Chapter 6

Meat Processing

Muhammad Issa Khan, Amna Sahar and Eric Dufour*

Abstract
Meat is a widely-consumed food all over the world and is a rich source of nutrients
including proteins (or their building blocks, amino-acids), fatty acids, vitamin B12,
iron and zinc. The nutritional value of meat depends on the type and quality of the
meat. Meat is typically high in protein and vitamins. Biochemical composition of
meat depends on the species, age, sex, breed, plan of nutrition, training and exercise
of the animal, along with the anatomical position of the musculature complex. Meat
processing plays a prominent role for the utilization of meat resources and is
considered necessary to provide high quality meat products to the consumers. This
chapter provides an overview of different processing techniques for poultry, lamb,
cattle and fish meat. The chapter also highlights the nutritional status of the meat.
Moreover, different quality control measures in meat processing are also discussed
in this chapter.
Keywords: meat, meat processing, nutrition, meat preservation, quality control
6.

*
Muhammad Issa Khan
National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
For correspondance: [email protected]

Amna Sahar
Department of Food Engineering, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.

Eric Dufour
DRRT Auvergne, Ministry of Higher Education and Research, Prefecture of Auvergne Region, 63033
Clermont-Ferrand, France

Managing editors: Iqrar Ahmad Khan and Muhammad Farooq

Editors: Tahir Zahoor and Masood Sadiq Butt
University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
166 M.I. Khan, A. Sahar and E. Dufour

6.1. Introduction
Meat and meat products are rich source of nutrients including fatty acids, proteins,
vitamin B12, zinc and iron. Meat is usually categorized into red meat and white
meat, the intensity involving color in various meats depends on the volume of
myoglobin it has. Various meats however, tend to have a higher nutritional price,
and red meat is recognized to contain a rich way to obtain iron. A number of factors
like breed, gene, diet, fatness and pH affect the products during the processing of
meat. Eventually, quality of meat is well-defined in terms of consumer suitability,
which consists of tenderness, juiciness and physical attributes for instance, excess
fat, color, visible mineral water quantity and textural form that have a major
influence in consumer satisfaction (Brewer et al. 2001). Technologies regarding
processing of meat were established particularly in Europe and Asia. The European
technologies apparently are more effective, as they were scattered and implemented
with a significant level in other areas of the world through their highest
establishments of cheese frankfurter-type sausages, baked ham and burger patties.
Fermented type traditional Asian products are prevalent in their countries of origin.
But Western-style products have gained the top hand and achieved an increased
market share than those conventional products. According to FAO, consumption of
meat in developing countries is constantly increasing from an average annual per
capita consumption of 10 kg in the 1960 to 26 kg in 2000 and may extend 37 kg
around the year 2030. This estimate suggests that in a few years, consumption of
meat in developing countries will shift towards a high level. But it has reached a
plateau for 10 years now in European countries and in several countries, it is now
decreasing. In Western countries, several NGOs have also taken into account
animal welfare issues, encourage reduced meat consumption to mitigate climate
change.
Processing of meat plays a key part for the utilization of meat, containing almost all
palatable animal portions for human meals intake. Non-meat additives are
commonly used to enhance the product appearance, size and quality regarding meat
products from muscle mass meat. Hygienic condition is an important aspect for
meat products and processing technologies will never provide adequate results
when there is no proper meat hygiene arrangement. In light of a legitimate concern
for foodstuff wellbeing and purchaser assurance, progressively stringent hygienic
measures are vital at national and universal business levels. Key issues in that
appreciation are Good Hygienic Practices (GHP) and Hazard Analysis along with
Critical Control Point (HACCP). In any case, some of these strategies must be seen
as screening methods basically and can't supplement particular research laboratory
control, which may be actually needed. Changing the consumer preference and
raising worldwide competition bringing about the real meat item assembling
portion to new meat handling innovations and new compound frameworks, which
may be exceptional in the event that one considers the truly conventional and
dependable methodology and procedural improvement for meat products inside the
related business. This is probably due to the long ranking positive user recognition
that meat products are incredibly great cradles of nutrients, minerals, vitamins, and
have "complete" healthy proteins (Verbeke et al. 2010).
6. Meat Processing 167

6.2. Meat Composition and Nutritional Value

Nutritional composition of an animal food varies with the breed, area, feeding
regimen, season, meat cut. Generally, red meat has lower fat and cholesterol levels.
The meat of animal is excellent source of protein, different water soluble and
minerals providing 25% RDI of these nutrients, 10% RDI from riboflavone,
pantothenic acid and selenium. Mutton is nutrient dense good source of thiamine,
vitamin B6 & B12, iron and copper.

6.2.1. Protein and Amino Acids

Raw red muscle meat generally contains 20 to 25 g/100 g protein while cooked
meat has 28 to 30 g/100 g of protein. This is due to the fact that nutrients become
more concentrated after cooking because of evaporation of moisture. Meat proteins
also have high digestibility (94%) as compared to beans (78%) and wheat proteins
(86%) (Bhutta 1999). Meat proteins also contain all essential amino acids and have
no limiting amino acids. Protein quality of animal meat has scored about 0.9,
whereas plant proteins scored 0.5- 0.7, based on Digestibility corrected Amino
Acid score method (PDCASS). Glutamic acid is abundantly present (16.5%) in
meat proteins. Other important amino acids include aspartic acid, alanine and
arginine (Schaafsma 2000).

6.2.2. Fats and Fatty Acids

Amount of total fat varies widely among different species. Beef cuts sometimes
contain up to 37% fat whereas veal steaks only contain 1%. In fillet steak total
separable fat is decreased from 10% to 6.6% and in rump steak 18% to 12%. Total
fat trend is gained to lower the fat content due to the reasons including careful
feeding, selective breeding to improve lean to fat ratio, classification of meat,
marketing and butchery techniques (Higgs 2000). Fatty acids from meat play an
important role in maintaining health.
Linoleic acid is playing a key role in controlling and showing positive anti-
carcinogenic, anti-atherogenic, anti-obesity and anti-diabetic effects. In the fatty
and lean meat of beef and veal palmitic acid is about half of the saturated portion
and stearic acid consists of remaining portion. On the other hand, lamb meat
usually contains almost similar ratio of these fatty acids. In cuts of meat fatty acids
are in different range, polyunsaturated portion vary from 11% to 29%. Per serving
of red meat contains 60 mg of ecosa pentnoic acid (EPA) and decosa hexaenoic
acid (DHA) which is less than lamb muscle meat. Meat is also a frequent source of
long chain n-3 PUFAS (Howe et al. 2006). Ruminants have Trans-fats which are
produced by the action of the rumen bacteria under the process of
biohydrogenation. Trans-fatty acid level is high in raw and cooked meat of lamb as
compared to beef. Contents of Trans-fats in raw meat vary from 2 mg/100 g (veal)
to 123 g/100 g (lamb) (Droulez et al. 2006).
168 M.I. Khan, A. Sahar and E. Dufour

6.2.3. Vitamins
Bioavailable vitamins can be obtained from meat in significant amounts e.g.
Vitamin B12 fulfilling about 2/3 daily requirement in a 100 g serving of meat
(Table 6.1). Pork is a rich source of Thiamine, but 100 g serving of red meat
contains 25% RDI of vitamin B6, riboflavin, pentothenic acid and niacin. Vitamin
A level in lean meat tissue is low but is excellent source of folate and vitamin A.
Younger animals have lower vitamin levels as compared to the old age animals.
Meat has lower vitamin D contents and this is not usually included in nutritional
chart. 25-OH vitamin D has high biological value as compared to vitamin D3 and
100 g beef can provide 12% of the RDI of this vitamin to a 51-70 years old person
(National Health and Medical Research Council 2006). Lamb meat can provide
about 25% of this nutrient to elderly people.

Table 6.1 Nutrient composition (per 100g) of lean red meat

Beef Veal Lamb Mutton
Protein (g) 23.20 24.80 21.90 21.50
Fat (g) 2.80 1.50 4.70 0.25
Energy (kJ) 498.00 477.00 546.00 514.00
Moisture (g) 73.10 74.80 72.90 73.20
Cholesterol (mg) 50.00 51.00 66.00 66.00
Thiamin (mg) 0.04 0.06 0.12 00.16
Niacin (mg) 5.00 16.00 5.20 8.00
Pantothenic acid (mg) 0.35 1.50 0.74 1.33
Vitamin B6 (mg) 0.52 0.80 0.10 0.80
Vitamin B12 (μg) 2.50 1.60 0.96 2.80
Vitamin A (μg) <5.00 <5.00 8.60 7.80
Beta-carotene(μg) 10.00 <5.00 <5.00 <5.00
Riboflavin (mg) 0.18 0.20 0.23 0.25
Alpha-tocopherol (mg) 0.63 0.50 0.44 0.20
Sodium (mg) 51.00 51.00 69.00 71.00
Calcium (mg) 4.50 6.50 7.20 6.60
Magnesium (mg 25.00 26.00 28.00 28.00
Copper (mg) 0.12 0.08 0.12 0.22
Iron (mg) 1.80 1.10 2.00 3.80
Zinc (mg) 4.60 4.20 4.50 3.90
Phosphorus (mg) 215.00 260.00 194.00 290.00
Selenium (μg) 17.00 <10.00 14.00 <10.00
Potassium (mg) 363.00 362.00 344.00 365.00
(Williams et al. 2007; Sadler et al. 1993; Sinclair et al. 1999)

6.2.4. Minerals
Beef and mutton are also the largest sources of mineral, especially zinc and iron
and 100 g of meat gives minimally one-fourth of RDI (Table 6.1). The iron present
in the meat is mostly haem-iron and it is well absorbed. The protein in meat
increases the absorption of iron. Likewise, the zinc absorption from the diet that
6. Meat Processing 169

contains high contents of animal feed is higher than that of plant foods. This is why
the vegetarians might have 50% higher zinc requirement (National Health and
Medical Research Council 2006). Selenium is also abundantly present in red meat
(20% RDI). However, the place where animal feeds and time of the year in which
sample is taken, can have noticeable effects on the selenium values. The
potassium/sodium ratios in Lean meat are greater than five. This meat has low
levels of sodium. The range of copper in lean meat is 0.055 to 0.190mg per
100gram in beef and veal. It ranges from 0.090 to 0.140mg per 100gram in lamb
meat, and in mutton it ranges from 0.190 to 0.240 mg per 100 g. All these values
are considerably higher than that reported in British meat.

6.2.5. Bioactive Compounds

Bioactive compounds also have significant beneficial health effects (Arihara 2006).
Taurine is a very important amino acid present in red meat (110 mg/100 g of lamb
and 77 mg/100 g of beef). L-cartinine occurs in the skeletal muscles and it is
abundant in sheep muscle at the rate of 209 mg per 100 g and in beef it is present
about 60mg/100 g. It assists the transportation of long chain fatty acids across the
inner membranes of mitochondria. It is also reported that CLA has antioxidants and
immunoregulatory properties and it takes part in control of obesity. It is present in
the fatty portion of red meat (1 g/100 g) but significant amount is also present in
muscle portion (46 mg/100 g) (Droulez et al. 2006). Creatine is another important
bioactive substance which involves in the metabolism of muscle energy increase
muscle performance. Red meat has about 350 mg per 100 g creatine.

6.3. Animal Slaughtering and Dressing

6.3.1. Lamb Slaughtering and Dressing
The numerous stages of mutton processing start right form animal entrance up to
final slaughtering, chilling and dispatch contains of following steps of series.
6.3.1.1. Arrival and Inspection
Inspection of animals is carried out to check the diseased and unhealthy animal
before taking to the slaughter house for slaughtering. The animals should be
examined from various edges, for instance, region of all body parts, normal
salivation and digestive system. Animals become ready for stunning after
inspection.
6.3.1.2. Slaughtering
If the animal is considered to be healthy, first give water to drink (appease its thirst)
and is then indicated towards Mecca be slaughtered. Conferring to Islamic method,
the traditional procedures for slaughtering contain cutting the large artery with one
swipe of a no-serrated blade accompanied by the esophagus and trachea. This
method works a dual function: it gives quite painless death and also effectively
draining of blood from animal. The death of animal is more merciful and cleaner.
Animal is not handled during process of blood draining till it has died. As the
170 M.I. Khan, A. Sahar and E. Dufour

animal died, it is then manacled by a hind leg and hoisted on to the dressing trolley
or overhead rail for collecting any blood in a trough (Harris 2002).
6.3.1.3. Skinning and Dehiding
Initial cutting of the skin is completed around the leg to loosen and expose the
tendon of the hock by hanging the carcass for removal of skin. Pelting includes the
elimination of whole skin and preparation of the animal body for evisceration. In
the hoist position, using the skinning knife, first legging is started at the back of the
free (unsuspended) leg by eliminating the skin around the hock and working toward
the toes. On a concrete slab, animal is positioned on its back on a flat raised up
surface. Cutting and fisting is started at the forelegs, afterward working to the belly
and sides of the animal is done ending with hind legs. The tendon among the toes
and hock is obvious and loosened.
6.3.1.4. 6.3.1.4. Evisceration
With the external structures like head, skin and feet detached, the next to it is
evisceration step which involves is to cut and open the animal body to separate the
visceral organs and contents of carcass. Evisceration method must be established
and applied for suitable sanitary dressing. The instrument should be sterilized to
stop contamination. In-place evisceration operations have automated viscera
removal system that will often contain automatic sanitation. Carcasses should be
properly handled during the processing to prevent the chances of any contamination
caused by viscera.
6.3.1.5. Postmortem Inspection
Carcass of the set of organ is recognized for inspection. Professional veterinarians
carried out the inspection but in some parts of the world qualified public health
inspectors are employed. Their duty is to look at the slaughter products for
indication of abnormality and disease and remove them from the public meat
supply.
6.3.1.6. Carcass Washing
Usually spray washing is practiced in most processing plants and care should be
taken to maintain the spray patterns, water pressure, volume and time for proper
cleaning in the washing cabinet. High pressure can move the contaminants into the
carcass. Additionally, there should be proper drainage system to prevent extra
contamination. Maintenance system must be observed at regular intervals to ensure
the proper working of all the equipment. The standard working parameters should
also be documented properly to ensure the effectiveness of procedure (Mastracchio
2003).
6.3.1.7. Cutting
Generally, lamb carcasses are not divided into halves immediately after dressing
Firstly, thin cuts are made to separate breast, forelegs and flank. After the removal
of thin cuts, diaphragm is removed. After that neck is removed either in thin parts
or in a single piece. Then the carcass is divided into four primal cuts having
different properties. Shoulder is removed by giving a cut between fifth and sixth
6. Meat Processing 171

rib. Loin is removed from the ribs by providing another cut between the twelfth and
thirteenth rib. Hind legs are separated from the loin from the front of hip bones.
6.3.1.8. Packaging
For the most part carcasses are wrapped under the cotton and afterward either
stuffed with shell ice in containers or sent to blast cooler. The product is stored in
cold chain after freezing. To transport chilled and frozen mutton refrigerated trucks
are utilized utilization point. Packaging has a huge immediate impact, particularly
in fatty meats and meat products during storage. Large meat boxes are frozen in
storage rooms to stop enzymatic and bacterial activity. If meat is frozen without
any wrapping, then the chances of freeze-burn are increased which toughens the
meat and cause lipid oxidation. Wrapping is usually done in firmly fitting packs
having low moisture and oxygen permeability (vacuum pack) to increase the
storage life. Additionally, waterproof tight packing is used to prevent freeze-burn
and formation of ice crystals in the pack (Taylor 1985).

6.3.2. Slaughtering and Dressing of Cattle

Cattle slaughtered for meat production have weight range from 250 kg to 600 kg,
depending on the breed and age of the animal. As a guide, cows 350–400 kg,
heifers weigh 250–300 kg.
6.3.2.1. Pre-Handling of Cattle
Basic slaughtering method for beef cattle has become more efficient and automated
over the past few decades. Improvements have arisen in stunning, evisceration;
hide removal and splitting method. Cattle are carried to the slaughter house in
trucks and delivered into holding pens, where they are relaxed for 1 or 2 days
before slaughtering. Any cattle categorized as ‘dirty’ are washed.
6.3.2.2. Dhabiha or Zabiha of the Animal
Proceeding to slaughter eyes and ears of the animal are tested to confirm that the
animal is suitable and healthy for slaughter
6.3.2.3. Dressing and Hide Removal
Dressing and evisceration take place in the slaughter hall. The animal can be
unshackled and laid in a cradle or the carcass hangs from the overhead rail for
dressing. The head, skin and hoofs are removed, after washing the head, tongue and
brain separated. Hide is detached carefully and then sent to hide processing unit
where it is chilled on ice or salted for preservation.
6.3.2.4. Pre-Evisceration Decontamination
Washing with hot or cold water and bathing with chemical like organic acid are
pre-evisceration mediation. Before decontamination and chilling beef carcasses is
inevitably washed. Bacterial contamination are removed with cold water is as
effective as knife trimming but both treatment used simultaneously are not effective
(Gill and Bryant 1997). Hot water is more effective than cold water as it removes
bacteria along with reduction in microbial load.
172 M.I. Khan, A. Sahar and E. Dufour

6.3.2.5. Evisceration
Viscera are removed by opening the carcass. The intestines and stomach are
cleaned from emptied manure for additional processing. Edible offal (lungs,
tongue, heart and liver) is detached carefully then washed and chilled. The
carcasses are cut into pieces, clean and then for rapid chilling it is sent to cold
storage unit. In evisceration process, cutting of esophagus near to stomach increase
the risk of deterioration of meat with pathogenic bacteria. If high level of
contamination is caused during handling then carcass should be treated
appropriately. Care should be taken to keep viscera intact that will stop
contamination either by direct or aerosol contamination. The automated eviscelator
has the capability to handle 360 carcasses/hr and it can also be used for cleaning
purposes. The robot is used for removal of intestine and the pluck set so that
separation of carcass is done manually which improve the hygiene as compared
with current manual method. The automated eviscelators consist of handling and
measuring station. The measuring station automatically determines the location of
carcass close to cutting operation then handling station identify where the carcass is
to be cut. On the slaughter line, the measuring station is placed before opening the
carcass. The handling station has seven tools.
1) An opening thorax
2) Parts for fitting the carcass
3) Unified cutter for tenderloin, opposing the bracket and of lung released
4) For transporting and handling conveyor system is necessary
5) A unit specially meant for detaching the attachment of intestine from spine
and at spine, separating through diaphragm
6) A shovel for intestines
7) Separation of leaf and diaphragm fat is done in brackets. Every bracket
contains mechanical knife that cuts the diaphragm in.
The conveyor system uplifts and pushes the carcass while handling station and
intestines are uplifted by shovel from the carcass and increasing the exposure of
insertion point for fat bracket. The carcass is pushed by leaf fat bracket and opens
it. Then the thorax opener opens the thorax. Intestines will fall down through the
opening and diaphragm is cut free by knives in the leaf fat brackets. Back cutters
move along and upward to spine, penetrate and cut through connective tissue and
diaphragm between intestine tract and spine (Templer 1998).
6.3.2.6. Chilling
At the completion of dressing process, chilling happens in cool (−5 to 4°C) air
chambers with or without discontinuous spraying carcass with chilled water for
variable length of time between 12–24 hours, while the aggregate chilling
procedure keeps going on for 24–48 hours (Gill and Bryant 1997; Simpson et al.
2006). Spray-chilling has been a routine process in many beef plants on the grounds
that it helps to reduce the temperature and moisture loss from carcass surface and
ultimately weight. Such a methodology may cause bacterial inactivation and
destruction either because of freezing of carcass surface moisture when cooled
6. Meat Processing 173

underneath 0°C or because of loss of water in form of vapors from carcass surface
(Simpson et al. 2006). On the other hand, chilling is a venture for control of
microbial development as opposed to sterilization mediation, since it depends
chiefly on temperatures, unless pre-chilling sterilization intercessions have been
implemented, or antimicrobials are included into the spray-chilling water, which,
consolidated with cool temperatures, may prompt the destruction of harmed cells.
Surely, chilling of pig, sheep, and meat carcass with cool water may build amounts
of psychrotrophs and repress development of E. coli and coliforms (Jericho et al.
1998; Gill and Landers 2003).
6.3.2.7. Carcass Cutting and Boning
Carcass handling and cutting is much easy followed by chilling. So, carcass boning
and cutting frequently happen after chilling. The term “Boning” is used to depict
the procedure of removing meat from the bone. Late improvements in processing
technology have disposed of chilling process and made it conceivable to embrace
boning even carcass is still warm. This is alluded to as 'hot boning'.
6.3.2.8. Carcass Inspection
Viscera and bodies are investigated to Fig. out whether they are suitable for human
utilization. Every carcass and its segments are identified and placed together
wherever conceivable until review is finished. At different stages the whole time,
inedible by-products, for example, condemned offal, hair, heads and bone are
produced. These materials are transported rendering plants either off-site or on
location to render these into animal feed.
6.3.2.9. Carcass Cutting
After chilling, carcass temperature is approximately 2ºC. Further cutting of carcass
is done during secondary processing. In automated plants, equipment used for
secondary processing consists of a conveyor and the following stations:
1) Laying-down station
2) Measuring station
3) Sawing station
Two halves of the carcasses are horizontally placed on the conveyer belt at laying-
down station where gambrel and hind feet are removed simultaneously. Carcass is
then transferred to the measuring station where it is held by a hook from pubic bone
and position of the carcass is adjusted according to the position of the saw equipped
in sawing station. After that the carcass is taken to the sawing station where it is
further divided into fore-ends, middles and hind legs.
In most of the processing plants, manual cutting of rib tops, loin and belly is done
by using circular and band saw. However, automated cutting lines consist of:
• A conveyor
• A measuring station
• A sawing station
174 M.I. Khan, A. Sahar and E. Dufour

Rib tops are pulled by a grasping device equipped with the conveyer to straighten
the backbone which facilitates the cutting of rib tops. Then the conveyer brings the
fixed middle to the measuring station to check the accuracy of fixation. Saws are
adjusted according to the placement of middle and then it is sent to the sawing
station to separate the belly from loin and loin from the rib tops. Fore-ends are
usually de-boned manually but in some modern plants, tools are also introduced for
this operation. A number of knives are equipped in the cutting section to remove
different parts of the fore-end. First two knives loose the meat deeper behind the
neck bone while the next knife cuts the riblet. The last knife cuts the neck bone.
Tenderloin knife is used to cut the humerus, shoulder and shank bones. After that
the tool is moved downwards to cut the thorax region. Thorax is separated from the
lungs and opened by using a thorax opener. After that hot water treatment is
applied to the equipment before the arrival of next carcass (Robertson, 1994). Hind
leg cuts are considered expensive so mostly manual boning is done with ultimate
precision. Boning and trimming of bellies is done manually. However, in some
modern plants tools are developed for boning and trimming of this region. In some
processing units vision guided robots are used to cut detach the bellies from the
ribs. Manual boning of loin is a common practice around the world because it is a
very expensive cut and requires skill. However, in some modern plants fat is
trimmed from the loin by automated system.
6.3.2.10. Freezing
Currently, meat is frozen in 25 kg cartons as whole carcass, quarters and primal
cuts for processing. Meat is often frozen twice before it arrives to the customer.
Frozen meat is thawed before processed into different products. These products are
then refrozen before marketing. A shelf life of 6-18 months is claimed for frozen
meat products stored at -18oC (Ashrae 2006).
6.3.2.11. Packaging
A variety of packaging technologies is available for fresh, raw, cooked, refrigerated
and frozen meat products. Most widely used packaging types include modified-
atmosphere packaging (MAP) and vacuum packaging. MAP is a common practice
which involves packaging of beef in plastic trays sealed with plastic films with
excellent barrier properties. The modified atmospheres contain an altered ratio of
oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide each of which has a specific
function. Nitrogen is used as a diluent and has no preservative effect on the meat.
Oxygen concentration is adjusted to maintain the bright red color of meat during
the storage. Bacterial growth is inhibited by adjusting the concentration of carbon
dioxide. Usually the modified atmosphere contains 80% O2 and 20% CO2 or 30%
CO2 along with 69.6% nitrogen (Farber 1991).Vacuum packaging is also a type of
MAP which involves the wrapping of beef in the plastic pouches having strong
oxygen, moisture and gas barrier properties. Cuts are packed in plastic bags and air
is removed from the bags by using vacuum creator and then sealed immediately.
Bags are tumbled in hot water which causes shrinkage of the pouch edges and gives
strength and attractive appearance. Oxygen-free environment in the package
significantly increases the shelf life of the product by preventing lipid oxidation and
inhibiting microbial activities.
6. Meat Processing 175

6.3.3. Poultry Slaughtering and Dressing

Poultry birds are usually kept for meat and eggs. Poultry birds include; chicken,
geese, ducks, turkeys and guinea fowl. Poultry meat is the second most widely
eaten meat in the world which accounts for about 30% of global meat production.
Essential source of animal protein is consumable poultry. For instance, in the U.S.
per capita consumption of poultry industry has developed a highly efficient
production system as a four-fold since the end of World War II. Chicken and
Turkey are known as the prominent sources of poultry, whereas other contributors
include ostriches, pheasants, ducks, pigeons, geese, emus and quails.
6.3.3.1. Pre-Slaughter Handling
When the poultry birds have arrived to their harvesting time their digestive tracts
are emptied by taking off of feed and water this is helpful during processing in
contamination.
At night time the animals are trapped by especially trained personnel and kept those
into wooden cages or plastic then are sent to slaughterhouse.
6.3.3.2. Slaughtering
Manually or mechanical rotary knife is used to kill the birds that slices the carotid
arteries and jugular veins at neck. If a bird misses by machine then they are swiftly
slaughtered manually with knife by a person. Then birds are let to bleed for a fix
period of time.
6.3.3.3. Scalding
Birds are put into hot water in scalding tank after slaughtering which unstiffen the
skin so as to feathers can be removed easily. In scalding tank water temperature is
maintained very carefully. A low-scald temperature is used to get yellow skin color.
To acquire white bird, higher temperature in maintained in scalding tank.
6.3.3.4. Defeathering
After scalding, carcasses are now entered into feather-picking machine that is
precisely designed to remove feathers by specific rubber called “fingers”. At this
stage carcasses are singed by passing over a flame that burns the feathers.
6.3.3.5. Removal of Heads and Legs
With the help of knives and shafts the heads and legs are detached manually but in
industry they are cut off mechanically by passing through a channel. Rotating knife
remove the legs of birds.
6.3.3.6. Evisceration
In evisceration, the spleen and glands are separated and the vent is let open for
pulling out the viscera. Evisceration process can be completed manually using
hands and knives or either by using mechanical complex devices. Automated
evisceration machines can perform at 70 birds per minute. Edible offal includes
heart, liver and stomach that are processed separately. Stomach is usually opened to
176 M.I. Khan, A. Sahar and E. Dufour

remove its contents along with inside yellow lining followed by detachment of
lungs and nephrons individually from the other visceral organs.
6.3.3.7. Chilling
After evisceration, the carcasses are washed and cooled up to 4°C. The most
commonly employed methods of chilling poultry carcasses include air chilling and
water chilling.

6.4. Meat Processing and Preservation

6.4.1. Cooler Storage (Postmortem Aging)
Aging of meat also known as ripening or conditioning is a natural process and is
helpful in improving palatability characters of meat. Aging is done on commercial
basis by storing the meat in controlled refrigerated conditions and it improves
tenderness and flavor (McGee 2004) of beef. The proteases in postmortem period
breakdown the proteins result in tenderness during conversion of muscle into meat.
The high rate of breakdown during the first three to seven days resulted in faster
increase in tenderness. The Aging time and temperature both are very important to
obtain a tender product as tenderness of meat increases with increasing aging time.
Tenderness varies with the type of muscle being aged and different muscles need
variable aging period to achieve improved tenderness and to reach an appropriate
level for perception by the consumers. There are other characters (flavor, mouth
feel and juiciness) of beef demanded by consumer are also improved by aging.
Aged beef has a specific salty flavorful or roasted odor as compared to un-aged
beef which has weak unpleasant odor. The slaughtering of animal results in
stoppage of circulatory system and metabolic by-products like lactic acid gather in
muscles and consequently a decrease in pH which favors change in flavor (Yancey
et al. 2005). Aging also has a great influence on the color of beef as during aging it
is improved and protein degrades. The breakdown of large molecular weighed
protein also results in the production of different amino acids that also add positive
characteristics in the aged beef (Jayasooriya et al. 2007). The rate of lipid oxidation
increases as the aging time increased resulting in release of products that react with
the protein degradation products imparting intense flavor to aged beef. If aging
time is increased for longer periods of time, this may also result in the off flavor
development because of presence of unsaturated fatty acids. The postmortem
glycolysis results in reduction of adenosine triphosphate and enhanced level of
lactate in the sarcoplasm. The lipolysis, proteolysis and oxidation are biochemical
variations occurring during postmortem aging (Yu et al. 2005). Proteolysis includes
the breakdown of myofibrillar proteins releasing peptides and amino acids are
responsible for taste properties and flavor characteristics and acts as water-soluble
flavor precursors (Koutsidis et al. 2008). These products can react with reducing
sugars and contributes to meat flavor. Free fatty acids are released by degradation
of lipids resulting in production of peroxides which reacts with peptides to form
aroma compounds. Quality of meat product depends upon pre-mortem and
postmortem factors. Pre-mortem factors that affect the quality of final aged product
are breed of animal, its diet either high energy or low energy and the most
6. Meat Processing 177

important muscle selection for aging. Aging enhances the total loss and also the
cook loss as water is expressed resulting in increased trim and total loss.
6.4.1.1. Dry vs Wet Aging
Commonly, two methods namely dry and wet aging, are utilized at commercial
scale. In dry aging meat is placed in refrigerated room without any packaging while
in wet aging, meat is vacuumed packed and stored (Smith et al. 2008). The average
time commercially used for meat especially beef is around about seven days
(Adegoke and Falade 2005; Hopkins and Thompson 2002). Temperature (around
0oC), relative humidity (80-85%), optimum air velocity and ultra violet light are
primary factors influencing the quality of aged beef. The normal time for beef
aging is 28-35 days after slaughtering and extension in time enhanced the textural
and flavor properties. The dry aged beef has beefy, brown and roasted flavor which
differs it from bloody and metallic notes of wet aged beef. Quality comparison of
dry and wet aged meat is mentioned in Table 6.2.

Table 6.2 Quality comparison of dry and wet aged meat

Parameters Dry Aging Wet Aging
Tenderness Improved Improved
Flavor Nutty and beefy Unchanged
Yield Up to 30% loss from moisture and Minimal Loss
excess trimming
Cost Greatly increased from extended Slightly increased
storage time, equipment purchase from extended storage
and decrease in yield time
Selling Price Always significantly increased Varies
(US Meat Export Federation, 2016)

6.4.1.2. Meat Quality Parameters Influenced by Aging

i. Meat Tenderness
The meat texture is presumed to be a most influential attribute deriving the
consumer satisfaction and eating preferences. The important determinants to
evaluate the texture of meat are moisture, fat, nature and concentration of structural
carbohydrates and proteins. The key determinants behind the success of a particular
meat product are the consumer perception of quality and acceptability of that
product. Meat palatability is one of the most representative attribute of meat quality
and is manifested as consumer satisfaction at consuming cooked meat in term of
consumer behavior. Meat tenderness is the major imperative factor of meat
palatability in comparison with all other underlying factors and fluctuating
tenderness is a major dilemma faced by the meat sector. Texture of meat is strongly
correlated with tenderness which in turn is associated with its mechanical strength
which is presumed to decrease during postmortem aging of meat. The connective
tissues that play a significant role in the tenderization process as disruption and
disintegration of connective tissues structure is of prime importance to observe the
proper tenderness. Calpains were primarily first observed in skeletal muscles by
Busch et al. (1972), and were found to dislocate and remove Z-disk from myofibrils
178 M.I. Khan, A. Sahar and E. Dufour

in presence of calcium ions, and also exhibiting other variations in the myofibrillar
proteins that could be associated to increased tenderness. In the degradation of both
myofibrillar and cytoskeletal proteins calpains have a major role to play thus
causing an overall increase in tenderness of meat. Meat tenderness relies on
numeral environmental and biological factors. Postmortem structural disruption and
disintegration of the myofibrils is the most important determinant of meat
tenderness and is necessary for tenderness enhancement. The shear force was
significantly lowered (tenderer) for those dry-aged for 21 days in comparison with
the steaks dry-aged for shorter periods. Aging has a beneficial effect on
tenderization (Partida et al. 2007) and it is seen to be improved more in the first ten
days and after that its rate becomes constant. Cifuni et al. (2004) found that
tenderization increased by extending the aging period from 8 to 15 days.
ii. Meat Flavor
Post-mortem aging of meat leads to meat tenderization by the action of endogenous
enzymes during a complex set of reactions that changes the amount of flavor
compounds. Aging contribute to structural changes and flavor development of
cooked meat. A significant alteration is observed in various chemical constituents
like sugars, organic acids, peptide, free amino acids and adenine nucleotide
metabolites like ATP during meat aging. Campo et al. (1999) stated that overall and
livery flavor intensity increased throughout ageing time. As a result of oxidation,
off flavors are produced during aging, which can be minimized through vacuum
packaging and use of intact loin steaks. Formation of many peptides during post
mortem process leads to the development of flavor precursors and this is related to
the evolution of flavor as new flavor components are formed as a result of their
reaction with other compounds. Ageing also results in an increase of acid flavor as
described by Spanier et al. (1997) especially after 10 days. Umami, butter fried
taste and tenderness of the samples increased as free amino acids and other beef
flavor precursors increase due to higher degree of proteolysis with the progress of
ageing time. Daszkiewicz et al. (2003) observed the better taste in beef samples of
longissimus lumborum conditioned at 0-2oC stored for longer period (10 to 14
days) than those conditioned for 3 to 7 days which proved as a positive effect of
aging on the organoleptic properties (Miller et al. 1997). Jeremiah and Gibson
(2003) observed increased tenderness, flavor intensity and desirability of beef ribs
and short loins aged for a period of four week. The beef aged for 7 days showed an
increased aftertaste and characteristic flavor (Gorraiz et al. 2006).
iii. Meat Color
The aging of meat affects the color components of beef as aged beef has brighter
and slightly redder color due to enzymatic changes that result in breakdown of
certain proteins. The maintenance of red color is considered the important quality
parameter while deciding quality of marinated meat and also a quality perception
by the consumer. The fresh red color of meat is presumed to be correlated with the
freshness of meat and therefore is given vital importance as all variation in muscle
is reflected through its color. Myoglobin content is the measure of the meat color
and it depends on several technological and biochemical factors. The color of meat
products subjected to same internal temperature varies significantly creating
6. Meat Processing 179

difficulties for meat industries to have consumer acceptance (Trout 1989). The
factors considered responsible for variation in color may include meat pigment
content, pH, protein denaturation, cooking temperature etc. (Trout and Schmidt
1984). Ageing results in protein hydrolysis by producing different amino acids that
cause pH to increase (Gasperlin et al. 2001; Jayasooriya et al. 2007). Ageing time
affects all CIE color parameters of longissimus dorsi muscle (Boakye and Mittal
1996).
iv. Water Holding Capacity and Cooking Loss
The moisture loss during fabrication, packaging and processing is major quality
characteristic and it is necessary to select a product which has high water holding
capacity as meat is sold on weight basis. Water holding capacity and color are often
related to ultimate pH and somewhat are utilized by packers as quality indicator of
muscle in meat. The enzymatic reaction of endogenous enzymes results in
decreased cooking loss as holding time is increased, the water holding capacity of
meat increases by the collagenase enzymes which fragmented the connective tissue
and myofibrillar proteins and improving water holding capacity by proteins (Bruce
et al. 2005). Cooking temperature up to 70oC, causes drastic changes in beef, such
as protein coagulation and reduction of beef protein network. Once beef internal
temperature during cooking reaches 70oC quickly that meat has low cooking loss
and juicer as compared to cook meat slowly at the same temperature. The reason of
low cooking loss at high heat (70oC) is rapid coagulation of proteins on the beef
surface and so swiftly forming a layer that decreases cooking losses by drip and
evaporation (Lawrie 1998). Laster et al. (2008) observed low cooking losses in dry-
aged top loin and top sirloin steaks. However, On the contrary, Laster et al. (2008)
and Smith et al. (2008) found low yield in dry-aged steaks in comparison with the
wet-aged steaks. The relative humidity in dry aging is kept around 85% as too high
humidity causes microbial growth and too low causes shrinkage and reduces the
juiciness (Perry 2002; Scilingo et al. 2002). The variable relative humidity reported
in literature as Parrish et al. (1991) studies a range of 80 to 85%.The compounds
responsible for flavor development become concentrated during the process of dry
aging resulting in improved flavor of the dry aged meat products. Moisture loss is
considered positive from a flavor standpoint. However, it leads to the poor product
yield of product, which is recuperated by high price of products. Parrish et al.
(1991) reported shrinkage in the range of 3.31% to 4.74% for ribs and loins dry-
aged for 14 days and 4.54% to 6.53% for those dry-aged for 21 days. Moreover,
trim loss up to 5.06% to 6.55% was also observed in steaks dry-aged for 21 days.
Oreskovich et al. (1988) pointed out that after 7 days of aging, 4.62% shrinkage
was reported in dry-aged striploins, which was significantly higher than steaks
packaged in polyvinyl chloride film (2.93%) and vacuum packed steaks (0.55%).
Cooking is essential parameter for sensory perception and is process of heating beef
at the elevated temperatures which deteriorate proteins, makes it palatable and
tender. The larger financial losses in beef industries are due to increased cooking
loss as it results in the loss of several essential minerals and vitamins ultimately
deteriorating nutritional quality of beef (Muchenje et al. 2008). Meat products are
generally cooked before eaten as cooking is essential to achieve safe and palatable
product (Tornberg 2005). Cooking can be done either by roasting or boiling but
180 M.I. Khan, A. Sahar and E. Dufour

losses take place in all processes (Shilton et al. 2002). Meat scientists and
technologists paid no attention to important quality characteristics cooking loss
which reduce the weight of beef during the cooking process.

6.4.2. Smoking
Smoking is a food preservation method in which food is exposed to smoke
generated by burning or smoldering wood. It improves the flavor of meat,
partially/fully cook it and preserve it for future uses. Meat and fish are most
commonly smoked foods though vegetables, cheese and some other food
ingredients are also smoked. Food smoking is dates back to the time of primitive
cavemen as cave or simple huts lacks chimneys and these dwellings become very
smoky. The cavemen hang extra meat to dry in their cave which get different flavor
and better preserved than simple dried due to deposition of smoke. Over the time
the process was combined with pre-curing the foods in salt or brine to improve its
preservation effective and this was adapted by various cultures around the world.
Alder is used as tradition wood for smoking in Europe but more often oak is used
and beech to lesser extent. Hickory, mesquite, oak, alder, pecan, maple and apple,
cheery plum fruit tree woods are commonly used for smoking in North America.
The fuel for smoking varied in different regions of the world based on availability,
acceptability and consumer preference. The method of smoking has been
progressively improved to meet the consumer’s demands with respect to sensory
properties and shelf life. It is assessed that about 40-60% of the meat is smoked.
Commonly, hardwood is used for smoking, mainly beech and oak. However, wood
rich in resins, together with coniferous and heather may be used for imparting
specific flavor or color to some products. In addition to change the sensory
properties, smoking also extends the shelf life of meats. The techniques for
smoking have been gradually improved to suit the necessities of people in different
regions of the world in order to improve the sensory properties and shelf life. The
temperature range from 180°C to 300°C, 260°C to 350° C, and 300°C to 500° C,
respectively required for thermal degradation in the wood constituents— cellulose,
lignin and hemicelluloses (IFT/FDA 2003). Smoking of meat followed by heat
processing is responsible for colour improvement in meat products. Brown colour
developed on the surface of many processed meat products is also enhanced by
smoking. The Maillard reaction during the browning develops characteristic brown
colour in smoked meat products. During this process, free amino groups of proteins
react with the carbonyl groups of sugars. These carbonyls are thought to have a
vital contribution in the colour development during smoking process.
Smoking also reduces the microbial load from meat surface which leads to storage
life extension. This is due to the bacteriostatic and bactericidal properties in
phenolic compounds and acids found in smoke. Smokes also have antioxidant
activities which help to prevent the rancidity. The process of imparting smoke
flavor is called as cold smoking when smoke house is operated at the temperature
range of 30-50oC while it is termed as hot smoking to accomplish flavoring and
cooking in smoke house as in second phase temperature is enhance to 80-100oC.
6. Meat Processing 181

6.4.2.1. Composition of Smoke

Smoke contains about 300 different compounds such as organic acids, phenols,
carbonyls, hydrocarbons, alcohols and gases (CO2, CO, O2, N, NOs). Smoke is
present in gaseous state at the point of generation, it quickly partitioned in to two
phases, vapor phase and a particle phase. The desired flavor and aroma of smoke is
due to the vapor phase because volatile compounds are mainly present in this
phase. It is usually claimed that vapor phase contributes about 95% of the total
flavor development in the smoked meat products. Additionally, generation of
several undesirable compounds like polycyclic hydrocarbons and tars is reduced
due to the elimination of particle phase through precipitation. As soon as the smoke
is generated, numerous reactions and condensation occur. Aldehydes and phenols
condense to form resins, which represent about 50% of the smoke components and
believed to provide most of the color in smoked meats. Poly phenols are also
produced as a result of condensation process.
i. Phenols
Twenty types of phenolic compounds have been isolated from wood smoke which
mainly include guaiacol, 4-methylguaiacol, phenol, 4-ethylguaiacol, o-cresol, m-
cresol, p-cresol, 4 propylguaiacol, eugenol, vanillin, 2,6-dimethoxyphenol, 2,6-
dimethoxy-4-methylphenol, 2,6-dimethoxyy-4-propylphenol. Phenols have the
following key roles in the smoking of meat:
• Act as antioxidants
• Impart color and flavor
• Have antibacterial properties
Phenolic compounds also possess strong antioxidant properties. The most common
antioxidants are 2,6-dimethoxyphenol, 2,6-dimethoxy-4-methylphenol, 2,6-
dimethoxyy-4-ethylphenol. In addition, phenols also contain antimicrobial
properties which are helpful in the preservation of smoked meat. Color stability of
meat is enhanced by reaction of carbonyls with amino acids. Flavor is generally
produced by guaiacol, 4 methyl- guaiacol, 2,6-dimethoxyphenol and syrinjol.
ii. Alcohol
Alcohols are also produced in the smoke in a significant quantity. The major
portion of alcohols comprises of methanol due to the destructive distillation of
wood. Alcohols are converted to their respective acids which have considerable
bactericidal effect. Primarily, alcohols act as carriers of various volatile compounds
and therefore do not have significant contribution in the development of meat
flavor.
iii. Organic Acids
Organic acids (containing 1-10 carbon atoms) are majorly found in the smoke.
Among these, acids having 1-4 carbon atoms (acetic acid, formic acid, butyric acid
etc.) are present in vapor phase, while organic acids containing 5-10 C-atoms
(valeric acid to capric acid) are usually a part of particle phase. Acids have a very
minute contribution in the development of flavor and aroma. However, these acids
182 M.I. Khan, A. Sahar and E. Dufour

are majorly responsible for skin formation and coagulation of surface proteins.
Organic acids also impart desired red color to the meat during smoking.
iv. Carbonyls
Carbonyls are also present in vapor phase as well as in the particle phase. 20
different kinds of carbonyls have been identified in the smoke including 2-
pentanone, valeraldehyde, 2-butanone, butanal, acetone, propanol, ethanal,iso
valeraldehyde, acrolein, isobutaraldehyde, diacetyl, 3-methyl-2-butanone,
pinacolene, 4-methyl-3-pentanone, tiglic aldehyde, 3-haxnone, 2-hexanone, 5-
methyl furfural, methylglyoxal etc. The largest proportion of smoke is in non-steam
distilled able form but carbonyls present in distilled able fraction majorly contribute
to aroma and color.
v. Hydrocarbons
A number of poly cyclic hydrocarbons have been isolated from the smoked
products. These include benz anthracene, dibenz anthracene, benz pyrene, benz
pyrene, benxo perylene, pyrene and 4-methyl pyrene. Benz pyrene and dibenz
anthracene are found to be carcinogenic in nature. Fortunately, these compounds do
not have any preservative and organoleptic effects on the meat so these
hydrocarbons can be removed during the particulate phase of the smoke. Liquid
smoke is also free from these carcinogenic hydrocarbons. Additionally, use of
fibrous casings for meat stuffing also prevents the permeation of hydrocarbons
during meat smoking.
vi. Gases
Smoke also contains a wide range of gases but significance of gaseous compounds
in developing flavor and color is not fully understood. Among these gases, CO2 and
CO are more efficiently readily absorbed on the meat surface and produce bright
red pigments, carboxymyoglobin and carbonmonoxide-myoglobin, respectively.
Oxygen reacts with myoglobin to form oxymyoglobin and metmyoglobin leading
to the development of muddy color. More importantly, nitrous oxide produces
nitrosamines and nitrites in smoked meat.
6.4.2.2. Smoke Deposition
The deposition rate of smoke is mainly affected by smoke density, air velocity,
relative humidity and surface of the meat. The rate of deposition is directly related
to the smoke density (denser the smoke, greater the uptake). However, increase in
the air velocity disturbs the density of smoke. Relative humidity has a profound
effect on deposition rate and nature of deposit. High humidity in the smokehouse is
directly related to the deposition of smoke but has an inverse relation with the color
development.
6.4.2.2. Liquid Smoke Preparation
Preparation of liquid smoke is performed by pyrolysis of hard wood saw dust. This
method involves capturing of smoke in water in an absorption tower through
counter-current flow followed by recycling of smoke up to the required
concentration. Afterwards, aging of obtained solution is done for proper
6. Meat Processing 183

polymerization and precipitation of tar. This solution is then subjected to filtration

process via cellulose pulp filter for the removal of hydrocarbons from the liquid
smoke. No further refining is needed for utilization of this liquid smoke. The
prepared smoke mainly composed of phenols, alcohols, carbonyls and organic
acids. Additionally, liquid smoke is claimed as free of various polycyclic
hydrocarbons, particularly benz[a]pyrene.
i. Advantages of Liquid Smoke
• It does not require the installation of a smoke generator which requires a
major financial outlay
• The process is more repeatable, as the composition of liquid is more
constant.
• Smoke can be prepared with the particle phase removed, and thereby
possible problems from carcinogens can be alleviated.
• Liquid smoke application creates little atmospheric pollution and can be
applied easily.
• Liquid application is faster than the conventional smoking, resulting in
more throughputs per unit.
ii. Application of Liquid Smoke
Dilution of liquid smoke is considered as a mandatory step before applying it to the
meat cuts. Most of the commercially available liquid smokes are diluted with water.
Other solvents used for dilution of liquid smokes are citric acid and vinegar.
Composition of a traditional liquid smoke used in the meat industry is 20-30% of
liquid smoke, 5% citric acid, and 65-75% water. Vinegar and citric acid are mostly
used for the development of skin in smoked frankfurters. Liquid smokes are usually
preferred over natural wood smoke because of several advantages. These benefits
include less labor requirements, easy usage and elimination of carcinogenic
hydrocarbons. There are number of ways to add liquid smoke to food products:
• Direct addition to meat emulsions
• Direct dipping of the liquid smoke into meat solutions
• Sprinkling of liquid smoke to the product surface
• Development of fog for direct injection into the smoke house
• Pre-treatment of casings with smoke
The later three approaches are the most widely used for continuous meat
processing.

6.4.3. Curing
Curing is thought to improve the rack lifetime of meat by protecting and keeping
away from spoilage through salt, acid (pickle) meat healing was the expansion of
rock and roll salt, ocean salt, or mined salt to the small cuts of meat or unheated
piece as an approach to bring down the water activity, elude microbial development
and substance waste, add flavor to the product and tenderize meat. At the point
184 M.I. Khan, A. Sahar and E. Dufour

when decreased by microbial activity can sequester oxygen in a meat batter,

chemically responding in the opposite direction to form nitrate, therefore avoiding
oxidative (rancidity) operations. This variation in flavor is named as curing flavor.
Additionally, nitrite besides its derivatives fix to myoglobin (making NO-
myoglobin, in charge of high temperature stable red color including meat products),
or they act accordingly with amino acids (Honikel 2008). The common ingredients
for curing are common salt (reduce microbial load, improve taste), sugar (improve
taste, reduce water activity), nitrate/nitrites (Improve color, act as antioxidant and
antimicrobial), phosphates (improve water holding capacity) etc. as mentioned in
Table 6.3. The color of meat develops due to muscle pigments with nitrites.
A number of muscle pigments are responsible for color development such as
hemoglobin, myoglobin, cytochrmes, and flavones. Amongst these, myoglobin and
hemoglobin are considered as the most abundantly present muscle pigments.
Hemoglobin, a red pigment, is responsible for oxygen transport to the tissues.
Myoglobin is the muscle pigment that facilitates oxygen storage at cellular level
due to its high affinity towards oxygen. Denaturation of myoglobin proteins leads
to the color degradation during the storage and addition of nitrites and nitrates to
the cure prevents color degradation of cured meat.

Table 6.3 Curing ingredients and their functions

Curing Ingredients/Adjuncts Acceptable level Important Functions
Salt (NaCl-KCL mixture) 2-3% • Imparts flavor
• Hinders bacterial growth
Sweeteners 2% • Flavor enrichment
• Counteract severity of salt
Nitrites and nitrates Less than • Color stabilization
200ppm • Characteristic flavor
• Prevent rancidity
• Control microbial growth
Ascorbates and Erythorbates Up to 550ppm • Curing accelerator
• Color uniformity
• Flavor maintenance
Phosphates 0.5% • Improve cooked stability
• Water retention
• Extraction of soluble proteins
Hydrocolloids Below 1% • Improve water holding
capacity
• Improve texture
Source: (Sebranek and Bacus, 2007)

6.4.3.1. Dry Curing

Meat is treated with a mixture of salts, nitrite/nitrate and sugar during conventional
dry curing process. It is no longer predominant process but still has applications in
the development of various specialty products such as bacon and cured hams. The
average time needed for the completion of dry curing is 2-21/2 days per lb of hams
6. Meat Processing 185

and shoulders. Typical mixture prepared for dry curing consists of 6.0 lb salt, 2.5 oz
of nitrates or nitrites and 2.5 lb of sugar for 100 lb of meat.
Advantage: Production of high priced specialty meat products
Disadvantages: Major disadvantages of dry curing are high cost, bitter salty flavor
and slow curing process
6.4.3.2. Pickle Cure
Pickle cure has the same ingredients as dry cure but it is different from dry cure
because of the addition of water to form pickle or brine. Pickle curing process
involves the dipping of meat cuts into brine for complete penetration of pickle into
muscles. The strength of the brine is expressed in degree brine which is essentially
a measure of its density. A salometer is used to determine the strength. Time
required for pickle curing of hams and shoulders is about 2-21/2 per lb as in dry
curing. The most commonly used brine strength for meat curing is about 60-70º S.
Advantages: Pickle curing is advantageous as compared to dry curing process in
terms of less labor requirements and mild flavor development.
Disadvantages: Poor utilization of space with slow turnover of meat inventories.

6.4.4. Emulsification (Sausages)

Emulsified meat products are for the most part characterized as per their
appearance: meat particles are so fine that they are not seeing different on the
smooth product surface. Hundreds of different emulsified meat products are
available and consumed around the world. They are very convenient, little or no
waste from these products and can be classified according to various criteria (Table
6.4).

Table 6.4 Major sausage ingredients

Ingredients Ratio
Basic Ingredients
Fresh beef trimming 90kg
Fat 10kg
Seasoning as per 1kg
Salt 18g
White pepper 1.5g
Mace 1.0g
Sage 2.0g
Sugar 1.0g
Savory 0.4g
Source: (Sebranek, 2003)

The main product of the category is sausage, a product prepared by stuffing minced
meat into natural or synthetic casing to get characteristic oblong shaped product.
The steps involved in processing of sausages are:
186 M.I. Khan, A. Sahar and E. Dufour

6.4.4.1. Grinding
During the process of grinding, meat cuts are ground in order to obtain a uniform
size and shape. The grinder consists of a barrel having a screw that pushes the meat
chunks to the holes of the grinding plate. The grinder plate is also equipped with
the rotating blades which are helpful in cutting the meat chunks into smaller pieces
to facilitate the filling of grinder plate holes. Length of the cylindrical meat
particles varies with changing the number of blades while diameter of the meat
cylinders is influenced by size of the holes.
6.4.4.2. Mixing
The chamber and mixing blades are the components of mixer. The obtained
cylinders of lean meat and fat are then transferred to the mixing chamber for
uniform distribution. Mixing also facilitates the coating of fat layer on the proteins.
It should be kept in mind while mixing that mixer should not be overloaded.
6.4.4.3. Chopping
Chopping is done by a chopper consists of curved rotating knives on an axle and a
revolving metal bowl. The performance of the chopper mainly depends on the
speed of rotating knives (rpm) and chopping bowl & sharpness of the knives.
During this process, temperature of the meat rises up to 10-20 ̊C in 10-15 min.
6.4.4.4. Emulsification
This emulsifier machine combines the principles of grinding and chopping and is
composed hopper, rotor blade, plate and impeller are the components of an
emulsifier. Emulsifiers handle the large volumes of meat rapidly to produce a
desire texture. Rotating blades should be sufficiently tight otherwise excessive heat
can be transferred to the product. The important benefits acquired by using
emulsifiers include fast material handling materials, efficient disintegration of
tissues and proper texture development.
6.4.4.5. Stuffing
The sausage emulsion, also known as mix, sausage dough, or batter, is transferred
to stuffers for extruding into casings. At this point size and shape of the product is
determined. The three types of stuffing pumps used are piston, auger or screw and
rotary. The piston type stuffer is a large barrel or cylinder that has a moving plate.
The plate is raised by air pressure and pushes the meat mixture through a stuffing
lock and finally through a tubular structure called a stuffing horn. The horn size is
selected in relation to the size and type of casing to be used. Such stuffers are
recommended for coarse-ground sausages. The stuffer combines with piston and
pump usually has a volumetric delivery. Mostly such stuffers are used for small
sausages and for stuffing uniform weight
6.4.4.6. Linking and Typing
The encased product is usually knotted with thread or fastened with metal clips. In
case of small sausages, casings are twisted and links are developed mechanically or
by hand. Large sausages are clipped and suspended from a hook to increase the
6. Meat Processing 187

contact area of the product and equipment to ease proper air flow in the
smokehouse. The product is then subjected to cooking (smoking, frying) and
preservation (smoking, curing, fermentation) method to attain the final products
with desired characteristics.

Fig. 6.5 Sausage making unit

6.4.5. Meat Cooking

Cooking increases the preserving qualities and enhances the shelf life of meat.
Besides increasing the stability of animal meat products, cooking also plays a vital
part by providing a variation of meat products that carried out only by changing
cooking food methods. Consequently, meat culinary has contributed significantly to
188 M.I. Khan, A. Sahar and E. Dufour

developments in civilization. Cooking carry out a most critical function by

affecting exploitation of pathogenic and spoilage organisms. The number of
organisms damaged is determined by the heat treatment which applied to product,
and time required for the exposure to any kind of bacteria. The net consequence of
cooking is only a decrease in total bacterial contents along with an addition of safe-
keeping life. Cooking also modifies the structures and properties of meat proteins,
and as a consequence affects the palatability of meat pieces. Grilling of meat pieces
such as T-bones induces the development flavor compounds. Other meat pieces
with high collagen contents require extensive cooking in boiling water in order to
denature collagen molecules improving meat tenderness. Cooking of meat products
is done to destroy significant numbers of microorganisms and if not contaminated
during post processing increases the storage life of meat products, improve
palatability of meat by increasing the flavor and changing the texture, improve
color, modify the texture or tenderness of meat and meat products, denature and
coagulates the meat proteins, simultaneously stabilizing the cured meat color and
changing their solubility (Seideman and Durland 1984). The cooking methods for
meat are classified under dry heat and moist heat cooking methods. The method to
be used for meat cooking depends upon type of meat, meat cut, product appearance
and taste. The dry heat cooking methods (barbequiting, broiling, grilling, pan
frying, roasting, stir frying) are used for meat cuts that are tender and delicate in
nature while moist heat cooking methods (braising, boiling, stewing) are used for
meat cuts that are low in fat or tough in musculature.

6.4.6. Meat Drying

Dying is the decrease in available moisture for the growth of microorganisms in
meat as microorganisms require specified amount of free water for their optimum
growth. Thus, the objective of drying is extending the storage life of meat by
lowering down its water activity. Sun drying and simple dehydration are the basic
processes in developing countries for removal of moisture from meat particularly in
situation where cold chain is unavailable. Carcass is divided into uniform pieces in
order to allow uniform drying. Shape and size of cuts is changed due to shrinkage
during the drying process. Tenderness is also reduced due to the removal of water.
Though drying causing changes in appearance, sensory and processing parameters
but still it is useful to extend the shelf life of meat. However, nutritional status of
dried meat is not significantly changed.
Meat drying is a very efficient preservation technique and meat can be stored for
several months at ambient temperature after drying. The low moisture level prevent
the microbial spoilage of muscle proteins but still deterioration can occur due to
oxidative rancidity of fatty tissues so it is advisable to dry lean meat. The efficiency
of drying process can be increased by reducing the distance between the sample
and source and to cut the meat in narrow strips or in flat pieces. Recommended
shapes for meat pieces to be dried are: strips with a rectangular cross-section of 1 x
1 cm and flat- or leaf-shaped pieces with cross-sections of 0,5cm x 3 to 5cm.
6. Meat Processing 189

6.4.6.1. Meat Drying Techniques

The drying of meat is commonly done under the natural condition of sunshine and
air circulation. The promising methods of meat drying include sun drying and solar
drying. In traditional sun drying method, the product is directly exposed to the
radiations Meat is cut into strips and suspended in natural air or can be placed on
fiber trays having metallic or wooden frame. In some cases, meat pieces are dipped
in salt solution (14%) prior to drying to reduce microbial growth and to prevent
from insect attack. However, this method has certain limitations, such
as contamination due to dirt, insects, wind, rodents, rain and birds. Additionally,
quality deterioration can also be seen, particularly off-color and flavor may occur.
Microbial contamination during the drying process can affect the meat quality after
rehydration that leads to the possible food poisoning. This method is usually
preferred at domestic level and also at commercial level up to some extent. For
larger-scale or commercial meat drying operations in rural settings, improved
approaches have been developed using solar drying. In solar drying, indirect solar
radiations are used. This technique involves the collection of solar energy in solar
collectors and conduction of entrapped energy to the product chamber. This method
is normally considered hygienic because meat is not directly exposed to the air.
Moreover, a continuous flow of hot air through the chamber results in uniform
dehydration.
6.4.6.2. Quality of Dried Products
Drying of fresh meat usually takes two to four days. After that, meat is packed,
transported, stored and ready for consumption. Dried meat must have certain
quality criteria;
Appearance: Dried meat fillets should have uniform size and shape. There should
be no notches and wrinkles on the surface of dried cuts.
Color: The color of dehydrated meat should be dark red. A central bright red and
darker color on the sides indicates fast drying and this meat is highly susceptible to
microbial spoilage due to higher moisture contents.
Texture: dried meat should have hard texture like frozen meat. Hardness of the
meat can be checked by pressing the piece between fingers. In case of softer
texture, meat must be kept in dehydrator for one more day for proper drying.
Taste and Flavor: Proper flavor and taste are very important quality parameters of
a particular product. Dehydrated meat should have salty taste and must be free from
off-odors. However, a rancid flavor is generally found in the dried meat due to
some chemical reactions during the drying process. Dried meat having high fat
contents should be consumed as soon as possible because it will cause
rancidity during the longer storage.
190 M.I. Khan, A. Sahar and E. Dufour

6.5. Quality Control in Meat Processing

6.5.1. HACCP and Meat Processing
6.5.1.1. Hazards in Meat Processing
i. Biological Hazards
Biological hazards mainly include bacteria, parasites and viruses which can make
the food unsafe for human consumption. Biological hazards are associated with the
source from which products are made i.e. living poultry birds and animals.
Biological hazards can also be introduced during meat processing by people
involved in processing, ingredients and environment in which product is being
processed. Bacteria can cause the foodborne infection or food intoxication. A food
borne intoxication is caused by ingesting toxins produced by bacteria and
foodborne infection is caused by ingesting sufficient number of bacteria which can
cause infection after multiplication inside the body. The major pathogenic bacteria
involved in foodborne illness are Bacillus cereus, Salmonella, Campylobacter
jejuni, Listeria monocytogenes, Clostridium botulinum, Yersinia enterocolitica,
Clostridium perfringens and Staphylococcus aureus.
ii. Chemical Hazards
Chemical hazards may occur naturally in food or sometime originate from
environmental or intentionally added chemicals in food product. These harmful
chemicals can cause acute or chronic illness. Naturally occurring chemical hazards
include natural products of the animal or plants. Chemical hazards may produce
from microbial metabolism such as mycotoxins and aflatoxins. Environmental
contaminants including lead, mercury, arsenic and cadmium also induce serious
health hazards. Sometimes chemical hazards originate from intentionally added
chemicals during processing, packaging or distribution of food e.g. preservatives,
sulfating agents, acids and processing aids. These can also be included through
animal feed and drinking water.
iii. Physical Hazards
A physical hazard is a foreign particle or object in food product that can cause
illness or injury if ingested with food. Foreign particles including glass, bones,
plastic or metals are common physical contaminants. Contamination of raw
material, poorly designed equipment and processing facilities, contaminated
packing material and irresponsibility of employees can contribute to introduction of
physical hazards in meat products.
After the identification of biological, chemical and physical hazards and their point
of incidence, control measures are identified for their prevention. Control measures
include any physical or chemical factors which can be used for removal of
identified hazards. A criterion for preventive measures should be established to
ensure the food safety. Sometimes combination of different preventive actions is
required to control a hazard and sometimes more than one hazard can be controlled
by a single protective measure. The next step is establishment of critical limits, if
6. Meat Processing 191

application of heat will kill some pathogens then it is critical to know that which
combination of time and temperature will be appropriate for heat treatment of a
particular food product, these time-temperature combinations are critical limits.
HACCP is a comprehensive and efficient food safety system right from production
of food to the consumption. The implementation of this procedure ensures
monitoring of the hazards of raw material, points of potential contamination and the
processing operations. It is a systematic approach to the production of
microbiologically safe foods and to control the food manufacturing processes.
6.5.1.2. Seven Principles Approach for HACCP System
Seven basic principles of HACCP include:
1) Hazard analysis and risk assessment (Biological, physical and chemical
hazards)
2) Determining critical control points (CCPs) (cold store rooms, unloading
bay, cutting, preparation, handling, filling equipment, heat treatment
facilities and packing facilities). Usually, there is a limited number of CCP
for a given process.
3) Establishing critical limits for CCPs (Visual check of damage to packaged
raw materials and contamination of raw material, temperature of raw meat,
pH of incoming meat, Control of pasteurization and sterilization
temperature).
4) Monitoring critical limits (temperature, time, pH, moisture)
5) Correcting deviations from critical limits (reject, adjust, and remove)
6) Effective record keeping and validation system (Checks on the persons,
monitoring frequency calibration of instruments)
7) Establishment of documentation and record keeping.
Meat products are grouped into nine major process categories that are listed below:
• Slaughter of animal: Cattle, poultry, swine, lamb, goat
• Raw ground product: ground pork, turkey and beef
• Raw product: steaks, cuts
• Thermally processed meat: pasta, canned beef
• Shelf stable meat (non-thermal): Dried salami
• Shelf stable meat (thermally treated): Beef jerky
• Fully cooked: Hot dogs, ham, roast beef
• Not fully cooked: Partially cooked patties, bacon
• Product having secondary inhibitors: Corned beef, cured beef tongue

6.5.2. HACCP in Meat Industry

European Union (EU) food laws have responsibility to ensure the safety of
consumer. HACCP-based principles provide direction to address this responsibility
192 M.I. Khan, A. Sahar and E. Dufour

and these principles are supported by prescriptive requirements. The importance of

the HACCP is now internationally recognized by Codex Alimentarius Commission.
Perfect management and effective workforce are required for the successful
implementation of HACCP principles. Moreover, a multi-disciplinary approach
including implementation of prerequisite programs, proper hazard identification
and risk assessment are also involved. Animal and poultry farms, abattoirs and
meat processing plants represent the main critical points in the production process.
Experts believe that HACCP must be applied during the slaughtering to eliminate
the chance of faecal contamination. Following are the key points that should be
kept under strict consideration while applying HACCP in the slaughterhouses:
• Cleanliness of animals to be slaughtered
• Processes involved in the evisceration operations of the animal
• Consideration and evaluation of end-of-process treatments
• Transportation issues related to carcasses and meat
• Implementation of good hygiene standards within abattoirs

6.5.3. Influence of HACCP

HACCP plays a vital role in ensuring the food safety in larger businesses but has
limited applications for small operators. However, informal use of some HACCP
principles has been practiced in most businesses because of the individual’s own
interest to consider where things are going wrong and where prevention is needed.
Recent EU regulations insist on forceful and systematic implementation of risk
assessment and principles of HACCP, but it is not applied universally and
authorities are not fully succeeded to ensure compliance with these requirements.
Nonetheless, a gradual progress is seen to respond to public clamours for ensuring
food safety and adopting systematic control procedures. For example, risk of
Escherichia coli O157:H7 outbreaks by consuming meat products in UK, has been
eliminated by conducting training programs and enforcement initiatives to ensure
that retail shops apply full HACCP systems. Experience gained in UK can be
offered to other countries, and will be able to be applied in other sectors, such as
the catering industry.

6.6. Meat Industrial Waste Management

Waste produced by meat slaughter houses includes animal skin, blood, visceral
organs and bones. The ratio of different types of waste materials depends on
species of animals (Sielaff 1996). Development of some proper recycling strategies
is needed for efficient utilization of meat by-products in order to improve the
profitability. Several health concerns of using improperly treated meat by-products
significantly affect the market. However, non-food uses (animal feed, cosmetics
and pharmaceuticals) of these high nutritional products have been increased for few
years (Rivera et al. 2000). Low economic worth, improper treatment, several
environmental and health threats are some major causes of disappearance of meat
by-products from the market. These losses can be overcome by proper treatment,
6. Meat Processing 193

disposal and utilization of meat by-products. Generally, waste materials of meat

industry include wastewater, solids, volatile compounds and toxic gases.

6.6.1. Wastewater
Water is extensively used in slaughter houses and processing areas. Wastewater is
generated as a result of cleaning abattoirs and processing plants and pollutes the
surface water. Several biodegradable organic compounds bind oxygen and reduce
its availability to the aquatic animals. Eutrophication also results in the mortality of
aquatic animals. Additionally, several toxic compounds like tannins, ammonia and
chromium are also involved in threatening the aquatic life. Ammonia is also
another toxic compound which leads to the death of fish and other aquatic animals.
Phosphate is also present as inorganic and organic phosphates in wastewater and
causes serious health hazards on marine and fresh water animals. These effluents
can be removed from the water by using various biological and physicochemical
techniques.

6.6.2. Solid Waste Materials

By-products of meat industry that cannot be further re-processed are termed as
solid waste and must be properly dumped. Visceral organs are the most common
example of solid waste generated by meat industry and have high microbial load
including Escherichia coli, Salmonella and Shigella. These pathogens produce
several toxins that inhibit protein synthesis (Barkocy-Gallagher et al. 2003). These
substances require special care for proper disposal. The most common method to
prevent the toxic effects of these substances is burring in grounds. Solid wastes also
include inedible body parts of animals including feathers, hives, lungs, head, feet
and rectum (Schrieber and Seybold 1993).

6.6.3. Production of Toxic Gases During Processing

Various unit operations in the processing plants need energy to run. Practices like
refrigeration, freezing, smoking, curing and cooking of meat generate several toxic
gases (CO2, CO, NO2 and SO2). Cleaning and sanitizing operations also produce
different volatile compounds which pollute the atmosphere. Furthermore, bone
cutting and processing incorporates dust in the air that causes certain allergic and
respiratory problems (RIVM 1994). Measures should be taken by meat processing
industries to minimize the production of toxic gases.
Despite of several hazardous aspects, meat industry wastes have a great potential to
reprocess and to renovate into useful food and non-food products having high
value. There is also need to develop some new methods for safe processing,
handling and utilization of these products. Another important aspect is to develop
meat by-products with maximum cost-benefit ratio in the future for the viability of
meat industry (Salim et al. 2014). Following are some ways in which these wastes
can be managed and converted into useful products.
194 M.I. Khan, A. Sahar and E. Dufour

6.6.4. Uses of Meat By-Products in Food and Feed Industries

Meat industries have a great scope to improve profitability by recycling and using
meat by-products. These products can effectively be used as food and non-food
materials such as animal and poultry feed and pet foods (Rivera et al. 2000). Waste
material can be collected from slaughtering points, processing areas, restaurants
and rendering plants and converted into suitable edible products. It is estimated that
50% of the carcass portion is usually not fit for human consumption and lost due to
improper handling. However, proper management of this waste can give a good
profit to meat industries.
Animal blood is an important by-product of slaughter houses and has high protein
and blood iron contents (Wan et al. 2002). In Asia and Europe, blood is efficiently
used in the preparation of blood puddings, blood cakes, blood sausages and blood
curd for animal feeding. Blood is also used as additive, nutrient and stabilizer in
food industries. Blood contains significant amount of minerals and proteins and can
be used as nutrient supplements. Blood plasma can be used to improve color of hot
dogs at the rate of 2.7%. Plasma can also be used in bakery products as egg
substitute to provide foaming properties (Ghost 2001).
Gelatin is another important by-product has been largely extracted from bones of
large animals. Gelatin has wide applications in various food products like jellies,
jams and soups (Jamilah and Harvinder 2002). It is also used in deserts and meat
pies to provide proper mouth feel. It is also used as stabilizer in ice creams and
frozen desserts. Additionally, crystallization of sugar is also prevented by gelatin in
ice cream.
Heart, Kidneys, brain and spinal cord are prepared for table and blanched before
final cooking to obtain desirable textural properties. Heart and kidneys are braised
or roasted, sliced and grilled. Liver is mostly used in sausages for their flavor
properties (Devatkal et al. 2004). Mostly, lamb and veal liver is preferred in Europe
and USA. Liver is braised, grilled or boiled and used in sausages and other meat
products (Darine et al. 2010). Intestines are also boiled and used in in sausages and
animal feed (Bhaskar et al. 2007). Intestines have high microbiological load and
must be treated properly before consumption. Animal intestines used for sausage
casings are separated from carcasses, defatted and stripped off. The mucosal
membrane and blood residues are also removed. Finally the intestines are treated in
salt solution and packed.
Tallow and lard are prepared by rendering process. Wet rendering process is
preferred over dry rendering process for the production of good quality lard and
tallow. Rendered lard and tallow bleached, deodorized and then used in food
products. Lard and tallow are used for deep frying of French fries, preparation of
margarine, sausages and shortening (Ghotra et al. 2002). Fish waste is a rich source
of proteins and can be used in different products after proper treatment. Fish waste
is treated enzymatically and used in animal feed. Different restructured meat
products can also be prepared by efficient use of discarded fish waste (Borderias
and Mateos 1996).
6. Meat Processing 195

6.6.5. Medicinal Uses of Meat By-Products

Several countries like China, Japan and India use meat organs and glands for
medicinal purposes. Most commonly used glands and organs include thyroid
glands, endocrine glands, pituitary glands, adrenal glands, liver, kidneys, lungs and
ovary. Care should be taken into account that these organs must be of healthy
animals to avoid side effects. Glands are frozen at -18°C in wax paper after
cleaning and fat removal to stop microbial growth. Glands are critically examined
in pharmaceutical industries prior to the extraction of several hormones. Excess fat
is removed by treating with gasoline, ethylene, petroleum or acetone solutions.
After that these glands are dried and ground to form powder for capsule
preparation. Brain and spinal cord are used to synthesize vitamin D3. As they are
rich in cholesterol so can also be used as emulsifier in cosmetic industry (Ejike and
Emmanuel 2009). Melatonin hormone is extracted from pineal glands and is used
for the treatment of several disorders like schizophrenia, insomnia and mental
retardation.
Liver extract is a good source of vitamin B-12 and is used for curing pernicious
anemia (Devatkal et al. 2004). Intestine, liver and lungs contain heparine which is
used as an anticoagulant agent to delay clotting of blood and to stop blood
coagulation during heart surgery. Bile juice contains several proteins, cholesterol,
acids and pigments that can be used to treat constipation, bile tract problems and
indigestion. Bile juice also has cortisone and prednisone that are used as medicine
after isolation. Insulin regulates the glucose metabolism in the cells and used by
diabetics. Pancreas also contains glucagon that is used to increase blood glucose
level. Furthermore, threads are also manufactured from intestines of sheep and
calves that are used for the internal surgical sutures.

6.6.6. Other Uses

Animal skin is also used in making clothes, preparation of leather bags, shoes,
cosmetics, athletic equipment, sausage casings, gelatin and glue. After removal,
hides are dried, cured and decomposed enzymatically prior to use. Mostly salt
curing is used for fresh hides and moisture contents of cured hides determine their
quality. The ideal range of moisture content of hides is 40-48% (Benjakul et al.
2009). Auto-hydrolysis of fish waste produce protein hydrolysates that are used to
prepare peptone hydrolysate which is used as a growth medium for lactic acid
bacteria for the production of bacteriocins (Vanquez et al. 2004). Proper processing
of fish organic waste can be used in the recovery of several amino acids and
organic acids. Beef, horse meat and pork waste is widely used for the production of
peptones which is used in the formulations of microbiological growth media.
Processing and utilization of fish-by products is a promising area of research.
Researches have revealed that a variety of useful by-products can be obtained from
marine animal waste including several enzymes, proteins, anticancer and
antimicrobial agents. Crabs and shrimps contain a significant amount of chitosan
which has wide applications in cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries
(Arvanitoyannis and Kassaveti 2008). Chitosan is also used for the treatment of
wastewater in many countries to remove proteinaceous impurities. It can also be
196 M.I. Khan, A. Sahar and E. Dufour

used to remove heavy metals from industrial waste by flocculation. It is also

considered as an antimicrobial agent and can be used to reduce the growth of
bacteria, fungi and yeast. Fish waste oil can also be used as fuel after ozone
treatment (Kato et al. 2004).
Use of meat industrial waste as fuel in different power plants by thermal recycling
has been increased these days (Arvanitoyannis and Ladas 2008). Poultry litter can
be burnt after proper drying without using extra fuel so it can be considered as a
useful tool for the production of electrical power. Another approach is use of ferric
sulfate to coagulate organic matter from the wastewater which can be used for
biomass fuel production (De Sena et al. 2008). Biomass fuel is a significant source
of energy because it has high boiling point. However, operational conditions must
be handled with utmost care to control the generation of NO2 and SO2 below
critical limits. Biofuel produced from fish and meat fat is an alternative of diesel
fuels. Biogas has also been extensively produced by effective utilization of cattle
manure, marine animal waste and pig waste (Arvanitoyannis and Kassaveti 2008).

6.7. Conclusions
Meat is one of the widely consumed foods around the globe due to its nutritional
value. Biochemical composition and nutritional status of meat is mainly influenced
by animal species, gender, age, diet practices and genetic makeup. The best way to
properly utilize meat resources is meat processing which is required for the
provision of high quality meat products to the consumers. Accordingly, various
meat processing techniques with special reference to poultry, lamb, cattle and fish
meat have been discussed in this chapter. Additionally, various quality control
measures in meat processing are also described in this chapter. Furthermore,
sections regarding the quality control and meat industrial waste management are
also included in this manuscript. The chapter concludes that commercial value of
meat can be momentously enhanced through carefully employing various
processing techniques and ensuring the quality control and proper waste
management in order to obtain the quality meat products.

References
Adegoke, G.O., and K.O. Falade (2005). Quality of meat. J. Food Agri. Environ. 3:
87-90.
Arihara, K. (2006). Strategies for designing novel functional meat products. Meat
Sci. 74: 219-229.
Arvanitoyannis, I.S. and D. Ladas (2008). Meat waste treatment methods and
potential uses. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 43: 543-559.
Ashrae (2006). Ashrae Handbook-Refrigeration.: American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, GA, USA.
Barkocy-Gallagher, G.A., T.M. Arthur, M. Rivera-Betancourt, X. Nou, S.D.
Shackelford and T.L. Wheeler (2003). Seasonal prevalence of Shiga toxin-
producing Escherichia coli, including O157:H7 and non-O157 serotypes, and
Salmonella in commercial beef processing plants. J. Food Prot. 66: 1978-1986.
6. Meat Processing 197

Benjakul, S., K. Oungbho, W. Visessanguan, Y. Thiansilakul and S. Roytrakul

(2009). Characteristics of gelatin from the skins of bigeye snapper, Priacanthus
tayenus and Priacanthus macracanthus. Food Chem. 116: 445-451.
Bhaskar, N., V.K. Modi, K. Govindaraju, C. Radha and R.G. Lalitha (2007).
Utilization of meat industry by products: Protein hydrolysate from sheep
visceral mass. Bioresource Technol. 98: 388-394.
Bhutta, Z. (1999). Protein: digestibility and availability. In: Encyclopedia of
Human Nutrition. M Sadler, J Strain and B. Caballero (Editors). San Diego:
Academic Press: 1646-1656.
Boakye, K. and G.S. Mittal (1996). Changes in colour of beef M. longissimus dorsi
muscle during ageing. Meat Sci. 42: 347-354.
Borderias, J.A. and P.M. Mateos (1996). Restructured fish products. Alimentaria.
269: 53-62.
Brewer, S., L. Zhu and F. McKeith (2001). Marbling effects on quality
characteristics of pork loin chops: Consumer purchase intent, visual and
sensory characteristics. Meat Sci. 59: 153-163.
Bruce, H.L., S.L. Beilken and P. Leppard (2005). Textural descriptions of cooked
steaks from bovine M. longissimus thoracis et lumborum from different
production and ageing regimes. J. Food Sci. 70: 309-316.
Busch, W.A., M.H. Stromer, D.E. Goll and A. Suzuki (1972). Ca2+ specific removal
of Z line from rabbit skeletal muscle. J. Cell Biol. 52: 367-381.
Campo, M.M., C. Sanudo, B. Panea, P. Albert and P. Santolaria (1999). Breed type
and ageing time effects on sensory characteristics of beef strip loin steaks.
Meat Sci. 51: 383–390.
Cifuni, G.F., F. Napolitano, A.M. Riviezzi, A. Braghieri and A. Girolami (2004).
Fatty acid profile, cholesterol content and tenderness of meat from Podolian
young bulls. Meat Sci., 67: 289-297.
Darine, S., V. Christophe and D. Gholamreza (2010). Production and functional
properties of beef lung protein concentrates. Meat Sci. 84: 315-322.
Daszkiewicz, T., S. Wajda and P. Matusevicicus (2003). Changing of beef quality
in process of storage. Veterinarija ir Zootechnica. 74: 225-237.
De Sena, R.F., A. Claudino, K. Moretti, I.C.P. Bonfanti, R.F.P.M. Moreira and H.J.
Jose (2008). Biofuel application of biomass obtained fromameat industry
wastewater plant through the flotation process—A case study. Resources,
Conservation Recycling. 52: 557-569.
Devatkal, S., S.K. Mendiratta and N. Kondaiah (2004). Quality characteristics of
loaves from buffalo meat, liver and vegetables. Meat Sci. 67: 377-383.
Droulez, V., P. Williams, G. Levy T. Stobaus, and A. Sinclair (2006). Nutrient
composition of Australian red meat 2002. 2. Fatty acid profile. Food Aust. 58:
335-341.
Ejike, C.E. and T.N. Emmanuel (2009). Cholesterol concentration in different parts
of bovine meat sold in Nsukka, Nigeria: Implications for cardiovascular
disease risk. Afr. J. Biochem. Res. 3: 95-97.
Farber, J.M. (1991). Microbiological aspects of modified-atmosphere packaging
technology–A review. J. Food Prot. 54: 58-70.
Gasperlin, L., B. Zlender and V. Abram (2001). Colour of beef heated to different
temperatures as related to meat ageing. Meat Sci. 59:23-30.
198 M.I. Khan, A. Sahar and E. Dufour

Ghost, R. (2001). Fractionating of biological macromolecules using carrier phase

ultrafiltration. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 74: 1-11.
Ghotra, B.S., S.D. Dyal and S.S. Narine (2002). Lipid shortenings: A review. Food
Res. Int. 35: 1015-1048.
Gill, C.O. and C. Landers (2003). Microbiological effects of carcass
decontaminating treatments at four beef packing plants. Meat Sci. 65: 1005-
1011.
Gill, C.O. and J. Bryant (1997). Assessment of the hygienic performances of two
beef carcass cooling processes from product temperature history data or
enumeration of bacteria on carcass surfaces. Food Microbiol. 14: 593-602.
Gorraiz, C., M.J. Beriain, J. Chasco, and K. Insausti (2006). Effect of aging time on
volatile compounds, odor, and flavor of cooked beef from pirenaica and
friesian bulls and heifers. J. Food Sci. 67: 916-922.
Harris, J. (2002). National Meat Association. Best Practice for Beef Slaughter.
Kansas City, USA.
Higgs, J. (2000). The changing nature of red meat: 20 years of improving
nutritional quality. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 11: 85-95.
Honikel, K.O. (2008). The use and control of nitrate and nitrite for the processing
of meat products. Meat Sci. 78: 68-76.
Hopkins, D.L. and J.M. Thompson (2002). The degradation of myofibrillar proteins
in beef and lamb using denaturing electrophoresis - An overview. J. Muscle
Foods. 13: 81-102.
Howe, P., B. Meyer, S. Record and K. Baghurst (2006). Dietary intakes of long-
chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: contribution of meat sources. Nutr.
22:47-53.
IFT/FDA. (2003). Factors that influence microbial growth. Comp. Rev. Food Sci.
Food Safety. 2: 21.
Jamilah, B. and K.G. Harvinder (2002). Properties of gelatins from skins of fish-
black tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) and red tilapia (Oreochromis
nilotica). Food Chem. 77: 81-84.
Jayasooriya S.D., P.J. Torley, B.R. D’Arcy, and B.R. Bhandari (2007). Effect of
high power ultrasound and ageing on the physical properties of bovine
Semitendinosus and Longissimus muscles. Meat Sci. 75: 628-639.
Jeremiah, L.E. and L.L. Gibson (2003). Cooking influences on the palatability of
roasts from the beef hip. Food Res. 36:1-9.
Jericho, K.W.F., G.O. Laney and G.C. Kozub (1998). Verification of the hygienic
adequacy of beef carcass cooling processes by microbiological culture and the
temperature-function integration technique. J. Food Prot. 61: 1347-1351.
Kato, S., N. Kunisava, T. Kojima and S. Murakami (2004). Evaluation of ozone
treated fish waste oil as a fuel for transportation. J. Chem. Eng. Japan. 37: 863-
870.
Koutsidis, G., J.S. Elmore, M.J. Oruna-Concha, M.M. Campo, J.D. Woo and D.S.
Mottram (2008). Water-soluble precursors of beef flavor. Part II: Effect of post
mortem conditioning. Meat Sci. 79: 270-277.
Laster, M.A., R.D. Smith, K.L. Nicholson, J.D.W. Nicholson, R.K. Miller, D.B.
Griffin, K.B. Harris and J.W. Savell (2008). Dry versus wet aging of beef:
retail cutting yields and consumer sensory attribute evaluations of steaks from
6. Meat Processing 199

rib eyes, strip loins, and top sirloins from two quality grade groups. Meat Sci.
80: 795-804.
Lawrie, R.A. (1998). The conversion of muscle to meat. Lawrie’s Meat Science. 6th
Ed. Woodhead Pub. Ltd. Cambridge, England. pp. 128 – 158.
Mastracchio, K. (2003). Best Practices for Slaughter. Southwest Meat Association.
Kansas, Missouri. pp: 4-10.
McGee, H. (2004). On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen.
Miller, M.F., C.R. Kerth, J.W. Wise, J.L. Lansdell, J.E. Stowell and C.B. Ramsey
(1997). Slaughter plant location, USDA quality grade, external fat thickness,
and aging time effects on sensory characteristics of beef loin strip steak. J.
Anim. Sci. 75:662-667.
Muchenje, V., K. Dzama, M. Chimonyo, J.G. Raats and P.E. Strydom (2008). Meat
quality of Nguni, Bonsmara and Angus steers raised on natural pasture in the
Eastern Cape, South Africa. Meat Sci. 79: 20-28.
National Health and Medical Research Council (2006). Nutrient Reference Values
for Australia and New Zealand including Recommended Dietary Intakes.
Canberra: Commonwealth Department of Health and Ageing.
Oreskovich, D.C., F.K. McKeith, T.R. Carr, J. Novakofski and P.J. Bechtel (1988).
Effects of different aging procedures on the palatability of beef. J. Food Qual.
11: 151-158.
Parrish, F.C., J.A. Boles, R.E. Rust and D.G. Olson (1991). Dry and wet aging
effects on palatability attributes of beef loin and rib steaks from three quality
grades. J. Food Sci. 56: 601-603.
Partida, J.A., J.L. Olleta, M.M. Campo, C. Sanudo and G.A. Maria (2007). Effect
of social dominance on the meat quality of young Friesian bulls. Meat Sci. 76:
266-273.
Perry, D., J.M., Thompson, A. Reverter and D.J. Johnston (2002). Effect of growth
rate on palatability in beef cattle. In: 48th International Congress for Meat
Science and Technology, Rome, Italy.
Rivera, J.A., J,G. Sebranek, R.E. Rust and L.B. Tabatabai (2000). Composition and
protein fractions of different meat by-products used for pet food compared
with mechanically separated chicken (MSC). Meat Sci. 55: 53-59.
RIVM. (1994). Slachterijen en vleeswarenindustrie [slaughterhouses and meat
processing industry]. Samenwerkingsproject Procesbeschrijvingen Industrie
Nederland (SPIN) rapport nr. 7730061173. Bilthoven, the Netherlands:
National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection.
Robertson, A.A. (1994). Mechanization of Bovine Boning Operation. Proceeding
of the 23rd May Ind. Res. Conf. Auckland, New Zealand, pp. 209-212.
Sadler, M., J. Lewis and D. Buick (1993). Composition of trim lamb. Food Aust.
45: 2-12.
Schaafsma, G. (2000). The protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score. J. Nutr.
130: 1865-1867.
Schrieber, R. and U. Seybold (1993). Gelatine production, the six steps to
maximum safety. Dev. Biol. Standards. 80: 195-198.
Scilingo, A., S. Molina, N. Martinez, and M.C.A. Anon (2002). Amaranth protein
isolates modified by hydrolytic and thermal treatments. Relationship between
structure and solubility. Food Res. Int. 35: 855-862.
200 M.I. Khan, A. Sahar and E. Dufour

Sebranek, J.G. (2003). Sausages and comminuted products. In Caballero, B., L.C.
Trugo and P.M. Finglas (Eds.). Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition,
Oxford: Elsevier Academic Press, UK..
Sebranek, J.G. and J.N. Bacus. (2007). Cured meat products without direct addition
of nitrate or nitrite: what are the issues? Meat science. 77(1): 136-147.
Seideman, S.C. and P.R. Durland (1984). The effect of cookery on muscle proteins
and eat palatability: A review. J. Food Quality. 6: 291-314.
Shilton, N., P. Mallikarjunan and P. Sheridan (2002). Modeling of heat transfer and
evaporative mass losses during the cooking of beef patties using far-infrared
radiation. J. Food Eng. 55: 217-222.
Sielaff, H. (1996). Technologie der Konservenherstellung. Hamburg: Behr’s
Verlag.
Simpson, C.A., J.A. Ransom, J.A. Scanga, K. E. Belk, J.N. Sofos and G.C. Smith
(2006). Changes in microbiological populations on beef carcass surfaces
exposed to air or spray chilling and characterization of hot box practices. Food
Prot. Trends. 26: 226-235.
Sinclair, A., N. Mann and S. O'Connell (1999). The nutrient composition of
Australian beef and lamb. Melbourne: RMIT.
Smith, R.D., K.L. Nicholson, J.D.W. Nicholson, K.B. Harris, R.K. Miller, D.B.
Griffin and J.W. Savell (2008). Dry versus wet aging of beef: retail cutting
yields and consumer palatability evaluations of steaks from US choice and US
select short loins. Meat Sci. 79: 631–639.
Spanier A.M., M. Flores, K.W. Mcmillin and T.D. Bidner (1997). The effect of
postmortem aging on meat flavor quality. Correlation of treatment, sensory,
instrumental, and chemical descriptors. Food Chem. 59: 531-538.
Taylor, A.A. (1985). Packaging fresh meat. In Lawrie, R.A. (Ed.). Developments in
Meat Science, Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, London. pp: 89-113.
Templer, R. (1998). New Automation Techniques for Sheep and Beef Processing,
Meat Automation No. 2.
Tornberg, E. (2005). Effects of heat on meat proteins – Implications on structure
and quality of meat products. Meat Sci. 70: 493-508.
Trout, G.R. (1989). Variation in Myoglobin Denaturation and Color of Cooked
Beef, Pork, and Turkey Meat as Influenced by pH, Sodium Chloride, Sodium
Tripolyphosphate, and Cooking Temperature. J. Food Sci. 54: 536-544.
Trout, G.R. and G.R. Schmidt (1984). Effect of phosphate type and concentration,
salt level and method of preparation on binding in restructured beef rolls. J.
Food Sci. 49: 687-694.
ur Rahman, U., A. Sahar and M.A. Khan (2014). Recovery and utilization of
effluents from meat processing industries. Food Res. Int. 65: 322-328.
United States Meat Export Federation. Guidelines for U.S. dry-aged beef for
international markets. https://www.usmef.org/guidelines-for-u-s-dry-aged-
beef-for-international-markets/ (accessed on 20-10-2016)
Vanquez, J.A., M.P. Gonzalez and M.A. Murado (2004). Peptones from
autohydrolyzed fish vicera for nisin and pediocin production. J. Biotechnol.
112: 299-311.
6. Meat Processing 201

Verbeke, W., F.J.A. Perez-Cueto, M.D. De Barcellos, A. Krystallis and K.G.

Grunert (2010). European citizen and consumer attitudes and preferences
regarding beef and pork. Meat Sci. 84: 284-292.
Wan, Y., R. Ghost and Z. Cui (2002). High resolution plasma protein fractionation
using ultrafiltration. Desalination. 144: 301-306.
Williams, P., V. Droulez, G. Levy and T. Stobaus (2007). Composition of
Australian red meat. Nutrient profile. Food Aust. 59: 331-341.
Yancey, E. J., J.P. Grobbel, M.E. Dikeman, J.S. Smith, K.A. Hachmeister, E.C.
Chambers, P. Gadgil, G.A. Milliken and E.A. Dressler (2006). Effects of total
iron, myoglobin, hemoglobin, and lipid oxidation of uncooked muscles on
livery flavor development and volatiles of cooked beef steaks. Meat Sci. 73:
680–686.
Yu, L.H., E.S. Lee, J.Y. Jeong, H.D. Paik, J.H. Choi and C.J. Kim (2005). Effect of
thawing temperature on the physicochemical properties of pre-rigor frozen
chicken breast and leg muscles. Meat Sci. 71: 375-382.