear unexpectedly often in mathematics, so much so that there is an entire journal created by drawing circular arcs
connecting the opposite corners of
dedicated to their study, the Fibonacci Quarterly. Applications of Fibonacci numbers include computer
squares in the Fibonacci tiling;[5] this
algorithms such as the Fibonacci search technique and the Fibonacci heap data structure, and graphs
one uses squares of sizes 1, 1, 2, 3,
called Fibonacci cubes used for interconnecting parallel and distributed systems. They also appear in 5, 8, 13 and 21.
biological settings, such as branching in trees, the arrangement of leaves on a stem, the fruit sprouts of a
pineapple, the flowering of an artichoke, an uncurling fern and the arrangement of apine cone's bracts.

Fibonacci numbers are also closely related to Lucas numbers in that they form a complementary pair of Lucas sequences and
. Lucas numbers are also intimately connected with the golden ratio.

Contents
History
Applications
Music
Nature
Mathematics
Sequence properties
Relation to the golden ratio
Closed-form expression
Computation by rounding
Limit of consecutive quotients
Decomposition of powers
Matrix form
Identification
Combinatorial identities
Symbolic method
Other identities
 Cassini's and Catalan's identities
d'Ocagne's identity
Power series
Reciprocal sums
Primes and divisibility
Divisibility properties
Primality testing
Fibonacci primes
Prime divisors
Periodicity modulo n
Right triangles
Magnitude
Generalizations
See also
References
Works cited
External links

History
The Fibonacci sequence appears in Indian mathematics in connection with Sanskrit prosody, as pointed
out by Parmanand Singh in 1985.[8][10][11] In the Sanskrit poetic tradition, there was interest in
enumerating all patterns of long (L) syllables of 2 units duration, juxtaposed with short (S) syllables of 1
unit duration. Counting the different patterns of successive L and S with a given total duration results in
the Fibonacci numbers: the number of patterns of durationm units is Fm + 1 .[9]

Knowledge of the Fibonacci sequence was expressed as early asPingala (c. 450 BC–200 BC). Singh cites
Pingala's cryptic formula misrau cha ("the two are mixed") and scholars who interpret it in context as
saying that the number of patterns for m beats (Fm+1 ) is obtained by adding one [S] to the Fm cases and
one [L] to the Fm−1 cases. [12] Bharata Muni also expresses knowledge of the sequence in the Natya
Shastra (c. 100 BC–c. 350AD).[13][7] However, the clearest exposition of the sequence arises in the work
of Virahanka (c. 700 AD), whose own work is lost, but is available in a quotation by Gopala (c. 1135):[11] Thirteen ways of arranging long and
short syllables in a cadence of length
Variations of two earlier meters [is the variation]... For example, for [a meter of length] six. Five end with a long syllable and
four, variations of meters of two [and] three being mixed, five happens. [works out eight end with a short syllable.

examples 8, 13, 21]... In this way, the process should be followed in all mātrā-vṛttas
[prosodic combinations].[a]

Hemachandra (c. 1150) is credited with knowledge of the sequence as well,[7] writing that "the sum of the last and the one before the last is the number ...
of the next mātrā-vṛtta."[15][16]

Outside India, the Fibonacci sequence first appears in the book Liber Abaci (1202) by Fibonacci.[6][17] using it to calculate the growth of rabbit
populations.[18][19] Fibonacci considers the growth of a hypothetical, idealized (biologically unrealistic) rabbit population, assuming that: a newly born
pair of rabbits, one male, one female, are put in a field; rabbits are able to mate at the age of one month so that at the end of its second month a female can
produce another pair of rabbits; rabbits never die and a mating pair always produces one new pair (one male, one female) every month from the second
month on. Fibonacci posed the puzzle: how many pairs will there be in one year?

At the end of the first month, they mate, but there is still only 1 pair
.
At the end of the second month the female produces a new pair , so now there are 2 pairs of rabbits in the field.
At the end of the third month, the original female produces a second pair , making 3 pairs in all in the field.
At the end of the fourth month, the original female has produced yet another new pair , and the female born two months ago also
produces her first pair, making 5 pairs.
At the end of the nth month, the number of pairs of rabbits is equal to the number of new pairs (that is, the number of pairs in month n − 2) plus the
number of pairs alive last month (that is,n − 1). This is the nth Fibonacci number.[20]

Édouard Lucas.[21]
The name "Fibonacci sequence" was first used by the 19th-century number theorist

Applications
 The Fibonacci numbers are important in the computational run-time analysis of Euclid's
algorithm to determine the greatest common divisorof two integers: the worst case input for
this algorithm is a pair of consecutive Fibonacci numbers. [22]

Brasch et al. 2012 show how a generalised Fibonacci sequence also can be connected to
the field of economics.[23] In particular, it is shown how a generalised Fibonacci sequence
enters the control function of finite-horizon dynamic optimisation problems with one state
and one control variable. The procedure is illustrated in an example often referred to as the
Brock–Mirman economic growth model.
Yuri Matiyasevich was able to show that the Fibonacci numbers can be defined by a
Diophantine equation, which led to his solving Hilbert's tenth problem.[24]
The Fibonacci numbers are also an example of acomplete sequence. This means that
every positive integer can be written as a sum of Fibonacci numbers, where any one
number is used once at most.
Moreover, every positive integer can be written in a unique way as the sum ofone or more
distinct Fibonacci numbers in such a way that the sum does not include any two
consecutive Fibonacci numbers. This is known asZeckendorf's theorem, and a sum of
Fibonacci numbers that satisfies these conditions is called a Zeckendorf representation.
The Zeckendorf representation of a number can be used to derive itsFibonacci coding.
Fibonacci numbers are used by somepseudorandom number generators.
They are also used in planning poker, which is a step in estimating in software
development projects that use theScrum methodology.
Fibonacci numbers are used in a polyphase version of themerge sort algorithm in which an A page of Fibonacci's Liber Abaci
unsorted list is divided into two lists whose lengths correspond to sequential Fibonacci from the Biblioteca Nazionale di
numbers – by dividing the list so that the two parts have lengths in the approximate
Firenze showing (in box on right) the
proportion φ. A tape-drive implementation of thepolyphase merge sort was described in
The Art of Computer Programming. Fibonacci sequence with the position
Fibonacci numbers arise in the analysis of theFibonacci heap data structure. in the sequence labeled in Latin and
The Fibonacci cube is an undirected graph with a Fibonacci number of nodes that has Roman numerals and the value in
been proposed as a network topology for parallel computing. Hindu-Arabic numerals.
A one-dimensional optimization method, called theFibonacci search technique, uses
Fibonacci numbers.[25]
The Fibonacci number series is used for optionallossy compression in the IFF 8SVX audio
file format used on Amiga computers. The number seriescompands the original audio
wave similar to logarithmic methods such asµ-law.[26][27]
Since the conversion factor 1.609344 for miles to kilometers is close to the golden ratio, the
decomposition of distance in miles into a sum of Fibonacci numbers becomes nearly the
kilometer sum when the Fibonacci numbers are replaced by their successors. This method
amounts to a radix 2 number register in golden ratio base φ being shifted. To convert from
kilometers to miles, shift the register down the Fibonacci sequence instead. [28]

In optics, when a beam of light shines at an angle through two stacked transparent plates
of different materials of different refractive indexes, it may reflect off three surfaces: the top, The number of rabbit pairs form the
middle, and bottom surfaces of the two plates. The number of dif ferent beam paths that Fibonacci sequence
have k reflections, for k > 1 , is the th Fibonacci number. (However, when k = 1 , there are
three reflection paths, not two, one for each of the three surfaces.) [29]
[30]
Mario Merz included the Fibonacci sequence in some of his works beginning in 1970.

Music
Joseph Schillinger (1895–1943) developed a system of composition which utilized Fibonacci intervals in some of its melodies; he viewed these as the
[31]
musical counterpart to the elaborate harmony evident within nature.

Nature
Fibonacci sequences appear in biological settings,[32] such as branching in trees, arrangement of leaves on a stem, the fruitlets of a pineapple,[33] the
flowering of artichoke, an uncurling fern and the arrangement of a pine cone,[34] and the family tree of honeybees.[35][36] Kepler pointed out the presence
of the Fibonacci sequence in nature, using it to explain the (golden ratio-related) pentagonal form of some flowers.[37] Field daisies most often have petals
in counts of Fibonacci numbers.[38] In 1754, Charles Bonnet discovered that the spiral phyllotaxis of plants were frequently expressed in Fibonacci
number series.[39]

Przemysław Prusinkiewiczadvanced the idea that real instances can in part be understood as the expression of certain algebraic constraints on free groups,
specifically as certainLindenmayer grammars.[40]

A model for the pattern offlorets in the head of a sunflower was proposed by Helmut Vogel in 1979.[41] This has the form
where n is the index number of the floret and c is a constant scaling factor; the florets thus lie on Fermat's
spiral. The divergence angle, approximately 137.51°, is the golden angle, dividing the circle in the golden
ratio. Because this ratio is irrational, no floret has a neighbor at exactly the same angle from the center, so
the florets pack efficiently. Because the rational approximations to the golden ratio are of the form
F(j):F(j + 1), the nearest neighbors of floret number n are those at n ± F(j) for some index j, which
depends on r, the distance from the center. Sunflowers and similar flowers most commonly have spirals
of florets in clockwise and counter-clockwise directions in the amount of adjacent Fibonacci numbers,[42]
typically counted by the outermost range of radii.[43]

Fibonacci numbers also appear in the pedigrees of idealized honeybees, according to the following rules:

If an egg is laid by an unmated female, it hatches a male ordrone bee.

If, however, an egg was fertilized by a male, ti hatches a female. Yellow chamomile head showing the
arrangement in 21 (blue) and 13
Thus, a male bee always has one parent, and a female bee has two. If one traces the pedigree of any male
(aqua) spirals. Such arrangements
bee (1 bee), he has 1 parent (1 bee), 2 grandparents, 3 great-grandparents, 5 great-great-grandparents,and
involving consecutive Fibonacci
so on. This sequence of numbers of parents is the Fibonacci sequence. The number of ancestors at each numbers appear in a wide variety of
level, Fn, is the number of female ancestors, which is Fn−1, plus the number of male ancestors, which is plants.
Fn−2.[44] This is under the unrealistic assumption that the ancestors at each level are otherwise unrelated.

Luke Hutchison noticed that the number of possible ancestors on the human X chromosome inheritance
line at a given ancestral generation also follows the Fibonacci sequence.[45] A male individual has an X
chromosome, which he received from his mother, and a Y chromosome, which he received from his
father. The male counts as the "origin" of his own X chromosome ( ), and at his parents'
generation, his X chromosome came from a single parent ( ). The male's mother received one X
chromosome from her mother (the son's maternal grandmother), and one from her father (the son's
maternal grandfather), so two grandparents contributed to the male descendant's X chromosome (
). The maternal grandfather received his X chromosome from his mother, and the maternal grandmother
received X chromosomes from both of her parents, so three great-grandparents contributed to the male
descendant's X chromosome ( ). Five great-great-grandparents contributed to the male
descendant's X chromosome ( ), etc. (Note that this assumes that all ancestors of a given
descendant are independent, but if any genealogy is traced far enough back in time, ancestors begin to Illustration of Vogel's model for
appear on multiple lines of the genealogy,until eventually a population founder appears on all lines of the n = 1 ... 500
genealogy.)

The pathways of tubulins on intracellular microtubules arrange in patterns of

3, 5, 8 and 13.[46]

Mathematics
The Fibonacci numbers occur in the sums of "shallow" diagonals in Pascal's
triangle (see binomial coefficient):[47]

The number of possible ancestors on the X chromosome

These numbers also give the solution to certain enumerative problems.[48] The inheritance line at a given ancestral generation follows the
most common is that of counting the number of compositions of 1s and 2s Fibonacci sequence. (After Hutchison, L. "Growing the Family
which sum to a given totaln: there are Fn+1 ways to do this. Tree: The Power of DNA in Reconstructing Family
Relationships".[45] )
For example, if n = 5, then Fn+1 = F6 = 8 counts the eight compositions
summing to 5:

1+1+1+1+1 = 1+1+1+2 = 1+1+2+1 = 1+2+1+1 = 2+1+1+1 = 2+2+1 = 2+1+2 = 1+2+2.

The Fibonacci numbers can be found in different ways among the set ofbinary strings, or equivalently, among the subsets of a given set.

The number of binary strings of lengthn without consecutive 1s is the Fibonacci numberFn+2. For example, out of the 16 binary strings
of length 4, there are F6 = 8 without consecutive 1s – they are 0000, 0001,0010, 0100, 0101, 1000, 1001 and 1010.By symmetry, the
number of strings of lengthn without consecutive 0s is alsoFn+2. Equivalently, Fn+2 is the number of subsets S⊂ {1,...,n} without
consecutive integers: {i, i+1}⊄ S for every i. The symmetric statement is:Fn+2 is the number of subsets S⊂ {1,...,n} without two

consecutive skipped integers: that is, S = {a < ... < a } with a ≤

 consecutive skipped integers: that is, S = {a1 < ... < ak} with ai+1 ≤
ai + 2.
The number of binary strings of lengthn without an odd number of
consecutive 1s is the Fibonacci numberFn+1 . For example, out of
the 16 binary strings of length 4, there areF5 = 5 without an odd
number of consecutive 1s – they are 0000, 0011, 0110, 1100,
1111. Equivalently, the number of subsets S⊂ {1,...,n} without an
odd number of consecutive integers isFn+1 .
The number of binary strings of lengthn without an even number
of consecutive 0s or 1s is 2Fn. For example, out of the 16 binary
strings of length 4, there are 2F4 = 6 without an even number of
consecutive 0s or 1s – they are 0001, 0111, 0101, 1000, 1010,
1110. There is an equivalent statement about subsets. The Fibonacci numbers are the sums of the "shallow"
diagonals (shown in red) ofPascal's triangle.

Sequence properties
The first 21 Fibonacci numbersFn for n = 0, 1, 2, ..., 20 are:[49]

F0 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9 F10 F11 F12 F13 F14 F15 F16 F17 F18 F19 F20

0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987 1597 2584 4181 6765

The sequence can also be extended to negative indexn using the re-arranged recurrence relation

[50] satisfying
which yields the sequence of "negafibonacci" numbers

Thus the bidirectional sequence is

F−8 F−7 F−6 F−5 F−4 F−3 F−2 F−1 F0 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8

−21 13 −8 5 −3 2 −1 1 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21

Relation to the golden ratio

Closed-form expression
Like every sequence defined by a linear recurrence with constant coefficients, the Fibonacci numbers have a closed-form solution. It has become known
as "Binet's formula", though it was already known byAbraham de Moivre and Daniel Bernoulli:[51]

where

is the golden ratio (OEIS: A001622), and

[52]

Since , this formula can also be written as

To see this,[53] note that φ and ψ are both solutions of the equations
so the powers of φ and ψ satisfy the Fibonacci recursion. In other words,

and

It follows that for any valuesa and b, the sequence defined by

satisfies the same recurrence

If a and b are chosen so that U0 = 0 and U1 = 1 then the resulting sequence Un must be the Fibonacci sequence. This is the same as requiring a and b
satisfy the system of equations:

which has solution

producing the required formula.

Taking the starting valuesU0 and U1 to be arbitrary constants, a more general solution is:

where

Computation by rounding
Since

for all n ≥ 0, the number Fn is the closest integer to . Therefore, it can be found byrounding, that is by the use of the nearest integer function:

or in terms of the floor function:

Similarly, if we already know that the numberF > 1 is a Fibonacci number, we can determine its index within the sequence by
where can be computed using logarithms to other usual bases. For example, .

Limit of consecutive quotients

Johannes Kepler observed that the ratio of consecutive Fibonacci numbers converges. He wrote that "as 5 is to 8 so is 8 to 13, practically, and as 8 is to 13,
so is 13 to 21 almost", and concluded that these ratios approach the golden ratio [54][55]

This convergence holds regardless of the starting values, excluding 0 and 0, or any pair in the conjugate golden ratio, This can be verified using
Binet's formula. For example, the initial values 3 and 2 generate the sequence 3, 2, 5, 7, 12, 19, 31, 50, 81, 131, 212, 343, 555, ... The ratio of consecutive
terms in this sequence shows the same convergence towards the golden ratio.

Successive tilings of the plane and a graph of approximations to the

golden ratio calculated by dividing each Fibonacci number by the
previous

Decomposition of powers
Since the golden ratio satisfies the equation

this expression can be used to decompose higher powers as a linear function of lower powers, which in turn can be decomposed all the way down to a
linear combination of and 1. The resulting recurrence relationshipsyield Fibonacci numbers as the linear coefficients:

This equation can be proved byinduction on n.

This expression is also true forn < 1 if the Fibonacci sequenceFn is extended to negative integersusing the Fibonacci rule

Matrix form
A 2-dimensional system of lineardifference equations that describes the Fibonacci sequence is

alternatively denoted
which yields . The eigenvalues of the matrix A are and corresponding to the respective
eigenvectors

and

As the initial value is

it follows that the nth term is

From this, the nth element in the Fibonacci series may be read of
f directly as a closed-form expression:

Equivalently, the same computation may performed bydiagonalization of A through use of its eigendecomposition:

where and The closed-form expression for thenth element in the Fibonacci series is therefore given by

which again yields

The matrix A has a determinant of −1, and thus it is a 2×2unimodular matrix.

This property can be understood in terms of thecontinued fraction representation for the golden ratio:
The Fibonacci numbers occur as the ratio of successive convergents of the continued fraction for φ, and the matrix formed from successive convergents of
any continued fraction has a determinant of +1 or −1.The matrix representation gives the following closed-form expression for the Fibonacci numbers:

Taking the determinant of both sides of this equation yieldsCassini's identity,

Moreover, since An Am = An+m for any square matrix A, the following identities can be derived (they are obtained from two different coefficients of
n into n + 1),
the matrix product, and one may easily deduce the second one from the first one by changing

In particular, with m = n,

These last two identities provide a way to compute Fibonacci numbers recursively in O(log(n)) arithmetic operations and in time O(M(n) log(n)),
where M(n) is the time for the multiplication of two numbers ofn digits. This matches the time for computing thenth Fibonacci number from the closed-
memoization).[56]
form matrix formula, but with fewer redundant steps if one avoids recomputing an already computed Fibonacci number (recursion with

Identification
The question may arise whether a positive integer x is a Fibonacci number. This is true if and only if one or both of or is a perfect
square.[57] This is because Binet's formulaabove can be rearranged to give

which allows one to find the position in the sequence of a given Fibonacci number
.

This formula must return an integer for alln, so the radical expression must be an integer (otherwise thelogarithm does not even return a rational number).

Combinatorial identities
Most identities involving Fibonacci numbers can be proved using combinatorial arguments using the fact that Fn can be interpreted as the number of
sequences of 1s and 2s that sum to n − 1. This can be taken as the definition of Fn, with the convention that F0 = 0, meaning no sum adds up to −1, and
that F1 = 1, meaning the empty sum "adds up" to 0. Here, the order of the summand matters. For example, 1 + 2 and 2 + 1 are considered two different
sums.

For example, the recurrence relation

or in words, the nth Fibonacci number is the sum of the previous two Fibonacci numbers, may be shown by dividing the Fn sums of 1s and 2s that add to
n − 1 into two non-overlapping groups. One group contains those sums whose first term is 1 and the other those sums whose first term is 2. In the first
group the remaining terms add ton − 2, so it has Fn-1 sums, and in the second group the remaining terms add ton − 3, so there are Fn−2 sums. So there are
a total of Fn−1 + Fn−2 sums altogether, showing this is equal toFn.
Similarly, it may be shown that the sum of the first Fibonacci numbers up to thenth is equal to the (n + 2)-nd Fibonacci number minus 1.[58] In symbols:

This is done by dividing the sums adding to n + 1 in a different way, this time by the location of the first 2. Specifically, the first group consists of those
sums that start with 2, the second group those that start 1 + 2, the third 1 + 1 + 2, and so on, until the last group, which consists of the single sum where
only 1's are used. The number of sums in the first group is F(n), F(n − 1) in the second group, and so on, with 1 sum in the last group. So the total number
of sums is F(n) + F(n − 1) + ... + F(1) + 1 and therefore this quantity is equal toF(n + 2).

A similar argument, grouping the sums by the position of the first 1 rather than the first 2, gives two more identities:

and

In words, the sum of the first Fibonacci numbers with odd index up to F2n−1 is the (2n)th Fibonacci number, and the sum of the first Fibonacci numbers
with even index up toF2n is the (2n + 1)th Fibonacci number minus 1.[59]

A different trick may be used to prove

or in words, the sum of the squares of the first Fibonacci numbers up to Fn is the product of the nth and (n + 1)th Fibonacci numbers. In this case note that
Fibonacci rectangle of size Fn by F(n + 1) can be decomposed into squares of size Fn, Fn−1, and so on to F1 = 1, from which the identity follows by
comparing areas.

Symbolic method
The sequence is also considered using the symbolic method.[60] More precisely, this sequences corresponds to a specifiable combinatorial class.
The specification of this sequence is . Indeed, as stated above, the -th Fibonacci numbes equals the number of way to partition using
segments of size 1 or 2.

It follows that the ordinary generating functionof the Fibonacci sequence, i.e. , is the complex function .

Other identities
[61]
Numerous other identities can be derived using various methods. Some of the most noteworthy are:

Cassini's and Catalan's identities

Cassini's identity states that

Catalan's identity is a generalization:

d'Ocagne's identity
where Ln is the n'th Lucas number. The last is an identity for doublingn; other identities of this type are

by Cassini's identity.

These can be found experimentally usinglattice reduction, and are useful in setting up thespecial number field sieveto factorize a Fibonacci number.

More generally,[61]

Putting k = 2 in this formula, one gets again the formulas of the end of above sectionMatrix form.

Power series
The generating function of the Fibonacci sequence is thepower series

This series is convergent for and its sum has a simple closed-form:[62]

This can be proved by using the Fibonacci recurrence to expand each coef
ficient in the infinite sum:

Solving the equation

for s(x) results in the above closed form.

Setting x = 1/k, the closed form of the series becomes

ges. Further setting k = 10 m yields

In particular, if k is an integer greater than 1, then this series conver
for all positive integersm.

Some math puzzle-books present as curious the particular value that comes from m = 1 , which is [63] Similarly, m = 2
gives

Reciprocal sums
Infinite sums over reciprocal Fibonacci numbers can sometimes be evaluated in terms of theta functions. For example, we can write the sum of every odd-
indexed reciprocal Fibonacci number as

and the sum of squared reciprocal Fibonacci numbers as

If we add 1 to each Fibonacci number in the first sum, there is also the closed form

and there is a nested sum of squared Fibonacci numbers giving the reciprocal of thegolden ratio,

No closed formula for thereciprocal Fibonacci constant

is known, but the number has been provedirrational by Richard André-Jeannin.[64]

The Millin series gives the identity[65]

which follows from the closed form for its partial sums asN tends to infinity:

Primes and divisibility

Divisibility properties
Every third number of the sequence is even and more generally, every kth number of the sequence is a multiple of Fk. Thus the Fibonacci sequence is an
[66][67]
example of a divisibility sequence. In fact, the Fibonacci sequence satisfies the stronger divisibility property

Any three consecutive Fibonacci numbers are pairwisecoprime, which means that, for everyn,

gcd(Fn, Fn+1) = gcd(Fn, Fn+2) = gcd(Fn+1, Fn+2) = 1.

Every prime number p divides a Fibonacci number that can be determined by the value of p modulo 5. If p is congruent to 1 or 4 (mod 5), then p divides
Fp − 1 , and if p is congruent to 2 or 3 (mod 5), then,p divides Fp + 1 . The remaining case is thatp = 5, and in this case p divides Fp.

These cases can be combined into a single formula, using theLegendre symbol:[68]

Primality testing
The above formula can be used as a primality test in the sense that if

where the Legendre symbol has been replaced by the Jacobi symbol, then this is evidence that n is a prime, and if it fails to hold, then n is definitely not a
prime. If n is composite and satisfies the formula, then n is a Fibonacci pseudoprime. When m is large—say a 500-bit number—then we can calculate Fm
(mod n) efficiently using the matrix form.Thus

Here the matrix powerAm is calculated using modular exponentiation, which can be adapted to matrices.[69]

Fibonacci primes
A Fibonacci prime is a Fibonacci number that isprime. The first few are:

2, 3, 5, 13, 89, 233, 1597, 28657, 514229, ... OEIS: A005478.

.[70]
Fibonacci primes with thousands of digits have been found, but it is not known whether there are infinitely many

Fkn is divisible by Fn, so, apart from F4 = 3, any Fibonacci prime must have a prime index. As there are arbitrarily long runs of composite numbers, there
are therefore also arbitrarily long runs of composite Fibonacci numbers.

.[71]
No Fibonacci number greater thanF6 = 8 is one greater or one less than a prime number

The only nontrivial square Fibonacci number is 144.[72] Attila Pethő proved in 2001 that there is only a finite number of perfect power Fibonacci
numbers.[73] In 2006, Y. Bugeaud, M. Mignotte, and S. Siksek proved that 8 and 144 are the only such non-trivial perfect powers.
[74]

V Hoggatt and proved by Luo Ming.[75]

1, 3, 21, 55 are the only triangular Fibonacci numbers, which was conjectured by ern

Prime divisors
With the exceptions of 1, 8 and 144 (F1 = F2, F6 and F12) every Fibonacci number has a prime factor that is not a factor of any smaller Fibonacci number
(Carmichael's theorem).[76] As a result, 8 and 144 (F6 and F12) are the only Fibonacci numbers that are the product of other Fibonacci numbers
OEIS: A235383.

The divisibility of Fibonacci numbers by a primep is related to the Legendre symbol which is evaluated as follows:
If p is a prime number then

[77][78]

For example,

It is not known whether there exists a primep such that

Such primes (if there are any) would be calledWall–Sun–Sun primes.

Also, if p ≠ 5 is an odd prime number then:[79]

Example 1. p = 7, in this case p ≡ 3 (mod 4) and we have:

Example 2. p = 11, in this case p ≡ 3 (mod 4) and we have:

Example 3. p = 13, in this case p ≡ 1 (mod 4) and we have:

Example 4. p = 29, in this case p ≡ 1 (mod 4) and we have:

For odd n, all odd prime divisors of Fn are congruent to 1 modulo 4, implying that all odd divisors of Fn (as the products of odd prime divisors) are
congruent to 1 modulo 4.[80]
For example,

All known factors of Fibonacci numbersF(i) for all i < 50000 are collected at the relevant repositories.[81][82]

Periodicity modulo n
If the members of the Fibonacci sequence are taken mod n, the resulting sequence is periodic with period at most 6n.[83] The lengths of the periods for
various n form the so-called Pisano periods OEIS: A001175. Determining a general formula for the Pisano periods is an open problem, which includes as
a subproblem a special instance of the problem of finding the multiplicative order of a modular integer or of an element in a finite field. However, for any
particular n, the Pisano period may be found as an instance ofcycle detection.

Right triangles
Starting with 5, every second Fibonacci number is the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle with integer sides, or in other words, the largest number
in a Pythagorean triple. The length of the longer leg of this triangle is equal to the sum of the three sides of the preceding triangle in this series of triangles,
and the shorter leg is equal to the difference between the preceding bypassed Fibonacci number and the shorter leg of the preceding triangle.

The first triangle in this series has sides of length 5, 4, and 3. Skipping 8, the next triangle has sides of length 13, 12 (5 + 4 + 3), and 5 (8 − 3). Skipping
21, the next triangle has sides of length 34, 30 (13 + 12 + 5), and 16 (21 − 5). This series continues indefinitely. The triangle sides a, b, c can be calculated
directly:

These formulas satisfy for all n, but they only represent triangle sides whenn > 2.

ferent way:[84]
Any four consecutive Fibonacci numbersFn, Fn+1, Fn+2 and Fn+3 can also be used to generate a Pythagorean triple in a dif

Magnitude
Since Fn is asymptotic to , the number of digits in Fn is asymptotic to . As a consequence, for every integer d > 1 there are
either 4 or 5 Fibonacci numbers withd decimal digits.

More generally, in the base b representation, the number of digits inFn is asymptotic to

Generalizations
The Fibonacci sequence is one of the simplest and earliest known sequences defined by a recurrence relation, and specifically by a linear difference
equation. All these sequences may be viewed as generalizations of the Fibonacci sequence. In particular, Binet's formula may be generalized to any
sequence that is a solution of a homogeneous linear dif
ference equation with constant coefficients.

Some specific examples that are close, in some sense, from Fibonacci sequence include:

Generalizing the index to negative integers to produce thenegafibonacci numbers.

[61]
Generalizing the index to real numbers using a modification of Binet's formula.
Starting with other integers.Lucas numbers have L1 = 1, L2 = 3, and Ln = Ln−1 + Ln−2. Primefree sequences use the Fibonacci
recursion with other starting points to generate sequences in which all numbers are
composite.
Letting a number be a linear function (other than the sum) of the 2 preceding numbers. ThePell numbers have Pn = 2Pn − 1 + Pn − 2 .
Not adding the immediately preceding numbers. ThePadovan sequence and Perrin numbers have P(n) = P(n − 2) + P(n − 3).
Generating the next number by adding 3 numbers (tribonacci numbers), 4 numbers (tetranacci numbers), or more. The resulting
sequences are known asn-Step Fibonacci numbers.[85]
Adding other objects than integers, for example functions or strings – one essential example Fibonacci
is polynomials.
See also
Elliott wave principle
Embree–Trefethen constant
The Fibonacci Association
Fibonacci numbers in popular culture
Fibonacci word
Strong Law of Small Numbers
Verner Emil Hoggatt Jr.
Wythoff array

References
Footnotes

a. "For four, variations of meters of two [and] three being mixed, five happens. For five, variations of two earlier – three [and] four, being
mixed, eight is obtained. In this way, for six, [variations] of four [and] of five being mixed, thirteen happens. And like that, variations of
two earlier meters being mixed, sevenmorae [is] twenty-one. In this way, the process should be followed in all mātrā-vṛttas" [14]

Citations

1. Lucas 1891, p. 3.
2. Beck & Geoghegan 2010.
3. Bóna 2011, p. 180.
4. Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A000045" (https://oeis.org/A000045). The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS
Foundation.
5. John Hudson Tiner (200). Exploring the World of Mathematics: From Ancient Record Keeping to the Latest Advances in Computers
(htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=CDEEAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA81). New Leaf Publishing Group.ISBN 978-1-61458-155-0.
6. Pisano 2002, pp. 404–5.
7. Goonatilake, Susantha (1998),Toward a Global Science(https://books.google.com/books?id=SI5ip95BbgEC&pg=P
A126), Indiana
University Press, p. 126,ISBN 978-0-253-33388-9
8. Singh, Parmanand (1985), "The So-called Fibonacci numbers in ancient and medieval India",
Historia Mathematica, 12 (3): 229–44,
doi:10.1016/0315-0860(85)90021-7(https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0315-0860%2885%2990021-7)
9. Knuth, Donald (2006), The Art of Computer Programming(https://books.google.com/books?id=56LNfE2QGtYC&pg=P A50&dq=rhythm
s), 4. Generating All Trees – History of Combinatorial Generation, Addison–Wesley, p. 50, ISBN 978-0-321-33570-8, "it was natural to
consider the set of all sequences of [L] and [S] that have exactly m beats.
...there are exactly Fm+1 of them.For example the 21
sequences when m = 7 are: [gives list]. In this way Indian prosodists were led to discover the Fibonacci sequence, as we have
observed in Section 1.2.8 (from v.1)"
10. Knuth, Donald (1968), The Art of Computer Programming(https://books.google.com/books?id=MooMkK6ERuYC&pg=P A100), 1,
Addison Wesley, p. 100, ISBN 978-81-7758-754-8, "Before Fibonacci wrote his work, the sequence Fn had already been discussed by
Indian scholars, who had long been interested in rhythmic patterns... both Gopala (before 1135
AD) and Hemachandra (c. 1150)
mentioned the numbers 1,2,3,5,8,13,21 explicitly [see .PSingh Historia Math 12 (1985) 229–44]" p. 100 (3d ed)...
"
11. Livio 2003, p. 197.
12. Agrawala, VS (1969), Pāṇinikālīna Bhāratavarṣa (Hn.). Varanasi-I: TheChowkhamba Vidyabhawan, "SadgurushiShya writes that
Pingala was a younger brother of Pāṇini [Agrawala 1969, lb]. There is an alternative opinion that he was a maternal uncle of Pāṇini
[Vinayasagar 1965, Preface, 121]. ... Agrawala [1969, 463–76], after a careful investigation, in which he considered the views of earlier
scholars, has concluded that Pāṇini lived between 480 and 410 BC"
13. Singh, Parmanand (1985)."The So-called Fibonacci Numbers in Ancient and Medieval India"(http://www.sfs.uni-tuebingen.de/~dg/sdar
ticle.pdf) (PDF). Historia Mathematica. Academic Press. 12: 232.
14. Velankar, HD (1962), 'Vṛttajātisamuccaya' of kavi Virahanka, Jodhpur: Rajasthan Oriental Research Institute, p. 101
15. Livio 2003, p. 197–8.
16. Shah, Jayant (1991). "A History of Piṅgala's Combinatorics" (https://web.northeastern.edu/shah/papers/Pingala.pdf)(PDF).
Northeastern University: 41. Retrieved 4 January 2019.
17. "Fibonacci's Liber Abaci (Book of Calculation)"(https://www.math.utah.edu/~beebe/software/java/fibonacci/liber-abaci.html). The
University of Utah. 13 December 2009. Retrieved 28 November 2018.
18. Hemenway, Priya (2005). Divine Proportion: Phi In Art, Nature, and Science
. New York: Sterling. pp. 20–21.ISBN 1-4027-3522-7.
19. Knott, Dr. Ron (25 September 2016)."The Fibonacci Numbers and Golden section in Nature - 1"(http://www.maths.surrey.ac.uk/hosted
-sites/R.Knott/Fibonacci/fibnat.html#Rabbits). University of Surrey. Retrieved 27 November 2018.
20. Knott, Ron. "Fibonacci's Rabbits" (http://www.maths.surrey.ac.uk/hosted-sites/R.Knott/Fibonacci/fibnat.html#Rabbits)
. University of
Surrey Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences.
21. Gardner, Martin (1996), Mathematical Circus, The Mathematical Association of America, p. 153,ISBN 978-0-88385-506-5, "It is ironic
that Leonardo, who made valuable contributions to mathematics, is remembered today mainly because a 19th-century French number
theorist, Édouard Lucas...attached the name Fibonacci to a number sequence that appears in a trivial problem in Liber abaci
"
22. Knuth, Donald E (1997), The Art of Computer Programming, 1: Fundamental Algorithms (3rd ed.), Addison–W
esley, p. 343, ISBN 978-
0-201-89683-1
23. Brasch, T. von; Byström, J.; Lystad, L.P. (2012), "Optimal Control and the Fibonacci Sequence",Journal of Optimization Theory and
Applications, 154 (3): 857–78, doi:10.1007/s10957-012-0061-2(https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10957-012-0061-2) , hdl:11250/180781 (htt
ps://hdl.handle.net/11250%2F180781)
24. Harizanov, Valentina (1995), "Review of Yuri V. Matiyasevich, Hibert's Tenth Problem" (http://projecteuclid.org/euclid.rml/1204900767)
,
Modern Logic, 5 (3): 345–355.
25. Avriel, M; Wilde, DJ (1966), "Optimality of theSymmetric Fibonacci Search Technique", Fibonacci Quarterly (3): 265–9
26. Amiga ROM Kernel Reference Manual, Addison–Wesley, 1991
27. "IFF", Multimedia Wiki (http://wiki.multimedia.cx/index.php?title=IFF#Fibonacci_Delta_Compression)
28. "Zeckendorf representation",Encyclopedia of Math (http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php/Zeckendorf_representation)
29. Livio 2003, pp. 98–9.
30. Livio 2003, p. 176.
31. Livio 2003, p. 193.
32. Douady, S; Couder, Y (1996), "Phyllotaxis as a Dynamical Self Organizing Process"(https://web.archive.org/web/20060526054108/htt
p://www.math.ntnu.no/~jarlet/Douady96.pdf)(PDF), Journal of Theoretical Biology, 178 (3): 255–74, doi:10.1006/jtbi.1996.0026(https://
doi.org/10.1006%2Fjtbi.1996.0026), archived from the original (http://www.math.ntnu.no/~jarlet/Douady96.pdf) (PDF) on 2006-05-26
33. Jones, Judy; Wilson, William (2006), "Science",An Incomplete Education, Ballantine Books, p. 544,ISBN 978-0-7394-7582-9
34. Brousseau, A (1969), "Fibonacci Statistics in Conifers",Fibonacci Quarterly (7): 525–32
35. "Marks for the da Vinci Code: B–" (http://www.cs4fn.org/maths/bee-davinci.php). Maths. Computer Science For Fun: CS4FN.
36. Scott, T.C.; Marketos, P. (March 2014), On the Origin of the Fibonacci Sequence(http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Publications/
fibonacci.pdf) (PDF), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews
37. Livio 2003, p. 110.
38. Livio 2003, pp. 112–13.
39. "The Secret of the Fibonacci Sequence in T rees" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130504125059/http://www.amnh.org:80/learn-teach/yo
ung-naturalist-awards/winning-essays/2011/the-secret-of-the-fibonacci-sequence-in-trees). American Museum of Natural History. 2011.
Archived from the original (http://www.amnh.org:80/learn-teach/young-naturalist-awards/winning-essays/2011/the-secret-of-the-fibonacc
i-sequence-in-trees) on 4 May 2013. Retrieved 4 February 2019.
40. Prusinkiewicz, Przemyslaw; Hanan, James (1989),Lindenmayer Systems, Fractals, and Plants (Lecture Notes in Biomathematics)
,
Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-0-387-97092-9
41. Vogel, Helmut (1979), "A better way to construct the sunflower head",Mathematical Biosciences, 44 (3–4): 179–89, doi:10.1016/0025-
5564(79)90080-4 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0025-5564%2879%2990080-4)
42. Livio 2003, p. 112.
43. Prusinkiewicz, Przemyslaw; Lindenmayer, Aristid (1990), "4", The Algorithmic Beauty of Plants(http://algorithmicbotany.org/papers/#we
bdocs), Springer-Verlag, pp. 101–107, ISBN 978-0-387-97297-8
44. "The Fibonacci sequence as it appears in nature"(http://www.fq.math.ca/Scanned/1-1/basin.pdf) (PDF), The Fibonacci Quarterly, 1 (1):
53–56, 1963
45. Hutchison, Luke (September 2004)."Growing the Family Tree: The Power of DNAin Reconstructing Family Relationships"(http://fhtw.b
yu.edu/static/conf/2005/hutchison-growing-fhtw2005.pdf)(PDF). Proceedings of the First Symposium on Bioinformatics and
Biotechnology (BIOT-04). Retrieved 2016-09-03.
46. Hameroff, Stuart; Penrose, Roger (March 2014). "Consciousness in the universe: A review of the 'Orch OR' theory"(http://www.science
direct.com/science/article/pii/S1571064513001188) . Physics of Life Reviews. Elsevier. 11 (1): 39–78. Bibcode:2014PhLRv..11...39H (htt
p://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PhLRv ..11...39H). doi:10.1016/j.plrev.2013.08.002 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.plrev.2013.08.002).
PMID 24070914 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24070914). Retrieved 6 December 2018.
47. Lucas 1891, p. 7.
48. Stanley, Richard (2011). Enumerative Combinatorics I (2nd ed.). Cambridge Univ. Press. p. "121, Ex 1.35".ISBN 978-1-107-60262-5.
49. Knott, R, "Fib table", Fibonacci (http://www.maths.surrey.ac.uk/hosted-sites/R.Knott/Fibonacci/fibtable.html)
, UK: Surrey has the first
300 Fn factored into primes and links to more extensive tables.
50. Knuth, Donald (2008-12-11), "Negafibonacci Numbers and the Hyperbolic Plane",
Annual meeting (http://research.allacademic.com/met
a/p206842_index.html), The Fairmont Hotel, San Jose, CA: The Mathematical Association of America
51. Weisstein, Eric W. "Binet's Fibonacci Number Formula"(http://mathworld.wolfram.com/BinetsFibonacciNumberFormula.html)
.
MathWorld.
52. Ball 2003, p. 156.
53. Ball 2003, pp. 155–6.
54. Kepler, Johannes (1966), A New Year Gift: On Hexagonal Snow, Oxford University Press, p. 92,ISBN 978-0-19-858120-8
55. Strena seu de Nive Sexangula, 1611
56. Dijkstra, Edsger W. (1978), In honour of Fibonacci (http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/ewd06xx/EWD654.PDF) (PDF)
57. Gessel, Ira (October 1972),"Fibonacci is a Square"(http://www.fq.math.ca/Scanned/10-4/advanced10-4.pdf) (PDF), The Fibonacci
Quarterly, 10 (4): 417–19, retrieved April 11, 2012
58. Lucas 1891, p. 4.
59. Vorobiev, Nikolaĭ Nikolaevich; Martin, Mircea (2002), "Chapter 1",Fibonacci Numbers, Birkhäuser, pp. 5–6, ISBN 978-3-7643-6135-8
60. Flajolet, Philippe; Sedgewick, Robert (2009).Analytic Combinatorics. Cambridge University Press. p. 42.ISBN 978-0521898065.
61. Weisstein, Eric W. "Fibonacci Number" (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/FibonacciNumber
.html). MathWorld.
62. Glaister, P (1995), "Fibonacci power series",The Mathematical Gazette, 79 (486): 521–525, doi:10.2307/3618079 (https://doi.org/10.23
07%2F3618079), JSTOR 3618079 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3618079)
63. Köhler, Günter (February 1985),"Generating functions of Fibonacci-like sequences and decimal expansions of some fractions"
(http://w
ww.fq.math.ca/Scanned/23-1/kohler.pdf) (PDF), The Fibonacci Quarterly, 23 (1): 29–35, retrieved December 31, 2011
64. André-Jeannin, Richard (1989), "Irrationalité de la somme des inverses de certaines suites récurrentes",
Comptes Rendus de
l'Académie des Sciences, Série ,I 308 (19): 539–541, MR 0999451 (https://www.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0999451)
65. Weisstein, Eric W. "Millin Series" (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/MillinSeries.html)
. MathWorld.
66. Ribenboim, Paulo (2000), My Numbers, My Friends, Springer-Verlag
67. Su, Francis E (2000), "Fibonacci GCD's, please",Mudd Math Fun Facts (http://www.math.hmc.edu/funfacts/ffiles/20004.5.shtml), et al,
HMC
68. Williams, H. C. (1982), "A note on the Fibonacci quotient ", Canadian Mathematical Bulletin, 25 (3): 366–370, doi:10.4153/CMB-
1982-053-0 (https://doi.org/10.4153%2FCMB-1982-053-0) , MR 0668957 (https://www.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0668957).
Williams calls this property "well known".
69. Prime Numbers, Richard Crandall, Carl Pomerance, Springer
, second edition, 2005, p.142.
70. Weisstein, Eric W. "Fibonacci Prime" (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/FibonacciPrime.html)
. MathWorld.
71. Honsberger, Ross (1985), "Mathematical Gems III", AMS Dolciani Mathematical Expositions(9): 133, ISBN 978-0-88385-318-4
72. Cohn, JHE (1964), "Square Fibonacci Numbers etc"(http://math.la.asu.edu/~checkman/SquareFibonacci.html)
, Fibonacci Quarterly, 2:
109–13
73. Pethő, Attila (2001), "Diophantine properties of linear recursive sequences II",
Acta Mathematica Academiae Paedagogicae
Nyíregyháziensis, 17: 81–96
74. Bugeaud, Y; Mignotte, M; Siksek, S (2006), "Classical and modular approaches to exponential Diophantine equations. I. Fibonacci and
Lucas perfect powers",Ann. Math., 2 (163): 969–1018, arXiv:math/0403046 (https://arxiv.org/abs/math/0403046),
Bibcode:2004math......3046B (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004math......3046B)
, doi:10.4007/annals.2006.163.969(https://doi.org/1
0.4007%2Fannals.2006.163.969)
75. Ming, Luo (1989), "On triangular Fibonacci numbers"(http://www.fq.math.ca/Scanned/27-2/ming.pdf) (PDF), Fibonacci Quart., 27 (2):
98–108
76. Knott, Ron, The Fibonacci numbers(http://www.maths.surrey.ac.uk/hosted-sites/R.Knott/Fibonacci/fibtable.html)
, UK: Surrey
77. Ribenboim, Paulo (1996), The New Book of Prime Number Records, New York: Springer, p. 64, ISBN 978-0-387-94457-9
78. Lemmermeyer 2000, pp. 73–4, ex. 2.25–28.
79. Lemmermeyer 2000, pp. 73–4, ex. 2.28.
80. Lemmermeyer 2000, p. 73, ex. 2.27.
81. Fibonacci and Lucas factorizations(http://mersennus.net/fibonacci/), Mersennus collects all known factors ofF(i) with i < 10000.
82. Factors of Fibonacci and Lucas numbers(http://fibonacci.redgolpe.com/), Red golpe collects all known factors ofF(i) with 10000 < i <
50000.
83. Freyd, Peter; Brown, Kevin S. (1993), "Problems and Solutions: Solutions: E3410",
The American Mathematical Monthly, 99 (3): 278–
279, doi:10.2307/2325076 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2325076), JSTOR 2325076 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2325076)
84. Koshy, Thomas (2007), Elementary number theory with applications, Academic Press, p. 581,ISBN 978-0-12-372487-8
85. Weisstein, Eric W. "Fibonacci n-Step Number" (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Fibonaccin-StepNumber
.html). MathWorld.

Works cited
Ball, Keith M (2003), "8: Fibonacci's Rabbits Revisited",Strange Curves, Counting Rabbits, and Other Mathematical Explorations
,
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-11321-0.
Beck, Matthias; Geoghegan, Ross (2010),The Art of Proof: Basic Training for Deeper Mathematics, New York: Springer, ISBN 978-1-
4419-7022-0.
Bóna, Miklós (2011), A Walk Through Combinatorics(3rd ed.), New Jersey: World Scientific, ISBN 978-981-4335-23-2.

Bóna, Miklós (2016), A Walk Through Combinatorics(4th Revised ed.), New Jersey: World Scientific, ISBN 978-981-3148-84-0.
Lemmermeyer, Franz (2000), Reciprocity Laws: From Euler to Eisenstein, Springer Monographs in Mathematics, New Y ork: Springer,
ISBN 978-3-540-66957-9.
Livio, Mario (2003) [2002]. The Golden Ratio: The Story of Phi, the World's Most Astonishing Number
(First trade paperback ed.). New
York City: Broadway Books. ISBN 0-7679-0816-3.
 Lucas, Édouard (1891),Théorie des nombres (in French), 1, Paris: Gauthier-Villars, https://books.google.com/books?
id=_hsPAAAAIAAJ.
Pisano, Leonardo (2002),Fibonacci's Liber Abaci: A Translation into Modern English of the Book of Calculation, Sources and Studies in
the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences, Sigler
, Laurence E, trans, Springer, ISBN 978-0-387-95419-6

External links
Periods of Fibonacci Sequences Mod mat MathPages
Scientists find clues to the formation of Fibonacci spirals in nature
Fibonacci Sequence on In Our Time at the BBC
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001) [1994], "Fibonacci numbers", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer Science+Business Media B.V
./
Kluwer Academic Publishers,ISBN 978-1-55608-010-4
OEIS sequence A000045 (Fibonacci numbers)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fibonacci_number&oldid=881707842

"

This page was last edited on 4 February 2019, at 08:43(UTC).

Text is available under theCreative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to
the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of theWikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.